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 Ê



 



OBJECTIVES:
’ Convert measurements to scientific notation.
’ Distinguish among accuracy, precision, and
error of a measurement.
’ Determine the number of significant figures in
a measurement and in a calculated answer.
 ?

x ¦

 measurements are words, such
as heavy or hot
x ¦

 measurements involve
numbers (quantities), and depend on:
1) The reliability of the measuring instrument
2) the care with which it is read ± this is
determined by YOU!
x Ê 


x Coefficient raised to power of 10

x Reviewed earlier this semester!









x It is necessary to make good,
reliable measurements in the lab
x Accuracy ± how close a
measurement is to the true value
x Precision ± how close the
measurements are to each other
(reproducibility)
 







^either Precise, Precise

accurate but not A^D
nor precise accurate accurate








x Accepted value = the correct
value based on reliable
references
x Experimental value = the
value measured in the lab








x Error = accepted value ± exp. value
x Can be positive or negative
x Percent error = the 6
6 of
the error divided by the accepted value,
then multiplied by 100%
| error |
   º

accepted value
J  


è ?easurements are performed with
instruments, and no instrument can read to
an infinite number of decimal places
‡J
  
   has the
greatest uncertainty in measurement?
 Ê
 


 
?

x Ê 


 in a
measurement include all of the
digits that are known, plus one
more digit that is estimated.
x ?easurements must be reported
to the correct number of
significant figures.
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^on-zeros always count as

^on-
significant figures:

3456 has
4 significant figures
 Œm 

Ê
 




-eros
Leading zeroes do not count as
significant figures:

0.0486 has
3 significant figures
 Œm 

Ê
 




-eros
Captive zeroes always count as
significant figures:

16.07 has
4 significant figures
 Œm 

Ê
 



-eros
Trailing zeros are significant only
if the number contains a
written decimal point:

9.300 has
4 significant figures
 Œm 

Ê
 



Two special situations have an
 

 number of significant
figures:
1. Counted items
a) 23 people, or 425 thumbtacks
2. Exactly defined quantities
b) 60 minutes = 1 hour
 Sig Fig Practice #1
How many significant figures in the following?

1.0070 m  5 sig figs

17.10 kg  4 sig figs
100,890 L  5 sig figs These come
from
3.29 x 103 s  3 sig figs measurements
0.0054 cm  2 sig figs
3,200,000  2 sig figs
This is a
‰   
 counted value
 Ê
 


 
m


 
x In general a calculated answer cannot
be more precise than the 6



 measurement from which it
was calculated.
x Ever heard that a chain is only as
strong as the weakest link?
x Sometimes, calculated values need to
be §.
 Π
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x Π 
x Decide    significant figures
are needed (more on this very soon)
x Round to that many digits, counting
from the

x Is the next digit less than 5? Drop it.

x ^ext digit 5 or greater? Increase by 1

 












 
 
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x Addition and Subtraction
x The answer should be
rounded to the same number
of  


 as the

  number of decimal
places in the problem.
 



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x ?ultiplication and Division
x Round the answer to the
same number of  



 as the least number of
significant figures in the
problem.
 



ŒÊ
 


 
?
 


!
 

?ultiplication and Division:

Division: # sig
figs in the result equals the number
in the
 §
 measurement
used in the calculation.

6.38 x 2.0 =
12.76  13 (2 sig figs)
 Ê




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 Ú
 
 
Ú
   
 
  


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Ú 


Ú
Ú  
   

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Addition and Subtraction:
Subtraction: The
number of decimal places in the
result equals the number of decimal
places in the
 §

measurement.

6.8 + 11.934 =
18.734  18.7 (3 sig figs)
figs)
 Ê




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Ú Ú 
  Ú
 
 
Ú
 
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>^ote the zero that has been added.
 Ê
 
 
 

Ê 
OBJECTIVES:
’ListSI units of
measurement and common
SI prefixes.
 Ê
 
 
 

Ê 
OBJECTIVES:
’Distinguish
between the
6

and 
 of an
object.
 Ê
 
 
 

Ê 
OBJECTIVES:
’Convert between the
Celsius and Kelvin
temperature scales.
 
 
Ê
 
x ?easurements depend upon
units that serve as reference
standards
x The standards of measurement
used in science are those of the
?etric System
 
 
Ê
 
x ?etric system is now revised and
named as the International System
of Units (SI), as of 1960
x It has simplicity, and is based on
10 or multiples of 10
x




but only five
commonly used in chemistry: meter,
kilogram, kelvin, second, and mole.
 

Ê 
$%Ê&
 
Ê'
 ^
?

?

 


 
 





















x Part 1 ±  

x Part 2 - scale (unit)

x Examples:
x  grams
x  

 Joule seconds
 
 
Ê
 
x Sometimes, non-SI units are used
x Liter, Celsius, calorie
x Some are 
 units
x They are made by joining other units

x Speed = miles/hour (distance/time)

x Density = grams/mL (mass/volume)

 %

x In SI, the basic unit of length is
the 
 
x Length is the distance
between two objects ±
measured with ruler
x We make use of prefixes for
units larger or smaller
 Ê ( 

)*
mm  



 ?
 



Kilo- k thousand 103
Deci- d tenth 10-1
Centi- c hundredth 10-2
?illi- m thousandth 10-3
?icro- ¦ millionth 10-6

^ano- n billionth 10-9

 i
x The space occupied by any sample
of matter.
x Calculated for a solid by multiplying
the length x width x height; thus
derived from units of length.
x SI unit = 


 
x Everyday unit = Liter (L), which is
non-SI. (^ote: 1mL = 1cm)
 À+
?
 

%  i
x raduated cylinders
x Pipets
x Burets
x Volumetric Flasks
x Syringes
  im

,
x Volumes of a solid, liquid, or gas
will ק

 increase with
temperature
x ?uch more prominent for ASES
x Therefore, measuring instruments
are calibrated for a specific
temperature, usually 
,
which is about room temperature
  ?

x ?
 is a measure of the
quantity of matter present
x J
×  is a force that
measures the pull by gravity- it
changes with location
x ?ass is constant, regardless of
location
 J- 
  ?

x The SI unit of mass is the


  even though a
more convenient everyday
unit is the gram
x ?easuring instrument is the
balance scale
  

Temperature is a measure of how
?




hot or cold an object is.


 

Heat moves from the object at the
higher temperature to the object at
the lower temperature.
We use two units of temperature:
’ Celsius ± named after Anders Celsius
’ Kelvin ± named after Lord Kelvin
  

Celsius scale defined by two readily
determined temperatures:
’ Freezing point of water = 0 C
’ Boiling point of water = 100 C
Kelvin scale does not use the degree
sign, but is just represented by K
‡ absolute zero = 0 K (thus no negative values)

‡ formula to convert: K = C + 273

 



  

Energy is the capacity to do work,
or to produce heat.
Energy can also be measured, and
two common units are:
1) Joule (J) = the SI unit of energy,
named after James Prescott Joule
2) calorie (cal) = the heat needed to
raise 1 gram of water by 1 C
  

Conversions between joules
and calories can be carried
out by using the following
relationship:
1 cal = 4.184 J
 Ê
   
     
OBJECTIVE:
’ Construct conversion factors from equivalent
measurements.
’ Apply the techniques of dimensional analysis to a
variety of conversion problems.
’ Solve problems by breaking the solution into
steps.
’ Convert complex units, using dimensional
analysis.
 Conversion factors
A ³ratio´ of equivalent measurements
Start with two things that are the same:
one meter is one hundred centimeters
write it as an equation
1 m = 100 cm
We can divide on each side of the
equation to come up with two ways of
writing the number ³1´
m   



 

 

 

m   




 


m   




 





 

m   




 



 

 m+ 


A unique way of writing the number 1
In the same system they are defined
quantities so they have an 



§
×

 
ק
Equivalence statements always have
this relationship:
big # small unit = small # big unit
1000 mm = 1 m
 Practice by writing the two
possible conversion factors for
the following:
Between kilograms and
grams
between feet and inches
using 1.096 qt. = 1.00 L
 What are they good for?
We can multiply by the number ³one´
creatively to change the units.
Question: 13 inches is how many yards?
We know that 36 inches = 1 yard.
1 yard = 1
36 inches
13 inches x 1 yard =
36 inches
 What are they good for?
l J 

 
   
 

    
l 

    

 
 
l     


l

 

  
l
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 Conversion factors

Called conversion factors

because they allow us to
convert units.
really just multiplying by
 , in a creative way.
 Dimensional Analysis
A way to analyze and solve problems,
by using units (or dimensions) of the
measurement
Dimension = a unit (such as g, L, mL)
Analyze = to solve
’ Using the units to solve the problems.
If the units of your answer are right,
chances are you did the math right!
 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis provides an
alternative approach to problem solving,
instead of with an equation or algebra.
A ruler is 12.0 inches long. How long is
it in cm? ( 1 inch = 2.54 cm)
How long is this in meters?
A race is 10.0 km long. How far is this in
miles, if:
’ 1 mile = 1760 yards
’ 1 meter = 1.094 yards
 Converting Between Units
Problems in which measurements with
one unit are converted to an equivalent
measurement with another unit are
easily solved using dimensional
analysis
Sample: Express 750 dg in grams.
?any complex problems are best
solved by breaking the problem into
manageable parts.
 Converting Between Units
Let¶s say you need to clean your car:
1) Start by vacuuming the interior
2) ^ext, wash the exterior
3) Dry the exterior
4) Finally, put on a coat of wax
‡ What problem-solving methods can help
you solve complex word problems?
ƒ Break the solution down into steps, and
use more than one conversion factor if
necessary
 Converting Complex Units?
Complex units are those that are
expressed as a ratio of two units:
’ Speed might be meters/hour

Sample: Change 15 meters/hour

to units of centimeters/second
How do we work with units that
are squared or cubed? (cm to m,
etc.)
 


 Ê
 *
À 

OBJECTIVES:
’Calculate the density of a
material from experimental
data.
 Ê
 *
À 

OBJECTIVES:
’Describe how density
varies with temperature.
 À 
x Which is heavier- a pound of lead
or a pound of feathers?
x ?ost people will answer lead, but
the weight is exactly the same
x They are normally thinking about
equal volumes of the two
x The relationship here between
mass and volume is called Density
 À 
x The formula for density is:
mass
À

volume
‡ Common units are:  , or
possibly  , (or  for gas)
‡ Density is a physical property, and
does not depend upon sample size
 
 







 


 À 



x What happens to the density as the
temperature of an object increases?
x ?ass remains the same

x ?ost substances increase in volume

as temperature increases
x Thus, density generally decreases
as the temperature increases
 À 
J

x 

is an important exception to
the previous statement.
x Over certain temperatures, the
volume of water increases as the
temperature decreases (Do you
want your water pipes to freeze in
the winter?)
x Does ice float in liquid water?
x Why?