Chapter One: Airplanes and Aerodynamics Page 1 of 12

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Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)

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Chapter One: Airplanes and Aerodynamics Page 2 of 12

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Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1. One of the main functions of flaps during the approach and landing is to
increase angle of attack, which causes the wing to produce the same
amount of lift at a slower airspeed.
2. The raising of flaps increases the stall speed.
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)

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Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1. Rectangular wings generally are designed so that the wing root stalls
first, with the stall progression toward the wingtip.
2. A change in the angle of attack of the wing changes the lift, drag, and
airspeed.
3. The angle of attack of a wing directly controls the distribution of positive
and negative pressure acting on the wing.
4. Frost on the upper surface of airplane wings disrupts the smooth flow of
air over the top of the wing (which increases drag) and causes the
airplane to stall at higher airspeeds and lower angles of attack than
normal.
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)

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Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1. The angle of attack at which a wing stalls (critical angle of attack)
remains constant regardless of
a. Weight
b. Dynamic pressure (a component of the Bernoulli equation which
explains lift in pressure differentials)
c. Bank angle
d. Pitch attitude

2. Stall speed is affected by the airplane's

a. Weight
b. Load factor
c. Power setting

3. The stalling speed is most affected by variations in airplane loading, i.e.,

weight and CG.
4. Turbulence can increase stall speed due to increased load factors.
a. Slowing to V protects the airplane from excessive load stresses
A
while providing a safe margin above stall speed.

5. Stall recovery becomes progressively more difficult when the CG moves

aft.
6. Stall speed tables for various configurations at different angles of bank

are provided for some airplanes, such as illustrated in .

a. Note that the table portrays situations for a given weight at four
angles of bank in two configurations (gear and flaps up or down)
and with power on or off.
b. Generally, note that stall speeds are lower with gear and flaps down.
c. Also, stall speeds are higher as bank increases.

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1.4 SPINS (Question 16)

1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)
Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1. Recovery from spins as well as stalls may become difficult when the CG is
too far rearward.
a. The rotation of a spin is always around the CG.

1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)

1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)

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Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1. An airplane wing produces lift resulting from relatively higher air pressure
below the wing surface and lower air pressure above the wing surface.
a. Lift is defined as the force acting perpendicular to the relative wind.
b. An increase in the angle of attack will increase drag.
1) Drag acts parallel to the flight path.

2. In all steady-state flight, including descent, the sum of all forward forces
equals the sum of all rearward forces, and the sum of all upward forces
equals the sum of all downward forces.
a. During the transition from straight-and-level flight to a climb, the
angle of attack must be increased and lift is momentarily increased.

3. Any given angle of attack has a corresponding airspeed to provide

sufficient lift to maintain a given altitude.
a. As airspeed decreases, the airfoils generate less lift. Accordingly, to
maintain altitude, the angle of attack must be increased to
compensate for the decrease in lift.
b. To generate the same amount of lift as altitude increases, the
airplane must be flown at a higher true airspeed for any given angle
of attack.

4. As the angle of bank increases, the vertical component of lift decreases

and the horizontal component of lift increases.
5. As airspeed increases, lift and parasite drag increase as the square of the

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increase in airspeed; e.g., doubling airspeed quadruples lift and parasite

drag.
a. Induced drag is a by-product of lift and is also greatly affected by
changes in airspeed.

6. Graphs including curves of the component of lift, the component of drag,

and the lift/drag (L/D) ratio are frequently prepared to study the effect
of the angle of attack on drag, lift, and the lift/drag ratio.
a. An example appears in .
b. For any given angle of attack, the L/D ratio can be converted into
altitude loss (in feet) per forward distance traveled.
c. Of interest is that the L/D ratio can be the same for two different
angles of attack.
1) EXAMPLE: At 3° angle of attack and at slightly over 12° angle of
attack, the L/D ratio is approximately 10.

7. In this diagram, as airspeed increases above the maximum lift/drag

(L/D MAX ) speed, total drag on the airplane increases due to the increased
parasite drag. Note that is basically the same graph.
a. As airspeed decreases below the L/D speed, total drag increases
MAX
due to increased induced drag.

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8. By definition, the L/D ratio is at the minimum (lowest) point of the

MAX
total drag curve.
a. The minimum point in the total drag curve is the point where the
parasite drag and induced drag curves intersect.
9. In a propeller-driven airplane, the airspeed resulting in L/D will
MAX
provide the maximum range and maximum glide distance.
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)
Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1. Ground effect is due to the interference of the ground (or water) surface
with the airflow patterns about the airplane in flight.
a. When an airplane is within a distance of its wingspan to the surface,
a change occurs in the three-dimensional flow pattern around the
airplane because the vertical component of the airflow around the
wing is restricted by the Earth's surface.
1) This change alters the wing's upwash, downwash, and wingtip
vortices.
a) The reduction of the wingtip vortices alters the spanwise lift
distribution and reduces the induced angle of attack and
induced drag.
2. An airplane leaving ground effect experiences an increase in induced drag
and requires more thrust.

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3. While in ground effect, an airplane needs a lower angle of attack to

produce the same lift as when out of ground effect.
a. If the same angle of attack is maintained in ground effect as when
out of ground effect, lift will increase and induced drag will
decrease.

1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)

1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1. Stability is the inherent ability of an object (e.g., airplane), after its
equilibrium is disturbed, to return to its original position. In other
words, a stable airplane will tend to return to the original condition of
flight if disturbed by a force such as turbulent air.
2. Static stability is the initial tendency that the airplane displays after its
equilibrium is disturbed.
a. Positive static stability can be illustrated by a ball inside a round
bowl. If the ball is displaced from its normal resting place, it will
eventually return to its original position at the bottom of the bowl.
b. Neutral static stability can be illustrated by a ball on a flat plane. If

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Chapter One: Airplanes and Aerodynamics Page 10 of 12

the ball is displaced, it will come to rest at some new, neutral

position and show no tendency to return to its original position.
c. Negative static stability is actually instability. It can be illustrated by
a ball on the top of an inverted round bowl. Even the slightest
displacement of the ball will activate greater forces, which will
cause the ball to continue to move in the direction of the applied
force (e.g., gravity).

3. Dynamic stability is the overall tendency that the airplane displays after
its equilibrium is disturbed.
a. Positive dynamic stability is a property which dampens the
oscillations set up by a statically stable airplane, enabling the
oscillations to become smaller and smaller in magnitude until the
airplane eventually settles down to its original condition of flight.
b. Neutral dynamic stability means the oscillations remain unchanged.
c. Negative dynamic stability is actually dynamic instability. It means
the oscillations tend to increase.

4. An airplane is said to have

a. Longitudinal stability about the lateral axis
b. Lateral stability about the longitudinal axis
c. Directional stability about the vertical axis

5. If an airplane is loaded to the rear of its CG range, it will tend to be

unstable about its lateral axis.
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)
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Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1. At a constant altitude in a coordinated turn, for each angle of bank each
airspeed has a specific rate and radius of turn, and they do not vary.
a. An increase in airspeed in a level coordinated turn with a constant

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Chapter One: Airplanes and Aerodynamics Page 11 of 12

bank results in
1) An increase in the radius of turn and
2) A decrease in the rate of turn.
b. Steeping the bank and the decreasing the airspeed result in an
increase in the rate of turn and a decrease in the radius.

2. With a constant bank angle, the load factor will be constant regardless of
a. The rate of turn
b. Airspeed
c. Weight

3. As bank is increased, additional vertical lift converts into horizontal lift,

decreasing available vertical lift.
a. Thus, an increased angle of attack (back elevator pressure) is
required in order to maintain a constant altitude during the turn.

4. When airspeed is increased during a level turn, the angle of attack must
be decreased or the angle of bank increased to maintain level altitude.
5. A standard rate turn is, by definition, 2 min. for 360°, or 3°/sec.
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter One:
Airplanes and Aerodynamics
1.1 FLAPS (Questions 1-2)
1.2 AIRPLANE WINGS (Questions 3-6)
1.3 STALLS (Questions 7-15)
1.4 SPINS (Question 16)
1.5 LIFT AND DRAG (Questions 17-36)
1.6 GROUND EFFECT (Questions 37-39)
1.7 AIRPLANE STABILITY (Questions 40-44)
1.8 TURNS (Questions 45-52)
1.9 LOAD FACTOR (Questions 53-61)

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Chapter One: Airplanes and Aerodynamics Page 12 of 12

1. Load factor is the ratio between the total airload imposed on the wing in
flight and the gross weight of the airplane.
a. The amount of excess load that can be imposed on an airplane's
wings varies directly with the airplane's speed and the excess lift
available.
1) At low speeds, very little excess lift is available, so very little
excess load can be imposed.
2) At high speeds, the wings' lifting capacity is so great that the
load factor can quickly exceed safety limits.
b. An increased load factor will cause an airplane to stall at a higher
airspeed.
c. As bank angle increases, the load factor increases. The wings not
only must carry the airplane's weight but also must bear the
centrifugal force.
1) The only determinant of load factor in level coordinated turns is
the amount of bank.
2) A change of airspeed does not affect load factor given a constant
angle of bank, although it does directly affect the rate and
radius of turn.

2. Load factor (or G units) is a multiple of the regular weight or,

alternatively, a multiple of the force of gravity.
a. Unaccelerated straight flight has a load factor of 1.0 (by definition).
b. A 60° level bank has a load factor of 2.0. Thus, a 3,000-lb. airplane
in a 60° bank would require the wings to provide lift for 6,000 lb.

3. Maximum safe load factors (limit load factors):

a. Normal category airplanes are limited to +3.8 and -1.52 G's.
b. Utility aircraft are limited to +4.4 and -1.76 G's.
c. Aerobatic aircraft are limited to +6.0 and -3.0 G's.

4. When baggage or other areas of the plane are placarded for weight, they
are placarded for gross weight. The airplane is designed to accommodate
the specified G's (3.8, 4.4, 6.0) given the weight placarded.
5. A "stall speed/load factor" graph relates these variables to the degree of
bank angle for a particular airplane, as illustrated in .
a. Determine the load factor (or G units) for any bank angle by finding
the bank angle on the horizontal axis, moving vertically up to the
intersection with the load factor curve, and then proceeding
horizontally to the left of the graph to find the number of G units on
the vertical load factor scale.
b. To determine the increase in stall speed for any load factor, begin
with the load factor on the far left vertical scale and move
horizontally to the graph on the right to intersect the load factor
curve. From that point of intersection, move up vertically to the
intersection with the stall speed curve. From that point, move
horizontally to the left to the vertical axis to determine the
percentage increase in stall speed.
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