Physical Measurements

Some mathematics in physics

Significant figures

The importance of digits in a counted or measured number depends on who will be using
the number.

Example:

63 401 people attended a football match at Kr 10 per person. How important/crucial are
the digits 4 and 1 when you report this number to;

a) the stadium fire fighters;

(All lives are important and must be saved. Report 63 401)
b) your friend when you tell him about attendance;
(4, 1 are NOT important. Report 63 000)
c) the stadium’s finance department who collect the gate charges.
(1 is worth Kr. 10 so it is not so crucial. Report 63 400)
The significant figures in a value/result is the number of figures that are (or need to be)
known with some degree of reliability. So, 63401 has 5 significant figures, 63000 has 2
significant figures and 63400 has 3 significant figures. The measurement 13.2 grams has 3
significant figures, but 13.20 grams has 4 significant figures. How is that?

Rules for deciding how many significant figures are in a number.

Number without a decimal point: Start at A number with a decimal point: Start at
the RIGHT and count, beginning with the the far LEFT and count all digits,
first non-zero digit. beginning with the first non-zero digit.
Examples: 340 2 s.f.
Examples: 340 ∙ 3 s.f.
30400 3 s.f.
30400 ∙ 5 s.f.
34955 5 s.f.
0 ∙ 00055 2 s.f.

Rules for Mathematical operations

In carrying out calculations, the general rule is that the accuracy of a calculated result is
limited by the least accurate measurement involved in the calculation. Thus;

1. Addition and subtraction: the result is rounded off to the last common digit
occurring furthest to the right in the components. Example:
101 (3 s.f.) + 23.643 (5 s.f.) = 124.643, rounds-off to 125 (3 s.f.)
2. Multiplication and division: the result must round-off to the same number of sig.
figures as in the number in the expression with the lowest significant figures.
Example:
3.0 (2 s.f.) × 12.60 (4 s.f.) = 37.8, rounds-off to 38 (2 s.f.)

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Significant figures with Mixed Operations
• When processing work that involves multiplication and/or division; complete
the entire calculation then round the answer to the correct number of
significant figures at the end.
• The same is true for calculations involving only additions and/or subtraction.
• However, if the calculations involve mixed operation – multiplication/division
with addition/subtraction, then we must follow BODMAS/BEDMAS/PEMDAS.

Scientific Notation
Definition:

A very large or very small n umber, 𝑁 can often be expressed in

scientific notation: 𝑎 × 10%

Here; 1 ≤ 𝑎 < 10.

That is, 𝑎 is a number between 1 and 10 (including 1)
with the same digits, in the same order as 𝑁.
and 𝑘 ∈ ℤ.
If 𝑁 > 10, then 𝑘 is a positive integer;
If 1 ≤ 𝑁 < 10, then 𝑘 = 0;
If 𝑁 < 1, then 𝑘 is a negative integer.

Example: 6500 in scientific notation = 6.5 × 10! ;

0.000058 in scientific notation = 5.8 × 10"# ;
73500 in scientific notation = 7.35 × 10# ;
0.015 in scientific notation = 1.5 × 10"$ .

Addition and subtraction in scientific notation:

Before numbers in scientific notation can be added or subtracted, the exponents must be
equal.

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Multiplication and Division in scientific notation:

Multiplication: Multiply
the main numbers and add
the exponents according to
laws of exponents

Division: Divide the main

numbers and subtract the
exponents according to
laws of exponents

Prefixes
This is another way to shorten very large or very small numbers.

A prefix is a word that comes before another. E.g. anti in anticlockwise; pro in
progovernment.

The prefixes used in mathematics and science have assigned number values in powers of
10. The kilo as in kilogram and the milli as used in millimeter have values of 1000 (or 10! )
and 0.001 (or 10"! ) respectively.

This means that;

“three thousand meters” à 3000 m à 3 × 10! m. à 3km.

Here, 𝑘 represents the prefix 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 ≡ 1000 ≡ 10! .

Below are some of the important prefixes used regularly in Mathematics and the Physics.

These are the metric division of

moves the decimal
Going up the table

physical quantities. The letters

to the left

in the second column are

symbols for the prefixes, usually
placed before the type of
physical quantity. Some
decimal to the right

common physical quantities are;

Going down the
table moves the

grams (g), meters (m), seconds

(s), Joules (J) and bytes (B).

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Examples

Orders of Magnitudes

The common method of estimating quantities in mathematics and physics is

to rounding-off the quantity to the nearest units or tens or hundreds, etc.

Example: 29.1 ≈ 29, to the nearest unit, but also 29.1 ≈ 30 to the nearest tens.

Another way to estimate quantities, is to express them as integer powers of 10.

That is; 𝐴 ≈ 10& , where n is a rounded integer,{… , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … }.

To express a number, 𝐴 in orders of magnitude, express it as,

𝐴 = 10 '()!" *

with the exponent, “log+, 𝐴” rounded to the nearest integer.

The value of “log+, 𝑁” is determined on your Graphics calculator:

Thus, 57 = 10'()!" #- = 10+.-##/ ≈ 10$

That is, 57 is estimated to be 10$ in orders of magnitude.
Example: Express the mass of the Earth, 5.98 × 10$0 𝑘𝑔 in orders of magnitude.
Solution: 10'()!" #.1/ × 10$0 = 10,.--2- × 10$0 = 10$0.--2- ≈ 10$# 𝑘𝑔.

Questions: Express in orders of magnitude;

(a) the mass of an electron, 9.11 × 10"!+ 𝑘𝑔.
(b) the radius of the Earth, 6.37 × 102 𝑚.

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SI Units
The International system of measurement (SI units)

Our study of physics will conform to

Système international d’Unités (SI), the
world’s standard for all measurement
practices. The SI units (metric system) will
be used for all measurement.

Fundamental measures (or quantities) and units:

There are seven basic (fundamental) quantities and their units, including luminous
intensity, measured in candela (cd).

In the IB however, we are concerned only with the six listed below.

Fundamental quantity Unit Symbol

Length, 𝑙 meter m
mass, 𝑀 kilogram kg
time, 𝑡 second s
electric current, 𝐼 ampere A
thermodynamic temperature, 𝑇 kelvin K
amount of substance, 𝑛 mole mol

Derived measures and their units:

All other SI quantities and their units, not listed above, are derived from the fundamental
units above.

Area, volume and density which are discussed next, are examples of derived quantities.

Derived quantity Base Units Symbol

Area, 𝐴 𝑚×𝑚 𝑚$

volume, 𝑉 𝑚×𝑚×𝑚 𝑚!

𝑘𝑔
density, 𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑚"!
𝑚×𝑚×𝑚

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Mistakes, Errors and Uncertainties
Accuracy and precision.

In a particular long-range rifle competition, the

primary aim is to hit the bull’s eye with all the 6
pellets (bullets) issued in a round.
A perfect shot would be achieved if all shots (say 6)
hit the center of the board (bull’s eye)

Consider the following results for competitors A, B, C and D.

Competitor A Competitor B Competitor C Competitor C

Questions to consider;
1. Who is the best shot? Who is the worst?
2. Arrange the competitors from best to
worst.
3. Who has made the smallest error? What is the difference!
4. Who are the two most reliable or certain Mistake, Error, an
shots (least uncertain)? uncertainty!
5. For whom would you use the term, “most
accurate”?
6. For whom would you use the term, “most
precise”?
7. Compare A and B. Who is the better
shot? precise accurate
8. Compare B and D. Is D a better shot than
B? What factors outside the competitors’
control might have contributed to the
differences seen for B and D?

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Mistakes, Errors and Uncertainties in Measurement:

Mistakes: faults that can be avoided by a careful and properly trained experimenter.

Errors: faults that cannot be completely eliminated but can be minimized.

Two ways a zero offset error may occur (positive and negative offset errors

There are two types of errors.

1 Systematic errors and Accuracy: systematic errors are due to faults and
instabilities in our measuring system and surrounding conditions (e.g. erroneous
instruments, varying environmental conditions such as temperature or pressure, air
movement, etc.)

Examples: zero-of-set errors on an instrument; incorrectly calibrated instrument;

parallax error, varying temperature or pressure conditions; rotational effect of earth
at different points on the earth’s surface; proximity of moon, etc.

Note: It is difficult to reduce systematic errors during the course of the experiment
but they can easily be factored-in during analysis.

Systematic errors affect the accuracy of our results.

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2 Random error: errors due to the randomness in the taking of a measurement.

Example: the difference in our perception during observations; physiological factors

such as human reaction time means we will record different values of ‘time-interval’
for the same event. E.g. dropping a tennis ball from a known height on to the floor
and allowing 5 different students to record the time taken using a stopwatch. All
students will likely have different readings!

Random errors can be reduced by repeated measurement. Random errors cannot be

eliminated from an experimental measurement.

3 Minimizing errors: in general, adopting the following procedures can minimize

errors

(i) The magnitude of the quantity to be measured should be as large as possible

Thus instead of measuring once, the time for an oscillation of a pendulum bob,
measure the time taken for 20 oscillations and divide the measurement by 20.

(ii) The least count of the measuring instrument should be as small as possible

So to measure the thickness of a standard exercise book, use a Vanier caliper

instead of a meter rule; and a micrometer screw gauge instead of a Vanier
caliper.

(iii) A large number of readings should be taken and the average value should be
determined. The average value is the best estimate of the magnitude of the
quantity being measured.

Uncertainties

is a measure of the degree of confidence (certainty) we have on a measurement based on

the measuring instrument used, and consequently, the confidence we have on the results
when those readings are used in calculations.

𝐴 𝐵

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

Neither of the two rulers gives the exact reading for the length of the pencil but their.
Which ruler gives a reading that is closer to the exact reading? Why is this?

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Uncertainties in Analogue and Digital Measuring Instruments

Analogue vs digital devices

Analogue device: An instrument like a liquid-in-glass thermometer,

whose reading varies continuously over its full range.

A digital device: An instrument whose reading varies in equal

minimum-steps over a range.

Digital devices are free from observational errors such as parallax

error and approximation errors.

The ability of a measurement to take measurements is limited by its least count i.e. the
smallest graduation on its scale.

What is the least count of each of the instruments shown below?

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Analogue measuring instruments: for these instruments, the uncertainty of a
measurement is equal to half the limit (least count) of the scale.

Example:
In a meter rule the least count is 0.1 cm (1mm) and so the uncertainty in measurement
made using the rule is;

0.1
𝑐𝑚 = 0.05𝑐𝑚 (𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑚𝑚)
2

Instrument Limit of Measurement Uncertainty

Metre rule 0.1 cm ±0.05 cm
Vernier calipers 0.01 cm ±0.005 cm
Micrometer screw gauge 0.001 cm ±0.0005 cm

Digital Measuring Instrument: for these instruments, the uncertainty is the limit (least
count) of the reading.

Thus it is easy to decide the uncertainty through the number of decimal places on the
display window. See examples below.

A s
Ammeter reading for current in milliamps: Stopwatch recording time in seconds:
54.3 ± 0.1 𝐴 28.60 ± 0.01 𝑠

g
Electronic balance recording mass in grams:
29.731 ± 0.001 𝑔

Note that unlike in analogue devices, the limit of reading (the

least count) for the digital instruments or devices,
respectively 0.1 𝐴, 0.01𝑠 and 0.001 𝑔, are also directly the instrument uncertainties.

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Summary Comparison

Accuracy Precision

Definition How close an experimental result is How close together the trial values are in
to the true or standard (literature) a measurement.
value.
Causes Affected by systematic errors in an Affected/evidenced by random
experiment: parallax errors, zero- uncertainties and quality of measuring
offset errors, a constant external instrument. A micrometer provides more
offset factor like temperature, precise readings than a Vernier calipers
pressure, wind, vibration, etc.
Nature If it is less accurate, then it has If it is less precise then it has more
more errors uncertainty
Example Suppose Suppose five trials of a measurement
with Literature value: 𝑥 are; 𝑥+ , 𝑥$ , 𝑥! , 𝑥0 and 𝑥# , so that;
equations Experimental value: 𝑥3 𝑥+ and 𝑥# are the smallest and largest
Then; absolute error, ∆𝑥 is; trial values respectively,
∆𝑥 = |𝑥 − 𝑥3 | Then absolute uncertainty is;
Percentage error, ∆𝑥 % is; 𝑥# − 𝑥+
∆𝑥 =
∆𝑥 |𝑥 − 𝑥3 | 2
∆𝑥% = × 100% = × 100% Percentage uncertainty is;
𝑥 𝑥
∆𝑥
∆𝑥% = × 100%
𝑥̅
Where 𝑥̅ is the experimental mean of 𝑥+ ,
𝑥$ , 𝑥! , 𝑥0 and 𝑥# .
Example Measurement of gravitational field Different trial measurements of 𝑔:
with real strength (gravity):
data Literature value, 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑁𝑘𝑔"+ Gravitational field strength, 𝑔3
Experimental value, 𝑔3 = 10.36 𝑁𝑘𝑔"+
Trial1 Trial2 Trial3 Trial4 Trial5
Absolute error in the experiment:
∆𝑔 = |𝑔 − 𝑔3 | 7.94 8.95 9.59 11.30 12.07
= |9.81 − 10.36|
= |−0.55| Mean (average) experimental value;
= 0.55 7.94 + 8.95 + 9.59 + 11.30 + 12.07
𝑔̅ =
Note: 𝑔 and ∆𝑔 MUST be to the 5
same number of decimal places. 49.85
=
Percentage error is; 5
∆𝑔 𝑔̅ = 9.97 𝑁𝑘𝑔"+
∆𝑔 % = × 100% The absolute uncertainty is;
𝑔
0.55 12.07 − 7.94 4.13
∆𝑔 % = × 100% ∆𝑔 = =
9.81 2 2
∆𝑔 % = 5.6 %. ∆𝑔 = 2.07 𝑁𝑘𝑔"+
Reflection: An error of ~ 6 % is Hence percentage uncertainty is
2.07
considered large (in most lab ∆𝑔 % = × 100%
experiments) and so we would 9.97
∆𝑔 % = 20.8%.
conclude that our experimental
result of 𝑔 =10.36 Nkg-1 is
Reflection: The percentage uncertainty
inaccurate. There were systematic
is too large. The result is imprecise, and
errors incurred during the
the experimental procedure must have
experiment. A 5% error is
suffered too many random errors.
considered the boundary for
accuracy (debatable).

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Key physical quantities

Length, 𝑙
Different names are used to describe different types of length, but they are all just length.

Examples: width, height, circumference, diameter, radius, distance, thickness, diagonal,

depth, breadth, etc.

Definition: length is the distance between two point in space.

SI Unit: meter (m)

Multipliers: centimeter (cm); millimeter (mm), kilometer (km)

Measuring instrument: rule, measuring tape, vernier calipers, micrometer screw-gauge.

Area, 𝐴
Definition: the two-dimensional expanse of a surface.
Nature: area is a quantity derived (formed) from the fundamental quantity, length.
SI unit: square meter, 𝑚$ .
Multipliers: 𝑐𝑚$ , 𝑚𝑚$ , 𝑘𝑚$ .

Conversion: Since the length, 1 𝑐𝑚 = 10 𝑚𝑚,

1cm
10mm
$ $
⇒ 1 𝑐𝑚 = 100 𝑚𝑚
Also, since, 1𝑚 = 100𝑐𝑚 = 1000𝑚𝑚,
1cm 10mm
⇒ (1𝑚)$ = (100𝑐𝑚)$ = (1000𝑚𝑚)$ ,
That is; 1𝑚$ = 10 000 𝑐𝑚$ = 1 000 000 𝑚𝑚$ 1𝑐𝑚 × 1𝑐𝑚 = 10𝑚𝑚 × 10𝑚𝑚

Calculation: Area of a rectangle, 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑙𝑤

Area of circle of radius 𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 $

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Volume and Capacity, 𝑉

Definitions: the volume of a substance is the space it occupies. Note: The term “Volume”
is used when referring to
the capacity of a container is the maximum volume a substance. The term
of substance it can hold. “capacity” is used in
reference to the container.
Nature: volume (and capacity) is a quantity derived from the However, both are a
measure of space and
fundamental quantity length. have the same unit.
SI unit: cubic meter 𝑚! .
Multipliers: 𝑚𝑚! , 𝑐𝑚! , litre (𝑙), 𝑚𝑙
Conversion: 1 𝑐𝑚! = 1𝑚𝑙; 1 𝑙 = 1000 𝑐𝑚! = 1000 𝑚𝑙

Measurement of Volume
Because their physical properties are The beaker has
different, the volume of solids, liquids and a measurable
capacity of
gases are measured using differing
400 ml (or 400
methods.
cm3).
Volume of a liquid … containing a
liquid of volume
Unlike a solid which is rigid, a liquid takes 350 ml.
the shape of the container in which it is
placed. This fact is used in making volume
measuring containers like measuring
cylinders, beakers and other graduated
containers.

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Volume of an irregular solid (a random stone):

Use a measuring cylinder and the displacement concept;

“a solid will displace its own volume when fully immersed in a liquid”.

1. Pour a sufficient amount of

Measuring
water in a measuring cylinder cylinder
and record the reading of the
meniscus, 𝑉+ .

2. Slowly lower the stone into the

water using a string.
𝑉$
3. Water level rises.
𝑉+
4. Record the new reading on the water
meniscus, 𝑉$ .
stone
5. The volume of the stone, V is
then calculated as;

𝑉 = 𝑉! − 𝑉" = 10 − 7 = 3 𝑚𝑙

An alternative displacement method involves a displacement can;

The diagram on the side shows a Displacement-Can and a measuring cylinder being
used to measure the volume of the water displaced when a stone is placed in the Can.
1. The Can is first placed on a
horizontal stable surface, filled
with water until excess water
Displacement
starts to drip out through the
can spout
spout.
2. When dripping stops, a beaker
is placed below the spout and
the stone carefully lowered
into the can.
3. The water displaced by the
stone flows out through the
spout into the measuring
cylinder.
4. The volume of the displaced
water in the measuring
cylinder is also the volume of
the stone.

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Volume of regular solids
For regular solids, measure the dimension (length, width, height, radius etc.) then use an
appropriate formula to find volume. Below are some common solids and their respective
volume formulas.

𝑉 = 𝑙# 𝑉 =𝑙×𝑤×ℎ

4 1 !
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ! ℎ 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 # 𝑉= 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
3 3

Matter and Mass

Matter

Definition: Matter is anything that occupies space.

All kinds of matter (substances) are built from atoms of one or more
types, or groups of atoms called molecules.

The diagrams illustrate how hydrogen and oxygen atoms combine to form
a water molecule.

Carbon monoxide

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Mass, m

Definition: The mass of a body is the amount

of matter it has.

That is, being more massive means

having more particles (atoms or
molecules). This explains why for
the same sizes, a metal is heavier
(more massive) than wood.

Nature: mass is a fundamental (basic)

quantity

SI unit: kilogram (kg)

Multipliers: gram (g), ton (t)

Conversion: 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛 ≡ 1 000 𝑘𝑔, 1 𝑘𝑔 ≡ 1 000 𝑔

Measurement:

Mass is measured using a beam balance, top-pan balance

beam balance Top-pan balance

It is expected that you can estimate the masses of the most common objects around you.

Object Mass Order of magnitude

Full grown man 70 kg 10$ kg
A saloon car 1500 kg 10! kg
An apple 100 g 10$ g
a sheet of paper (A4) 5g 10+ g
Candy 20 g 10+ g
A grain of sand/salt 1 mg 10, mg
A cup of coffee 300 g 10$ g

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Weight, W

Definition: the force of pull of the Earth on objects. Wait! My mass is 50 kg,
so the Earth is pulling me
For an object with a mass m (kg), the weight is;
downwards with a force
of about 500 N
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

where 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑁 𝑘𝑔"+ is the Earth’s gravitational field

strength. What is your weight?

The gravitational field strength of a planet is the force of

pull it exerts on 1 kg mass.

The gravitational field strength for some celestial bodies are provided below.

Body Grav. field strength, g (N/kg) 3 s.f.

Earth 9.81
Earth’s Moon 1.67

Jupiter 25.9
Mars 3.73

Values for other planets and moons can be found here.

If you stood on the Moon, what would your weight be, same, smaller or larger than your
wait here on Earth?

Density, 𝜌
Definition: density refers to how tightly packed matter is.

That is, the number of particles of matter

(mass) in a given space (volume)

baseball rubber ball

The higher the density of packing, the more the density

LOW Increasing density HIGH

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Mathematically,

mass, 𝑚 𝑚
density, 𝜌 = ⟺ 𝜌=
𝑣olume, 𝑉 𝑉

Notes: Since density refers to mass in a specified volume (1 𝑚! 𝑜𝑟 1 𝑐𝑚! , the density of a
particular substance is the same no matter how much of the substance there is.

Densities of some common substances

• Density is different for different substances because

- atoms arrange themselves differently in different substances.
- atoms have different sizes.
- smaller atoms tend to pack closer leaving fewer empty
spaces than larger atoms.
• The more dense a substance is, the heavier it will tend to be.

Substance Density, 𝜌 (𝑔 𝑐𝑚"! ) Density, 𝜌 (𝑘𝑔𝑚"! )

water (at STP) 1.0 1000

sand 2.32 2320
alcohol 0.79 790
iron 7.86 7860
aluminium 2.70 2700
air (at STP) 0.0013 1.3
wood (Oak) 0.71 710
lead 11.34 11 340
mercury 13.59 13 590
gold 19.3 19 300

Explaining the density tower

More dense substances have more particle

concentration in them and so tend to be heavier
than the less dense substances.

It is for this reason that a nail (steel) sinks in

water while cooking oil or wood floats on it.

The density tower of liquids utilizes this fact.

Question: Which is more dense, grape or cork?

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