Physics 11/10/2024

Topics
Ampere's Law

Ampere's Law states that the magnetic field produced by an electric current in a closed loop is
directly proportional to the current flowing through the loop.

Ampere's Law is often used to calculate the magnetic field around current-carrying wires or
solenoids.
The closed loop can be any shape, such as a circle or a square, as long as it encloses the
current.
Ampere's Law is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism.
It was formulated by André-Marie Ampère in the 19th century.

Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is the branch of science that studies the interaction between electric currents
or fields and magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic forces are responsible for most everyday phenomena, such as the
movement of electrons in wires, the generation of light, and the operation of electric motors.
The electromagnetic force is four times stronger than the gravitational force and is
responsible for holding atoms together and creating chemical bonds.
Electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, microwaves, and visible light, are formed by the
oscillation of electric and magnetic fields.
The laws of electromagnetism, summarized in Maxwell's equations, describe how electric
and magnetic fields are generated and how they interact with each other.

Flemings Left Hand Rule

Fleming's Left Hand Rule is a technique to determine the direction of motion, current, or force in
a magnetic field by using the left hand's thumb, forefinger, and middle finger.

The thumb represents the motion, the forefinger indicates the magnetic field direction, and
the middle finger shows the current direction.
It is applied in situations involving electric motors, generators, and conductors moving in
magnetic fields.
The rule is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
It helps in understanding the interaction between magnetic fields and current flow in practical
applications.
Induced current

Induced current is the flow of electric charge produced in a conductor by a changing magnetic
field according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

Induced current can be generated in a closed-loop conductor exposed to a changing

magnetic field.
The magnitude of induced current depends on the rate of change of magnetic flux through
the conductor.
Lenz's law states that the direction of the induced current is such that it produces a magnetic
field opposing the change that induced it.
Transformers rely on induced currents to transfer electrical energy efficiently between circuits
with different voltages.

Lorentz force

The Lorentz force is the force experienced by a charged particle moving in a magnetic and
electric field. It is perpendicular to both the velocity of the particle and the magnetic field.

The Lorentz force is given by the equation F = q(E + v x B), where F is the force, q is the
charge of the particle, E is the electric field, v is the velocity of the particle, and B is the
magnetic field.
The Lorentz force can cause a charged particle to change its direction of motion.
The force experienced by a charged particle due to a purely magnetic field is always
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle.
The Lorentz force is the fundamental principle behind the operation of electric motors and
generators.

Magnetic field

A magnetic field is a region in space around a magnet or a current-carrying wire, where a

magnetic force is experienced.

Magnetic field lines always form closed loops.

The strength of a magnetic field is measured in Tesla (T).
The direction of a magnetic field is represented by the direction in which the North pole of a
compass needle points.
The magnetic field around a straight current-carrying wire forms concentric circles around the
wire.

Magnetic Flux

Magnetic Flux is a measure of the total magnetic field passing through a given surface. It
depends on the strength of the magnetic field and the angle at which the surface cuts through
the field.
 Magnetic flux is measured in Weber (Wb).
The flux passing through a closed surface is always zero.
Magnetic flux is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength and the area of the
surface.
The unit of magnetic flux is equivalent to a volt-second (V-s).

Magnetic lines

Magnetic lines represent the direction and strength of a magnetic field, flowing from the north
pole to the south pole of a magnet.

Magnetic lines never intersect, indicating the continuous flow of the magnetic field.
The density of magnetic lines indicates the strength of the magnetic field at a particular
point.
The closer magnetic lines are to each other, the stronger the magnetic field in that region.
Understanding magnetic lines helps in visualizing and predicting the behavior of magnetic
fields in various scenarios.

right-hand rule

The right-hand rule is a mnemonic used to determine the direction of a force, magnetic field, or
current in a three-dimensional space.

The right-hand rule helps determine the direction of a force or magnetic field by using the
thumb, index finger, and middle finger.
The thumb represents the direction of the force, current, or magnetic field.
The index finger represents the direction of the magnetic field or current.
The middle finger represents the direction of the force, current, or magnetic field.

Solenoid

A solenoid is a coil of wire that generates a magnetic field when an electric current passes
through it.

Solenoids are commonly used in electromechanical devices such as doorbells and car starter
motors.
The magnetic field produced by a solenoid becomes stronger when the current flowing
through it increases.
The direction of the magnetic field inside a solenoid can be determined using the right-hand
rule.
Solenoids can also be used to convert electrical energy into mechanical motion in
applications like valves and actuators.

Key Terms
AC Generator

An AC generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into alternating current (AC)
electrical energy through electromagnetic induction.

Consists of a coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field

Produces alternating current (AC) output
Uses Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
Essential component in power generation and distribution systems

Biot-Savart law

The Biot-Savart law describes the magnetic field generated by a steady current in a wire,
involving the current, distance, and direction.

The law helps calculate the magnetic field around current-carrying wires or conductors.
It is essential in understanding electromagnetism and plays a crucial role in designing
devices like transformers and motors.
The intensity of the magnetic field depends on the current strength and the distance from the
wire.
It provides a mathematical expression for magnetic field strength, facilitating analysis of
complex current-carrying systems.

Current-carrying conductor

A current-carrying conductor is a material that allows electric current to flow through it, creating
a magnetic field around it.

Conductors have free electrons that can move easily, enabling the flow of current.
The direction of the magnetic field around the conductor follows the right-hand rule.
Increasing the current increases the strength of the magnetic field produced by the
conductor.
Factors like the material, length, and thickness of the conductor influence its ability to carry
current.

DC motor

A DC motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy by using direct
current.

A DC motor consists of a coil of wire that is connected to a power source and placed in a
magnetic field.
When current flows through the coil, it experiences a force that causes it to rotate.
 The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the direction of the current.
DC motors are commonly used in appliances, toys, and vehicles for various applications.

Electrolysis

Electrolysis is a chemical process that uses an electrical current to drive a non-spontaneous

reaction, resulting in the separation of compounds into their constituent elements.

Electrolysis can be used to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen gases.
The process of electrolysis is widely used in industries such as metal refining and
electroplating.
During electrolysis, positively charged ions migrate towards the negative electrode (cathode)
and negatively charged ions migrate towards the positive electrode (anode).
The amount of substance produced during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity
of electric charge passed through the electrolyte.

Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an electromotive force by changing the

magnetic field around a conductor.

It is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

An electric current is induced in a conductor when it is exposed to a changing magnetic field.
The direction of the induced current can be determined using Lenz's law.
Electromagnetic induction is the principle behind the function of generators and
transformers.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic

radiation, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma
rays.

The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from low-energy, long-wavelength radiation to high-

energy, short-wavelength radiation.
The different types of electromagnetic radiation can be distinguished by their wavelengths
and frequencies.
The electromagnetic spectrum is used in various applications, such as communication,
medical imaging, and astronomy.
The study of the electromagnetic spectrum allows us to understand how light and other
forms of radiation interact with matter.

Electromagnetic wave

An electromagnetic wave is a type of energy wave that is composed of both an electric field and
a magnetic field, which oscillate perpendicular to each other and propagate through space.

Electromagnetic waves can travel through a vacuum, unlike other types of waves.
These waves can have a wide range of wavelengths, which determines their position on the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The speed of an electromagnetic wave is constant in a given medium, but can vary when
moving from one medium to another.
Electromagnetic waves include visible light, radio waves, microwaves, X-rays, and gamma
rays, each with different properties and uses.

Faraday Cage

A Faraday Cage is an enclosure made of conductive materials that blocks electromagnetic fields
from entering or exiting, used for protection against electrical charges and electromagnetic
interference.

Named after scientist Michael Faraday.

Protects electronic devices from lightning strikes.
Commonly used in laboratories to shield sensitive equipment from external electromagnetic
interference.
The effectiveness of a Faraday Cage depends on the thickness and conductivity of the
material used.

Flux density

Flux density refers to the amount of flux (flow) passing through a unit area per unit time. It is a
measure of the intensity of a field.

Common units for flux density include teslas (T) for magnetic flux density and watts per
square meter (W/m^2) for radiant flux density.
Flux density is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
In electromagnetism, flux density is related to the strength of an electromagnetic field.
Flux density plays a crucial role in various fields such as astronomy, engineering, and
environmental science.

Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a device that detects and measures small electric currents, typically using a
coil in a magnetic field to produce a deflection.

A galvanometer can be calibrated to act as an ammeter or voltmeter by using a shunt or

series resistor.
Its sensitivity is determined by the number of turns in the coil and the strength of the
magnetic field.
Galvanometers are often used in circuits to monitor and measure current flow.
The movement of the galvanometer needle indicates the direction and strength of the current
 passing through it.

Hall Effect

The Hall Effect is the production of a voltage difference across a conductor when a magnetic
field is applied perpendicular to the flow of current.

Discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

Used to measure the sign of charge carriers in a material.
The voltage generated is directly proportional to both the strength of the magnetic field and
the current flowing through the conductor.
Commonly utilized in devices like Hall sensors for proximity detection.

Inductance

Inductance is a property of an electrical circuit that opposes a change in current, causing the
circuit to store energy in a magnetic field.

The unit of inductance is the henry (H).

Inductance depends on the number of turns in a coil, the coil's geometry, and the magnetic
permeability of the core material.
Inductance can be increased by adding more turns to a coil or by using a ferromagnetic core.
Inductance is used in various electrical devices, such as transformers, motors, and solenoids.

Lenz's Law

Lenz's Law states that when an induced current is produced by a changing magnetic field, it will
be in a direction that opposes the change that produced it.

According to Lenz's Law, the induced current will create a magnetic field that opposes the
original change in magnetic field.
This law is a consequence of the conservation of energy principle.
Lenz's Law applies to any situation where there is a change in magnetic flux, whether it is due
to motion of a magnet or a changing current in a coil.
This law is often used to determine the direction of induced current or the polarity of an
induced electromotive force.

Magnetic circuit

A magnetic circuit consists of magnetic materials that create a path for magnetic flux, similarly
to how an electric circuit provides a path for electrical current.

Magnetic circuits can include materials such as iron, steel, and other ferromagnetic
substances.
 The magnetic field in a circuit is produced by a current flow or permanent magnet.
The concept of reluctance is the magnetic equivalent of resistance in an electric circuit.
Understanding magnetic circuits is crucial in designing devices like transformers and electric
motors.

magnetic dipole

A magnetic dipole is a pair of equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a small distance,
which generates a magnetic field.

Magnetic dipoles are commonly found in bar magnets, where the north and south poles are
the magnetic dipoles.
The strength of a magnetic dipole is quantified by its magnetic moment, which depends on
the strength of the poles and the distance between them.
Magnetic dipoles interact with external magnetic fields, experiencing a torque that aligns
them with the field.
The magnetic field generated by a magnetic dipole decreases rapidly with increasing distance
from the dipole.

Magnetic domain

A magnetic domain is a region within a material where the majority of atomic or molecular
magnets are aligned in the same direction.

Magnetic domains form when a material is magnetized.

In unmagnetized materials, the atomic magnets are randomly oriented, canceling out any
magnetic effect.
Within each domain, the magnetic field is strong and relatively uniform.
The total magnetization of a material is the sum of the magnetizations of its individual
domains.

Magnetic field strength

Magnetic field strength refers to the measure of the intensity of a magnetic field.

It is typically measured in units of tesla or gauss.

Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the source.
The magnitude of the field strength is related to the number of electric charges in motion.
It determines the force experienced by a charged particle within the magnetic field.

Magnetic Hysteresis

Magnetic hysteresis refers to the lagging of magnetization behind the applied magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials.
 It is caused by the alignment of magnetic domains within the material.
The magnetic hysteresis loop depicts the relationship between magnetic field strength and
magnetization.
The area inside the loop indicates the energy lost as heat during magnetization changes.
Hysteresis is advantageous in devices such as transformers and electromagnets.

Magnetic levitation

Magnetic levitation is a phenomenon where an object is suspended in the air using magnetic
fields.

It is based on the principle of electromagnetic force.

Objects are levitated by opposing magnetic fields created by superconducting magnets.
Magnetic levitation is used in high-speed trains to reduce friction and increase efficiency.
It is also utilized in magnetic bearings for rotating machinery, creating frictionless rotation.

magnetic lines of force

Magnetic lines of force are invisible lines that show the direction of a magnetic field, flowing
from the north pole to the south pole of a magnet.

Magnetic field lines are always continuous, forming closed loops.

The density of magnetic lines near a magnet is an indication of the strength of its magnetic
field.
Magnetic lines of force never intersect with each other due to the fundamental properties of
magnets.
Understanding the behavior of magnetic lines aids in visualizing and predicting magnetic
interactions in various materials.

Magnetic permeability

Magnetic permeability is the measure of a material's ability to allow magnetic lines of force to
pass through it.

It is a property that determines how easily a material can be magnetized.

It is denoted by the symbol μ.
The greater the magnetic permeability of a material, the better it conducts magnetic fields.
Permeability is affected by temperature and can vary depending on the type of material.

Magnetic poles

Magnetic poles are the regions of a magnet where the magnetic field is concentrated, with a
north pole attracting a south pole and repelling another north pole.
 Magnetic poles always exist in pairs, meaning every magnet has a north and south pole.
Like poles repel each other, while opposite poles attract each other.
The Earth acts as a giant magnet with its north pole near the geographic South Pole.
Magnetic poles can be induced in certain materials through electricity or other external
magnetic fields.

Magnetic resonance

Magnetic resonance is a phenomenon where certain atomic nuclei respond to a magnetic field
by emitting radio waves of a specific frequency.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses this concept to create detailed images of the body's
internal structures.
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) can be used to analyze the chemical composition
of substances.
Magnetic resonance is commonly used in the field of medicine for diagnostic purposes.
It is also utilized in various scientific disciplines, including chemistry and materials science,
for studying atomic and molecular phenomena.

Magnetic susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility refers to a material's ability to become magnetized when placed in an

external magnetic field.

Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity and is related to the ease at which a

material can be magnetized.
Higher values of magnetic susceptibility indicate that a material is more easily magnetized.
Magnetic susceptibility can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the type of material.
It is an important property when studying the behavior of materials in the presence of
magnetic fields.

Magnetomotive force

Magnetomotive force refers to the measure of the 'magnetic pressure' applied to a magnetic
circuit, causing a magnetic field to form and magnetic flux to flow.

Magnetomotive force is measured in units of ampere-turns (At).

The magnetomotive force can be calculated by multiplying the current flowing through a coil
by the number of turns in the coil.
It is analogous to electromotive force (emf) in electrical circuits.
Magnetomotive force is necessary to overcome the opposition to magnetic field formation,
known as magnetic reluctance.

Magnetoresistance
Magnetoresistance is the change in electrical resistance of a material when exposed to a
magnetic field, commonly seen in magnetic sensors and storage devices.

Types include anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR), giant magnetoresistance (GMR), tunnel

magnetoresistance (TMR), and colossal magnetoresistance (CMR).
Magnetoresistance is a significant factor in the performance of various electronic devices
like hard drives and magnetic field sensors.
Increasing the magnetic field strength can lead to a greater magnetoresistance effect in
some materials.
Understanding magnetoresistance helps in the development of more efficient and sensitive
magnetic-based technologies.

mutual inductance

Mutual inductance refers to the phenomenon where a changing current in one coil induces a
voltage in another coil that is in close proximity.

Mutual inductance is a key concept in electromagnetic induction.

The magnitude of mutual inductance is determined by the number of turns in a coil and the
strength of the magnetic field.
The mutual inductance between two coils can be increased by placing a magnetic core
materials between them.
Mutual inductance is often used in transformers and other devices that rely on
electromagnetic coupling.

Permanent magnet

A permanent magnet is a material that has the ability to retain its magnetization after being
magnetized by an external magnetic field.

Permanent magnets can be found in common household items such as refrigerator magnets.
They are made from materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.
Permanent magnets have two poles: a north pole and a south pole.
They are used in various applications such as generators, motors, and hard disk drives.

Self-inductance

Self-inductance is a property of a circuit component that induces a voltage in itself due to a

change in current flowing through it.

Self-inductance is measured in henries.

It opposes any change in current passing through the circuit.
It is represented by the symbol 'L' in formulas.
Self-inductance plays a crucial role in the behavior of inductors in electrical circuits.
Superconductivity

Superconductivity is the phenomenon where certain materials exhibit zero electrical resistance
and expel magnetic fields when cooled below a critical temperature.

Superconductors have various applications, including MRI machines and particle

accelerators.
The critical temperature varies among superconducting materials and can range from a few
degrees above absolute zero to higher temperatures.
When a material becomes superconducting, it can conduct electrical current without any loss
of energy due to resistance.
Research continues to explore new superconducting materials and improve their properties
for practical use.

Temporary magnet

A temporary magnet is a material that only retains its magnetism when in the presence of a
magnetic field.

Temporary magnets can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.

Common examples include soft iron and nickel.
They are often used in applications like solenoids and electromagnets.
Temporary magnets do not have their own magnetic field when not in contact with a
permanent magnet.

Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction.

It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common iron core.
The primary coil receives the input voltage and current, while the secondary coil delivers the
output voltage and current.
Step-up transformers increase voltage and step-down transformers decrease voltage.
Transformers are used in power distribution systems to transmit electricity efficiently over
long distances.