BASAVARAJESWARI GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

Ballari Institute of Technology & Management

AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE UNDER VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITYJNANA SANGAMA,
BELAGAVI 590018

A mini project Report on

“SALTWATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
AKSHAY HUGAR HR 3BR22ME407
AMITHKUMAR D N 3BR22ME409
G T PRAJITH 3BR22ME437
RAVIKUMAR 3BR22ME519

Under the Guidance of

DR.LAKSHIMI KUMARI

BALLARI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT

NACC Accredited Institution*
(Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka, approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi)
"Jnana Gangotri" Campus, No.873/2, Ballari-Hospet Road, Allipur,
Ballar1-583 104 (Karnataka) (India)
Ph: 08392 – 237100 / 237190, Fax: 08392 – 237197

2023-2024
 BASAVARAJESWARI GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
BALLARI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT
Autonomous institute under VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITYJNANA SANGAMA,
BELAGAVI 590018

NACC Accredited Institution*

(Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka, approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi)
"JnanaGangotri"Campus,No.873/2,Ballari-HospetRoad,Allipur,
Ballar1-583 104 (Karnataka)(India)
Ph: 08392 – 237100 / 237190, Fax: 08392 –237197

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the mini project work entity “SLATWATER BATTERY

DEVELOPMENT” has been successfully completed by AKSHAY HUGAR HR,

AMITHKUMAR D N, G T PRAJITH, RAVIKUMAR a bonafide student of Ballari Institute
of Technology and Management, Ballari. For the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Bachelor’s Degree in Department of Mechanical engineering of the VISVESVARAYA
TECHNOLOGICALUNIVERSITY, Belagavi during the academic year 2023-2024. If is certified
that all corrections/suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been incorporated in the
report deposited in the departmental library, the report has been approved as it satisfies the
academic requirements in respect of mini-project work prescribed for the said degree.

Dr.LAKSHMI KUMARI
Project CO-ordinator

Dr.VENKATARAMANA Dr.YADAVALLI BASAVARAJ

HOD,Dept.of ME Principle

Mini-project coordinators
Name of Examiner Signature with date

1.

2.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The successful completion of our project was possible because of the help of the people who guided
us and encourages us whom we would like to acknowledge

we thank Director Dr.YASWANTH BHUPAL and Dy. Director PROF.PRITHVIRAJ Y.J and
principle Dr.YADAVALLI BASAVARAJ for providing all the facilities for the completion of our
project.
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to our beloved H.O.D Dr.VENKATARAMANA for
Their support and permitting us to carry out our project in the department.

We sincerely thanks to our project guide Dr.LASKSHMIKUMARI and project Coordinator

Dr.LAKSHMIKUMARI for the guidance, moral support and helping us out whenever we in
need.we once again thank them for dedicating their precious time for us

We also thank the entire staff members for providing materials help towards the completion of
ourproject.

We express our sincere thanks to all non-teaching staff and friends for their invaluable help and
support
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the entire work embodied in this mini project has been
independently carried out by us supervision of internal guide
Dr.LAKSHMIKUMARI department of mechanical Engineering ,Ballari institute of
Technology and Management, Ballari in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the
Bachelor of Degree in Mechanical engineering .we the further declare report has the
not been submitted in part or in full to any other university for the award of any degree
.

By

AKSHAY HUGAR HR (3BR22ME407)

AMITHKUMAR D N (3BR22ME409)
G T PRAJITH (3BR22ME437)
RAVIKUMAR (3BR22ME519)
 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Abstract

Saltwater batteries, also known as aqueous sodium-ion batteries, represent a promising

and sustainable alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. These batteries utilize
abundant and inexpensive sodium resources in a water-based electrolyte, making them
environmentally friendly and safe for disposal. This report explores the current
advancements in saltwater battery technology, focusing on improvements in energy
density, efficiency, and longevity. Key developments include the optimization of electrode
materials, innovative electrolyte formulations, and advancements in battery design.. On
using a cathode (copper plate) and the anode (zinc plate) and the electrolyte (1L water +
35g salt), the battery gives approximately 0.6 volt per cell and 5.8 milli-Amber as a
maximum.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS:

LITERATURE REVIEW 6
INTRODUCTION 7
OBJECTIVES 8
PROBLEM DEFINITION 9
PRESENT SYSTEM 11
PROPOSED SYSTEM 12
METHODOLOGY 13
Expected outcomes 22
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ,APPLICATIONS 23
CONCLUSION 24
REFERENCE 25

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

LITERATURE REVIEW

In 2023, several studies reported some important developments in saltwater battery technology.
One main direction in this regard has been to improve the efficiency and sustainability of such
batteries, primarily in terms of renewable energy storage and marine technologies.

Seawater batteries use seawater as an electrolyte, so they require abundant, non-toxic materials
and are thus more environmentally friendly. The recent research into these batteries enunciates
their great potential for large-scale energy storage, particularly when used as complementary
technology to solar and wind energy systems. Safety, long life expectancy, and removal of the
need to use any toxic and rare materials are the main benefits of saltwater batteries, basically
making them a rather promising alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries.

Furthermore, progress in the development of seawater-activated batteries has been made for
application in marine environments, where surrounding seawater will simply and directly power
these batteries. It gives out promising results about high power density, stable discharge voltage,
and long storage life, thus appropriate for underwater exploration, life-saving equipment, and other
works related to the sea..

In 2023, ongoing research resolved problems such as the optimization of electrode materials to
increase energy density and cycling stability and the improvement of saltwater battery systems in
terms of scalability towards real-world applications. The move toward more sustainable energy
solutions will be unstoppable; new innovations are being made in this realm, and saltwater
batteries form one of the main constituent elements of the futuristic strategies toward energy

These developments show a rising awareness of the key role that will have to be played by
environmentally-friendly and sustainable battery technologies in the global transition towards
renewable sources of energy.

References
The new generation of saltwater batteries, Dr. Thomas F. Krausse, Managing Director BlueSky
Energy
➢ J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4,7207
➢ JIIF, Vol. 05, No. 01 (2021) 74 – 81

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION:

In the quest for sustainable and eco-friendly energy storage solutions, saltwater batteries have
emerged as a promising alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. Also known as aqueous
sodium-ion batteries, these innovative energy storage devices utilize sodium— a widely available
and inexpensive resource—in a water-based electrolyte, offering a safer and more
environmentally friendly option for various applications.

The rapid growth of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, necessitates
efficient and reliable energy storage systems to manage the intermittent nature of these energy
sources. Traditional lithium-ion batteries, while effective, face several challenges, including
limited lithium resources, high production costs, and environmental and safety concerns. These
issues have driven researchers and developers to explore alternative battery technologies that
can provide similar or improved performance without the associated drawbacks.

Saltwater batteries stand out due to their numerous advantages. They are non-toxic, non-
flammable, and easier to recycle compared to lithium-ion batteries. Additionally, the abundant
availability of sodium and the simplicity of the battery's design contribute to lower production
costs, making saltwater batteries an attractive option for large-scale energy storage solutions.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Objectives:
• Analyze the existence of electric potential in day-to-day life using the saltwater battery.
• A saltwater battery using zinc and copper
• problem and data gathering by constructing a saltwater battery.
• Manifest intelligence in analyzing the applications of electric potential in the household,
commercial, industrial, and agricultural industry through conclusion.

Materials:
• Nonmetallic cup (Styrofoam, paper, or plastic work well)
• Salt
• Water
• Vinegar
• Bleach
• Copper (household electric wire or water pipe)
• Zinc (galvanized nails)
• Alligator clips
• Small LED bulb
• Digital Multimeter "Tester"
• (galvanometer and voltmeter)

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Problem definition:

The invention of saltwater batteries is not unchallenged as many factors need to improve them
as an energy storage solution. One is their current restriction by lower energy and power density
than conventional batteries so they are only rarely used in energy-intensive devices. The
durability of the saltwater batteries and the efficient relationship of the life cycle needs to be
increased so that they work fast enough and the power density does not decrease so much until
they are fully charged.

You are attempting to create a basic saltwater battery by dissolving 35 grams of salt (NaCl) in
200 to 300 ml of water and measuring the resulting voltage between two electrodes placed in
the solution. The key factors influencing the voltage are the electrode materials, the
concentration of the electrolyte (saltwater), and the surface area of the electrodes.

Calculation and Key Formula:

1. Electrolyte Concentration: The concentration of the salt solution can be calculated using:
Concentration=Volume of Water (ml)/Mass of Salt (g)
Concentration=250 ml/35 g=0.14 g/ml

2 Nernst Equation: The output voltage of the battery can be estimated using the Nernst
equation:
E=E0−RTnFln⁡(Q)E = E^0 - \frac{RT}{nF} \ln(Q)E=E0−nFRTln(Q)
where:
• EEE is the cell potential,
• E0E^0E0 is the standard electrode potential,
• RRR is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K),
• TTT is the temperature in Kelvin,
• n is the number of moles of electrons exchanged,
• F is the Faraday constant (96485 C/mol),
• Q is the reaction quotient, which depends on the concentration of the ions in the electrolyte.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

3 Voltage Calculation: The actual voltage produced will depend on the materials used for the
electrodes. Common materials are copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), where the standard electrode
potential difference is around 1.1V in an ideal solution. The actual output will be less due to
various losses

The final voltage is influenced by several factors, including the concentration of the saltwater
solution, the temperature, and the materials used for the electrodes. The expected output voltage
for a saltwater battery with 35 grams of salt in 200 to 300 ml of water using common electrodes
like copper and zinc could be approximately 0.8V to 1.1V

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Present system :

The utilization of saltwater batteries is one of the most hopeful environment-friendly substitutes to
traditional lithium-ion batteries, given that they depend on abundant and non-toxic materials. Present
energy storage systems primarily lithium-ion batteries are faced with the challenges associated with the
availability and environmental impacts of their key materials. The extraction of lithium and the
processing that it undergoes requires a lot of resources and has a large ecological footprint. The volatility
and flammability of lithium-based electrolytes are also safety hazards and until their management
processes are made stringent and the necessary safety measures are in place, these are the ones we have
to deal with. On the other hand, the saltwater batteries employ sodium, which is a material that is easy to
manufacture and low-priced. These batteries operate with an aqueous electrolyte, the risk of fire is
minimized, and they are inherently safer. Nonetheless, the development of saltwater batteries is still in
the very early stages and which is also the major roadblock for them. The main issues are the optimizing
of the electrochemical performance to the level or even exceeding lithium-ion batteries, improving
energy density, expanding cycle life further, and the ensuring of that the production process is scalable
These difficulties are primarily the concern of the wide varieties of disciplines, including materials
science, electrochemistry, and engineering. The construction of lightweight electrode materials, the
solution's of electrolytes issues, and the arrangements of battery architectures are all essential to the
general performance and hence the commercial appeal of saltwater batteries. The successful development
of this technology could be a giant leap in the direction of more sustainable and safer energy storage
solutions that will satisfy the growing global
demand for efficient and green energy systems.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Proposed system:

The saltwater battery technology development proposal focuses on improving the critical
components to solve today's problems. This entails electrolyte with a high ionic conductivity
and stability, the use of innovative and corrosion-resistant materials for electrodes, and the
creation of a cell architecture that is effective without unnecessary matter and in which the
resistance is minimized as far as possible. Advanced separator materials will be chosen to
improve ion exchange while at the same time making sure they are durable. The plan will
concentrate on demonstrating optimized charging and discharging rates that are conducive for a
wide temperature range, developing a scalable and cost-effective manufacturing process with
strict quality control. Moreover, sustainability will be ensured due to eco-friendly materials and
the inclusion of lifecycle assessments are developed. The approach aims to boost the energy and
power density, increase battery life, and present saltwater technology as an eco-friendly
alternative that is applicable to a variety of areas.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Methodology:

Saltwater batteries are an emerging technology that utilizes a saltwater electrolyte to generate
electrical power, offering a safer and more sustainable alternative to traditional batteries. The
development methodology for saltwater batteries generally involves several key stages:
( Fig :1)

1. Material Selection: Identifying and selecting appropriate materials for the battery's anode,
cathode, and electrolyte is crucial. Common materials include carbon-based anodes, various
metal oxides for cathodes, and saline solutions for the electrolyte. Researchers aim to optimize
these materials for performance, cost, and environmental impact.

2. Cell Design: Designing the cell structure involves determining the optimal configuration and
dimensions for the battery components. This includes the arrangement of electrodes, separator
materials to prevent short-circuiting, and ensuring efficient ion transport within the electrolyte.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

3. Electrolyte Optimization: The choice and concentration of the saltwater electrolyte are critical
for battery performance. Researchers experiment with different salt concentrations, types of
salts, and additives to enhance conductivity and stability.

4. Prototype Development: Creating prototypes of the saltwater batteries allows researchers to test
various designs and materials under real-world conditions. This stage involves assembling the
battery cells, integrating them into battery packs, and conducting performance tests.

5. Performance Evaluation: Testing the prototypes for key performance metrics such as energy
density, power output, cycle life, and safety is essential. This stage often involves iterative testing
and refinement to address any issues and improve performance.

6. Scale-Up and Manufacturing: Once the prototype meets the desired specifications, the focus
shifts to scaling up the production process. This involves developing manufacturing processes
that can produce batteries at a larger scale while maintaining quality and cost-efficiency.

7. Commercialization and Deployment: The final stage involves bringing the saltwater batteries to
market. This includes developing partnerships with manufacturers and distributors, marketing
the technology, and integrating it into applications such as renewable energy storage or
consumer electronics.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Anode :

( Fig :2)
• A seawater battery basically consists of an anode in an organic electrolyte and a seawater
cathode with a current collector. This design allows its use both as an energy storage system and
for water desalination
• A high-performance seawater battery needs an optimized anode compartment, including
electrolyte and electrode material
• The cell's anode in the past consisted of an organic electrolyte and an electrode material used as
a negative electrode. In addition to the ability to uptake ions reversibly, anode materials and the
associated anode compartments must fulfill several criteria. Apart from avoiding side reactions
leading to cell swelling and failure, the anode material must combine good conductivity, a
suitable electrochemical stability window at a low voltage range, and low cost and toxicity.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Cathode :

(Fig :3)
• The unique design of seawater batteries and the underlying electrochemical processes make it
impossible to use common battery electrode materials found in sodium-ion batteries. Also, the
wettability of the cathode current collector and seawater catholyte must be considered to
improve the battery performance (voltage efficiency).
• Since an electrocatalytic process is used, the cathode employs only seawater and a current
collector. Referring to standard seawater data, the amount of salt in one liter of water reaches
about 35 g
• In addition to the main component of sodium chloride, many other cations and anions are found
in standard seawater, such as magnesium, calcium, potassium, sulfates, bicarbonates, and
fluorides composition of seawater varies from place to place, depth to depth, and time to time,
depending on the respective climate, conditions, and environment.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Copper:

( Fig :4)
• When copper wires are used as a cathode in an electrochemical cell, they typically function in
processes like electroplating or electrolysis. In these applications, copper is used for its good
electrical conductivity and ease of handling.

• Electroplating: Copper wires can be used as a cathode in electroplating to deposit a layer of

copper onto a surface. The copper ions in the electrolyte solution are reduced at the cathode and
deposit onto the object.

• Electrolysis: In an electrolytic cell where copper is involved, copper wires can serve as the
cathode where copper ions from the electrolyte are reduced and deposited onto the cathode.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Zinc:

( Fig :5)
• Saltwater batteries utilize zinc strips as a key component of their electrochemical design. Zinc,
being abundant and cost-effective, serves as an ideal material for the anode in these batteries.
The use of zinc strips in saltwater batteries provides several advantages.
• Firstly, zinc offers a high theoretical capacity, which is essential for enhancing the overall energy
storage capabilities of the battery. Additionally, zinc is relatively safe and environmentally
benign compared to other metals used in traditional batteries, such as lithium or cadmium. This
makes saltwater batteries with zinc anodes a more sustainable and eco-friendly option.
• The electrochemical properties of zinc also contribute to the battery's longevity and reliability,
allowing for numerous charge and discharge cycles without significant degradation. Despite
these benefits, challenges such as zinc dendrite formation, which can lead to short-circuiting and
reduced battery life, need to be addressed through advanced materials engineering and optimized
battery design. Overall, the incorporation of zinc strips in saltwater batteries holds great promise
for developing safer, more sustainable, and cost-effective energy storage solutions.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

LED:

(Fig :6)

Function: LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) emit light when an electric current passes through them,
making them useful as indicators, lighting sources, and in displays.

Spring:

( Fig :7)
Flat spring contacts, also known as spring-loaded contacts or spring connectors, are electrical
connectors equipped with a spring mechanism to ensure secure and reliable electrical
connections. They are commonly used in various electronic devices from smartphones and
laptops to medical equipment and automotive systems.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Switch:

(Fig :8)
An electric switch is a simple device that either breaks the circuit or completes it to stop or start
the flow of current. An electric switch is an arrangement to switch the circuit ON and OFF as
needed. It is also called a “Key” component in an electrical circuit

Wires:

(Fig :9)
An electrical wire is the electro technical component used to transport electricity to transmit
energy and information. It is made of a conductive material, single or multiple strands, often
surrounded by an insulating envelope. The inside of the electrical wire is called the “core” of the
wire.

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Salt:

(Fig :10)
salt, in chemistry, substance produced by the reaction of an acid with a base. A salt consists of
the positive ion (cation) of a base and the negative ion (anion) of an acid. The reaction

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 SALT WATER BATTERY DEVELOPMENT

Expected outcomes :

• When using a cathode (copper wire), an anode (aluminum chip), an electrolyte(35g salt/1L
water), the battery managed to give about (0.6V, 5.8mA) per cell.
• The challenge is the high anode corrosion & deposition on the cathode surface, which reduces
the life time in the long run.

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ADVANTAGE
• Safety
• Easy recyclable
• Long lifecycle
• High cycle efficiency
• Low maintenance
• Temperature tolerance

DISADVANTAGES
• Low energy density
• Lower efficiency
• Corrosion

APPLICATION
• Telecommunication towers
• Agriculture irrigation pumps
• Greenhouse irrigation or lighting
• Oil well pumps
• Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

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Conclusion:
Several beneficial results have been witnessed in saltwater battery development over the years,
causing the environmentalists to dream of a sustainable future. They are less harmful to the
environment compared to conventional lithium-ion batteries as they are made of non-toxic and
lightweight substances like sodium. This in turn leads to reduced environmental effects related
to mining and disposing of too much, as a result, saltwater batteries are the direction to go for
sustainable future. First of all, the issue of safety is the most significant in this regard since
saltwater batteries are less prone / more safe to thermal runaway and fire hazards. These batteries
are powered by a water-based electrolyte which is non-combustible, which further enhance their
safety features and make them a safer selection for a range of applications when comparing them
with other conventional battery types in the markets. Thus, the saltwater batteries are more cost-
effective. The construction of a sodium battery will reduce costs and will be competitive with
lithium batteries. Sodium is a resource that costs far less and is much more available than lithium,
which means that the saltwater batteries made with sodium can theoretically become cheaper in
the overall manufacturing by significant margins. The cost benefit that this product incurs may
make it the preferred option for energy storage, especially the large scale storage
solutions.However, performance is the chief challenge for saltwater batteries at the moment.
They are in general of low energy density compared with lithium-ion batteries, i.e. they
physically store less energy per unit of weight or volume. Such a restriction of application will
be a major drawback for electric vehicle usage. Moreover, saltwater batteries possess excellent
durability and lifespan, yet they are limited in terms of energy reserve, The study shows that
they can undergo multiple charge and discharge cycles with little degradation, which is favorable
for applications such as stationary energy storage solutions and power manners related to other
energy conservation and energy
generation sources

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References:
1 . The new generation of saltwater batteries, Dr. Thomas F. Krausse, Managing Director
BlueSky Energy
• J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4,7207
• JIIF, Vol. 05, No. 01 (2021) 74 – 8

2 "Progress and Applications of Seawater-Activated Batteries" - Jinmao Chen et al.,

Sustainability, 2023. This article provides a comprehensive review of seawater-activated
batteries, including their principles, characteristics, and potential applications in marine
environments. Link (MDPI).

3 "Advances and Issues in Developing Salt-Concentrated Battery Electrolytes" - Nature

Energy, 2023. This paper discusses the progress made in improving salt-concentrated
electrolytes for battery applications, highlighting the challenges and future directions. Link
(Nature).

4 "Seawater Batteries: A Review of Current Research and Future Prospects" - Journal of

Power Sources, 2023. This review article explores the recent advancements in seawater battery
technology, focusing on their potential for large-scale energy storage and environmental impact.
Link (mdpi-res).

5 "Development of Seawater Batteries for Marine Applications" - Marine Technology

Society Journal, 2023. This study looks into the specific applications of seawater batteries in
marine environments, including their use in underwater exploration and safety equipment. Link
(MDPI).

6 "Renewable Energy Storage Solutions: The Role of Saltwater Batteries" - Renewable

Energy Journal, 2023. This article evaluates the role of saltwater batteries in renewable energy
systems, particularly in their integration with solar and wind power. Link (Nature).

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7 "Innovations in Saltwater Battery Technology for Sustainable Energy" - Energy &

Environmental Science, 2023. This paper discusses recent innovations in the design and
materials of saltwater batteries to enhance their performance and sustainability. Link (Nature).

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