Aesthetics: Introduction and Key Theories

Aesthetics, the study of art and beauty, is deeply embedded in its philosophical, cultural, class, and gender-
specific contexts. Art cannot be separated from the culture and ideas surrounding it. Theories of art have
evolved over time, influenced by broader philosophical trends and societal changes. This dynamic nature of art
emphasizes that our understanding of aesthetics is always changing, not fixed.
Key Philosophical Trends Impacting Aesthetics
1. No Fixed Ontology: There's skepticism that we can ever define a singular, unchanging explanation of
human cognition or concerns. This means there isn’t one stable way to understand art, beauty, or human
interests.
2. Human Practices: Philosophical reflection must consider the contingent and often unspoken practices of
human life, acknowledging the fluid and variable nature of human experience.
3. No Canon: There’s no universal set of rules or principles in philosophy or art that can offer a systematic
solution to aesthetic questions.
Historical Development of Aesthetics
Aesthetics as a formal discipline began in the 18th century, although humans have created art long before this
time. Alexander Baumgarten, who coined the term "aesthetics," argued that humans perceive the world both
logically (e.g., "a thorn will hurt if it pricks me") and aesthetically (e.g., "this sunset is beautiful"). This division
marks how we distinguish between practical and purely aesthetic experiences.
Examples:
• Logical Perception: Knowing a thorn will hurt if touched.
• Aesthetic Perception: Enjoying a sunset for its beauty.
In modern aesthetics (from the Renaissance to the mid-20th century), the focus shifted toward the idea of "art
for art’s sake." Art was now appreciated aesthetically, detached from its practical purposes. This nonutilitarian
approach meant that artworks were created purely for aesthetic enjoyment, rather than serving a functional or
moral role.
Characteristics of Modernist Aesthetics
1. Nonutilitarian: Art isn’t created for practical purposes, but for enjoyment.
2. Disinterestedness: Viewers appreciate art without personal or selfish interests.
3. Aesthetic Appreciation: Art exists to be enjoyed aesthetically by adopting an aesthetic perspective.
4. Innovative Expression: Artists are seen as uniquely capable of expressing new ideas and visions.
5. Universal Access: Anyone can appreciate art, provided they adopt the aesthetic point of view.
Plato’s Imitation Theory
Plato’s theory of art is grounded in imitation, suggesting that art is twice removed from reality. According to
Plato:
• Forms: The highest level of reality, accessible only through intellect.
• Physical Objects: The sensory world, which imitates the world of Forms.
• Art: A reflection of the physical world, making it an imitation of an imitation, thus even further from the
true nature of things.
Example: A painting of a bed is not a bed itself but a copy of the physical bed, which is itself a reflection of the
ideal "Form of Bed." This makes art less real and less capable of conveying truth.
Shift in Aesthetic Theory (18th Century)
Philosophers like Hume and Kant shifted the focus of aesthetics from objective properties of beauty to
subjective experiences of taste. For Hume, beauty is not in the object but in the feeling it evokes, emphasizing
experience. Kant argued that while judgments of beauty are subjective, they possess universality and necessity
due to their form.
Examples:
• Hume: Beauty is a subjective feeling tied to human experience.
• Kant: Beauty, though subjective, follows universal principles of form and disinterestedness.
Postmodern Considerations
As we move into the postmodern era, we question whether art merely reflects the status quo or has the potential
to challenge and reshape it. Postmodern theories ask whether we are leaving behind traditional aesthetics in
favor of new ways of understanding and engaging with art.
The General idea of Aesthetic from each period
Development of Aesthetics
18th Century Foundations: The term "aesthetics" was coined by Alexander Baumgarten in the 18th century,
marking the formal study of aesthetic experience— the way humans approach and appreciate beauty.
Baumgarten distinguished between logical and aesthetic experience, where logical reasoning helps us navigate
practical matters, while aesthetic experience is about appreciating beauty for its own sake, like enjoying a
sunset or admiring art.
The idea of art as something to be appreciated aesthetically, rather than for utility or religious function, took
root during this period. This marked a departure from earlier notions where artworks, like Paleolithic cave
paintings or Native American carvings, were created for purposes beyond aesthetic appreciation.
19th Century and Expression Theory
In the 19th century, the Imitation Theory of art, where art was seen as a reflection or imitation of reality
(advocated by Plato and Aristotle), began to be challenged. Instead, Expression Theory emerged, suggesting
that art is not merely a copy of reality but an expression of the artist's emotions and internal experiences. This
view shifted the focus to the artist's role in creating works that convey deeper meanings, often tied to human
feelings and creativity.
Key Thinkers of the 19th Century:
• Nietzsche suggested that aesthetics had historically been "women’s aesthetics," focusing on the passive
reception of beauty rather than the active role of the artist in creation. He argued for a reevaluation of
aesthetics that emphasized the creator's power and expression, highlighting the artist's importance in
shaping meaning and culture.
The Earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713)
The Earl of Shaftesbury was pivotal in developing early modern aesthetic theory. He introduced the idea that
humans could appreciate beauty and art in a disinterested way, meaning without self-interest or practical
concerns. He argued that people could love things, like a sunset or a work of art, simply for their inherent
beauty.
Shaftesbury's notion of taste became central to 18th-century aesthetics, positing that taste is an inner sensation
or feeling that helps individuals discern beauty. This subjective experience of beauty contrasted with earlier
views that focused on beauty as an objective property of things.
His ideas influenced subsequent British philosophers like Hutcheson, Burke, and Alison, and ultimately,
Immanuel Kant, who synthesized these ideas into a more systematic theory of aesthetics.
Key Ideas in Modern Aesthetic Theory
1. Aesthetic Experience: Art and beauty are appreciated without concern for utility; they exist for
enjoyment.
2. Art as Non-Utilitarian: Art is not created for practical or functional purposes but for aesthetic pleasure.
3. Artists and Innovation: Artists provide unique insights into the world and human experience, often
innovating and pushing boundaries to express new ideas.
4. Taste and Judgment: According to Shaftesbury and later Kant, beauty can be appreciated by anyone who
adopts the proper "aesthetic point of view," emphasizing disinterestedness and contemplation.
5. Subjectivity of Beauty: As the 18th century progressed, beauty became seen as subjective, depending on
individual perception, taste, and cultural context. This shift led to more personalized and varied
understandings of art and aesthetics.
Examples:
• Plato’s Imitation Theory: Art, such as a painting of a bed, is an imitation of a physical bed, which is
itself an imitation of the ideal "Form" of a bed. Thus, art is twice removed from reality.
• Kant’s Aesthetic Judgment: When someone finds a painting beautiful, it is not because the painting
has some intrinsic quality but because it evokes a universal sense of pleasure, which Kant calls
"disinterested" since it isn’t tied to practical concerns.