Introduction

to Ergonomics

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Work’ Cycle

I go to work
To earn the money
To buy the bread
To gain the strength
To go to work 2
(Courtesy of E. Kamon, 1973)
 What is Ergonomics???

Common Definition

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What is Ergonomics???

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 What is Ergonomics???
• Ergonomics is concerned with the interaction between
human and technology

• Ergonomics integrates knowledge delivered from the

human science to match systems, environments,
jobs, and products to the physical and mental
abilities and limitation of people

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 Ergonomic
• Ergonomics, also known as human engineering or human factors
engineering, the science of designing machines, products, and
systems to maximize the safety, comfort, and efficiency of the
people who use them.
• Ergonomists draw on the principles of industrial engineering,
psychology, anthropometry (the science of human measurement),
and biomechanics (the study of muscular activity) to adapt the
design of products and workplaces to people’s sizes and shapes
and their physical strengths and limitations.
• Ergonomists also consider the speed with which humans react and
how they process information, and their capacities for dealing
with psychological factors, such as stress or isolation.

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 Ergonomic
• Ergonomist view people and the objects they use as one unit, and
ergonomic design blends the best abilities of people and
machines.
• Humans are not as strong as machines, nor can they calculate as
quickly and accurately as computers.
• Unlike machines, humans need to sleep, and they are subject to
illness, accidents, or making mistakes when working without
adequate rest.
• But machines are also limited—cars cannot repair themselves,
computers do not speak or hear as well as people do, and
machines cannot adapt to unexpected situations as well as
humans.
• An ergonomically designed system provides optimum performance
because it takes advantage of the strengths and weaknesses of
both its human and machine components.

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 Definition: Ergonomic
IEA (International Ergonomics Association)
”the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of the interactions among
human and other elements of a system, and
the profession that applies theory, principles,
data and methods to design in order to
optimize human well-being and overall system
performance”

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 Origin of Ergonomics
• The name ergonomics officially proposed at a
1949 meeting of the British Admiralty (July 12),
by Prof. Hugh Murrell. The name 'Ergonomics'
officially accepted in 1950.
• The name Ergonomics was derived from the
Greek words:
Ergon/ergos - work;
Nomikos/nomos - natural laws - control and
orderly assignment.

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 A Hierarchy of goals in
ergonomics
• To generate tolerable working conditions that
do not pose known dangers to human life or
health.
• To generate acceptable conditions
• To generate optimal conditions which are so
well adapted to human characteristics,
capabilities and desires that physical, mental
and social well-being is achieved

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 Anatomy Anthropometry Industrial Engineering
Orthopedics Biomechanics Bio-engineering
Physiology Work physiology Systems engineering
Medicine Industrial hygiene Safety engineering
Psychology Management Military engineering
Sociology Labor relations Computer Aided Design

Origins, developments and application of ergonomics

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 Typical losses from failure to apply
ergonomic
1. Lower production output
2. Increased lost time
3. Higher medical & material cost
4. Increased absenteeism
5. Low quality work
6. Injuries, strains
7. Increased probability of accidents & errors

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 Areas of involvement for
industrial ergonomic
1. Physical ergonomic
2. Information ergonomic
3. Design of work space and work method
4. Product design
5. Macroergonomics: job performance,
motivation job & worker

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[David Beevis, Ergonomics:cost and benefits revisit, Applied Ergonomics 34 (2003) 491-496]
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 Determining the costs

1. Personnel:
• Outside consultant
• Internal personnel
• Employee downtime
2. Equipments and material
3. Reduced productivity and sales
4. Overhead

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 Determining the benefits
1. Personnel-related
benefits
• Increased output per worker: work station
design, equipment redesign, software
redesign
• Reduced errors
• Reduced accidents, injuries and illness
• Reduced training time
• Reduced skill requirements
• Reduced maintenance time
• Reduced absenteeism
• Reduced turnover

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 Determining the benefits
2. Equipments and material
• Reduced scrap,
• Reduced equipment,
• Reduced production parts and materials,
• Reduced stocking and storage of parts,
• Reduced maintenance tools and materials,
• Reduced equipment damage

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 Factors leading to cost–
benefit ergonomic
interventions
• Real management commitment
• True professional ergonomics leadership
and expertise
• Participatory ergonomics

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 History of Ergonomics
• Ergonomics is not a new concept.
When humans first began to use
tools to accomplish tasks they
couldn't do with their bare
hands, they were practicing
ergonomics.
When they refined those tools
to function better, they were
practicing ergonomics.

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But Something Goes Terribly Wrong

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 History of Ergonomics

• Bernardino Ramazinni (1633-1714)

documenting the association between
occupations and musculoskeletal injuries
in the 1713 in his publication, "De Morbis
Artificum (Diseases of Workers)."

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 History of Ergonomics

• In the early 1900's, the production of

industry was still largely dependent on
human power/motion and ergonomic
concepts were developing to improve
worker productivity.

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 History of Ergonomics
• Frederick W. Taylor was
a pioneer of this
approach and evaluated
jobs to determine the
"One Best Way" they
could be performed.
At Bethlehem Steel, Taylor dramatically
increased worker production and wages in a
shoveling task by matching the shovel with
the type of material that was being moved
(ashes, coal or ore).
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 History of Ergonomics
• Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made jobs more
efficient and less fatiguing through time
motion analysis and standardizing tools,
materials and the job process.

By applying this approach, the

number of motions in bricklaying
was reduced from
18 to 4.5 allowing bricklayers to increase their pace of laying
bricks from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.
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 History of Ergonomics
Bad time for the mankind, Good start for Ergonomics

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 History of Ergonomics
Bad time for the mankind, Good start for Ergonomics

• World War II » » Win the Battle to Win the War

Prompted greater interest in human-machine
interaction as the efficiency of sophisticated
military equipment (i.e., airplanes) could be
compromised by bad or confusing design.
Design concepts of fitting the machine to the size
of the soldier and logical/understandable control
buttons evolved.

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 History of Ergonomics
• The word Ergonomics was coined in
1857, Prof. Wojciech Jastrzebowski
first derived it from the Greek words
ergon (work) & nomos (principle or law).
• In his original description, Jastrzebowski was careful to
point out that he intended "work" to have a very broad
meaning:
This Science of Work, understood as Work in the
comprehensive and integral sense, not merely its
part that is physical labor or toil, but physical,
aesthetic, rational, and moral work, that is Labor,
Entertainment, Reasoning, and Dedication … --
Wojciech Jastrzebowski, 1857
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 History of Ergonomics
• The name ergonomics officially proposed at a 1949
meeting of the British Admiralty, by Prof. Hugh
Murrell.

• The name 'Ergonomics' officially accepted in 1950.

• The Ergonomic Society was formed in 1952 with

people from psychology, biology, physiology, and
design in UK.

• The Human Factors Society was formed in 1957 in US.

Now evolve as Human Factor and Ergonomics Society
(HFES).

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 History of Ergonomics…

• In Europe  started with industrial

application
– Focus on well being of workers and
manufacturing productivity
– Ergonomics
• In US  developed from military
problems (Korean War – around 1950s)
– Enhance the system performance
– Human Factors Engineering
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 Timeline of Ergonomics

2000-
1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s
2010?

Military Ergonomics
Industrial Ergonomics
Consumer Product Ergonomics
HCI and Software Ergonomics
Cognitive and Macro Ergonomics
Eco and Pleasure Ergonomics?
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 World’ News
• The Good News:
Public awareness of the word "ergonomics"
in the world has increased dramatically
over the past few years.
• The Bad News:
Public understanding of what "ergonomics"
actually means is limited, and sometimes
very confused.
Creating Voodoo Ergonomics
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 Voodoo Ergonomics
Products / Work Systems were claimed as violating
ergonomics’ philosophy ergonomically design but
actually

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Voodoo Ergonomics

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Voodoo Ergonomics

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 The cost of BAD
ERGONOMICS

POOR WORKER LESS EFFICIENCY,

SATISFACTION PRODUCTIVITY

MOSTLY INCREASE IN ACCIDENT RATE,

BAD QUALITY  COST OF QUALITY

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 The cost of BAD
ERGONOMICS
• One day’s absence cost at least 2 – 3
times one day payment (Oxenburgh,
1991)
• Total cost of work related accidents and
illness in Industrial Country is 5-10% of
all industrial company trading profit (UK
Health & Safety Executive, 1995)

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 Economic Nature of
Ergonomics

Optimum use of human energy Higher performances

Regulation of Rest and

Higher productivity
Recovery

Elimination of Fatigue Better quality of product

Elimination of undue illness

Hygienic aspect of ergonomics
and absteeism
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 Success stories

Company Intervention Results

AT&T Global Workstation improvement, Health care costs reduced $1.48 million
training, conveyor system from 1990-1994.
changes.
Fieldcrest- Worker involvement in Cut MSDs from 121 in 1993 to 21 in
Cannon ergonomics interventions 1996.
3M. Implementation of full scale A 22% decrease in OSHA recordable
MSD program cases, a 58% decrease in lost-time cases
Four different Implementation of full scale One facility saw premiums drop from
nursing homes. MSD program $1.5 million to $770,000 while lost work
days fell from 573 to 12 over four years,
another facility saw premiums drop
from $750,000 to $184,000

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 ICs vs IDCs

• Ergonomics has played a role in many

Industrially Developed Countries (ICs).
→ Ergonomics Rule
How about Industrial Developing Country (IDCs)?
• In many Industrial Developing Country 
problem occurred with rapid industrialization

inappropriate Technology Transfer.
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• Equipment was made for one population
(northern European), is transferred to Oriental
population (with different anthropometric
size)
• Transferring equipment with all instructions in
the German language to a Taiwanese speaking
population.
• Lanza (1985) "The real cause of the Bhopal
tragedy is blind technology transfer. It is the
result of establishing a highly complex
chemical facility in a region with no extensive
history of technological evolution."
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41
 Effect of Aging on Man’
Performance

Under 30 30 - 45 Above 45

Try Weakly
Try Weekly
Tri Weekly
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 Economic Nature of
Ergonomics

Optimum use of human energy Higher performances

Regulation of Rest and

Higher productivity
Recovery

Elimination of Fatigue Better quality of product

Elimination of undue illness

Hygienic aspect of ergonomics
and absteeism
It doesn’t have to be hard
For almost every aspect of ergonomics we can address the issues on two
levels:
(1) as a subject for sophisticated science and

(2) as a matter of common sense.

It doesn’t have to be expensive
The expense of applying ergonomics can fall within a wide range.
- Some things are expensive, although they usually pay for
themselves in the long run.
- But many changes can be made with little or no cost.
It’s not necessarily new
The Twelve Simplified Principles of Ergonomics

• Providing background on the field of

ergonomics, itemized in twelve different
principles.
• Many of principles appear simple, but one
should not underestimate the power of a
few fundamental ideas applied
systematically.
The Twelve Simplified Principles of Ergonomics
• It is much more important to learn the
underlying principles rather than the details of
current prescriptions for specific problems.
– By learning the principles you will understand how
to evaluate changes in technology and new products
that will come to the market.
– The principles will help you to evaluate any task,
whether at home, in the office environment, or in
general industry.
– The principles will remains the same, even when
advancements in knowledge are made in the field of
ergonomics.
 The Twelve Simplified Principles of
Ergonomics
1. Work in neutral posture
2. Reduce excessive force
3. Keep everything in easy reach
4. Work at proper heights
5. Reduce excessive motion
6. Minimize fatigue and static load
7. Minimize pressure points
8. Provide clearance
9. Move, exercise, and stretch
10.Maintain a comfortable environment
11.Make display and controls understandable
12.Improve work organization
Work in Neutral Postures

Principle 1
 Maintain the “S-Curve” of
the Spine

Spinal column shaped like S.

Most important is slight “sway back” in lower back.
When standing, using a foot rest helps maintain this.
When sitting, good lumbar support.
 Not the S-curve.
It’s a C-curve, very
stressful on spine.
Improve by changing
work surface heights
and reaches.
Even worse, an inverted “V”
Get the load up off the floor.
For example, use a
scissors lift table.
Or use a tilter like this.
Or there may be more ways.
By the way, not necessarily
always feasible.
Point: think about potential
problems and what could be
done.
Also stressful to twist your back.
Change layouts, if possible.
 The Neck
Neck is part of back, part of S-curve.
Don’t bend or twist.
Adjust equipment so your neck is in neutral.

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Another example, sore
neck from cradling the
telephone.

Use phone cradles or

head sets.
Keep Elbows in and Shoulders Relaxed

Neutral posture for arms:

• elbows at sides,
• shoulders relaxed.

Seems obvious, but we

don’t always do it.
 Workstation example.

The product is too high:

Hunching up shoulders, The product is lowered:
Winging out elbows. Shoulders and elbows drop to
relaxed position. twijaya@ugm.ac.id
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 Keep Wrists in Neutral

Several ways to think about wrist posture:

One is keep hands in same plane as forearm.
Wrist rests help do this when typing or using mouse.
Ideally, the wrists/forearms should be
angled slightly in and forward.
Like hands on a steering wheel at 10
and 2 o’clock position.
 Example: tools

Pliers at left bends wrist. Pliers with angled grip

keeps wrist in neutral
posture.
Situations change depending upon the task.
• Here are two differently designed tools. Each is correct for
the application.
• Key is wrist posture. Look at the wrist to determine the right
tool.

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 Summary —
Neutral Postures

Neck straight

Shoulders relaxed

Elbows at sides

Wrists in neutral

Back with S-curve

 Point:
• To work smarter, work in
neutral postures
• Evaluate and modify:
– work method
– tools
– workstation design
Reduce Excessive Force

Principle 2
Example: pulling heavy cart
Improvements:
• Floor is in good repair,
• Wheels sufficiently large,
• Good grips on the cart,
• Power tugger.

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Example:
Use hoist for heavy objects.
Vacuum hoist in the slide.
Example:
Handholds on boxes or totes.
Handholds reduce exertion to
carry same amount of weight.
Final example:
Don’t use your hand as a fixture.
By holding item with one hand, then work on it with the other,
you work against yourself.
Don’t do work the hard way.
Easier to put item in a fixture.
Sometimes then possible to use both hands on tool to cuts
force even more.

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 Point:

• Think of what you do.

• Think of ways to reduce
excessive force.
• Thousands of ways, only some
examples here.
Keep Everything
in Easy Reach

Principle 3
 Reach Envelope

Good mental concept -- Reach Envelope.

Frequently-used items in reach envelope of arm.
Continuously-used items (keyboard, tools) in reach envelope
of forearms.
Example:
Move things closer; rearrange
layouts.
Not a hard concept to grasp.
What’s hard is being aware. We
do things because of habit.

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Example:
If work surface is too big, causing long
reach across, then:
One option -- get a smaller
surface.
Another option -- make a cutout

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Example:

Reaching into boxes. Tilt the box.

 Point:
• Try to be aware of when you
make long reaches.
• Think of improvements.
• Thousands of examples.
Work at Proper
Heights

Principle 4
 Most work at
elbow height
Height elbow drawing

(sitting or standing)
Height elbow hi/lo drawing

Exceptions:
Heavy = lower
Precision = higher
If work height is too high: If too low:
Cut down legs of bench or table. Extend the legs
Stand on a platform. Use a work twijaya@ugm.ac.id
platform 82
(a
riser).
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Reduce Excessive
Motions

Principle 5

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Use power tools whenever possible.

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Change layouts of equipment to eliminate motions.
Example: Box moved closer and tilted.
Sliding is better than picking up each time.

Before Aftertwijaya@ugm.ac.id
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Eliminate uneven surfaces and lips that create
wasted motion.
More examples possible, but you get the idea.

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Minimize Fatigue
and Static Load

Principle 6

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Writer’s cramp is good example
You don’t need to grip hard, just hold pencil for long time and
it hurts.
Use larger, friction grip helps.

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Another example: holding parts and tools continually.
Using a fixture eliminates the need to hold onto the part.

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Another example:
Holding arms overhead.
Neck and shoulder muscles
hurt.

Add extenders to tools.

Or change orientation of
work area if possible.

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Standing for long time
creates a static load on
legs.

A footrest allows
repositioning your legs.

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Minimize Pressure Points

Principle 7

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Example: Squeezing hard on a tool, like pliers.

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Add cushioned grip.
Contour the handles to fit the hand.

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Example: Leaning forearms against hard edge.
Round out the edge and pad it.

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We’ve all sat on hard chairs so understand about pressure
points.
A particularly vulnerable spot is behind knees, when your
legs dangle.
Also between top of thigh and the bottom of a table or center
drawer.

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 Standing on hard surface, like concrete, creates pressure
point on your feet.
Heels and feet can hurt.
Legs tire.

Use anti-fatigue mats.

Or special insoles in your
shoes.

So look for pressure points and possible improvements.

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Provide Clearance

Principle 8

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Need sufficient room for: Creates
head Bumping hazards.
torso Contorted postures.
arms Long reaches (especially if
knees lack
and feet. of knee space and toe
space).

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Being able to see is a version of
this principle.
Build equipment and design
tasks so that nothing blocks
your view.

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Move, Exercise,
Stretch

Principle 9

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Reducing motions, force, and awkward
postures doesn’t mean lying around
pushing buttons.
Your muscles need to be loaded.
Your heart needs to pump.
Your joints need to be stretched to
extreme ranges of motion.

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Different exercises can be
helpful.
• For physically demanding
jobs,
stretch and warm up before
strenuous activity.
• For sedentary job, take
quick
“energy breaks”
periodically.

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If you sit for long periods, shift
postures:
• Adjust seat up and down
during day.
• Move, stretch, and change
positions often.
• No one best posture
correct
for eight hours

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Maintain a
Comfortable
Environment

Principle 10

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 Lighting and Glare

Around computers, lighting is a big issue.

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Computer screen is highly reflective of inappropriate lighting.
Many tasks affected by poor lighting:
Glare.
Working in own shadow.
Insufficient light.
Task lighting helps.

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 Vibration

Dampening Material

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Make display and
controls
understandable

Principle 11

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 Design for expectations

To reduce errors when designing controls and displays,

one of the concepts is to use “stereotypes” and “standards.”
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 Common sources of
errors

Almost everyone has made errors related to issues of

cognitive ergonomics.
.
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 Common sources of errors

Most of the time, these mistakes are inconsequential.

But, it is fairly easy to grasp how in some similar situations
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serious accidents could occur

 Use patterns and visual cues

The human eye grasps patterns and graphic images well.

Information presented visually can often be understood
much more quickly and accurately than otherwise.
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Improve Work
Organization

Principle 12

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 Task design

Making work user-friendly includes more than just focusing

on physical issues such as proper heights and good lighting.
The underlying organization of work is an issue that can be
addressed with the basic concepts of ergonomics —
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design tasks to fit people.
Good management

Quit Complaining
Your Job Could Be Worse

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Putting on Your Ergonomics
Glasses

Basic idea:
See things in new
perspective.
Make improvements
based on these
principles.
Ergonomics does not need
to be hard.

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 Making Improvements

Based on ergonomics principles, you may have ideas.

- You may know your job better than anyone else.
Purpose of this program — have a framework for using ideas.
Not all ideas can be implemented, at least immediately.
- quick fixes
- long term. twijaya@ugm.ac.id
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Some improvements require a willingness to change habits.

 Fix and Adjust What You Can
Yourself

Learn to fix what you can yourself.

It doesn’t take a rocket scientist, it often takes presence 121of
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mind to be aware of what you are doing.

 Think Before You Work

We need to think about what we do.

Why do work the hard way?
We can learn to modify surroundings to make things easier.
For example, why put a load on the floor if you need to lift it up again?
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Put it on a waist-high surface instead.

Make Ergonomics
Part of Daily Worklife

More than a one shot process.

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Make ergonomics part of everyday work life.
 Supervisor’s Responsibilities

• Know the Basics of Ergonomics

• Know about CTDs

• Recognize Issues in Your Area

• Work With Employees to Make Changes

• Make Sure People with Problems Get

Medical Attention
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 What is Ergonomics???

• What makes a product or system an

"ergonomic" design?
• If ergonomics is merely “common
sense”, why is it so rare?
• What a design must have to be
“Ergonomic” ?
• What are the economics of ergonomics?
• Which is better, FTM or FMT ?

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