2 Main Cell Types of Nervous System:

1. Neurons – building blocks of nervous systems

 Electrically excitable cells
 Contains cell bodies and specialized cells that can send and receives electrical signals using their
long extensions called axons
 Axons – long thin fiber that carry signals away from the cells to other neurons
 Long extensions
 Nerve – collections of many axons bundled together outside the brain and the spinal cord
 Carry electrical signals from our body going to brain and spinal cord
 Cranial Nerves – 12 pairs - originate from the brain
 Control senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste...)
 Spinal Nerves – 31 pairs – originate from the spinal cord
 Control movements, sensation, and reflexes
 Ganglia – cluster of cell bodies outside the brain and spinal cord
 Relay signals between the brain and the spinal cord
 Plexus – bundle of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
 Supply the nerves in different parts of out body
2. Glial – for supports and protections for our neurons
 Maintain blood brain barriers that protects our brain from harmful substances

Functions of Nervous Systems

1. Maintaining Homeostasis – regulates body function to ensure that our internal environment is stable
2. Receiving sensory input – sensory receptors detect stimuli from internal and external environment. Once stimuli
were detected, sensory receptors will transmit information to brain and spinal cords.
 Sensory input – examples were sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch, body position, and temperature.
3. Integrating information – brain and spinal cord process sensory information. They decide what would be our
appropriate response. interpret sensory data then will compare to our past experiences.
 Includes memories, mental activities.
4. Controlling muscles and glands – nervous system sends signals to our muscles and glands. That is why there is
contraction or secrets substances.
 Nervous system – responsible for voluntary movement
Controls our emotions and behaviors
 Smooth muscles and Cardiac muscles – for involuntary movement
 Glands – secretes different types of hormones
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity – brain is the center of mental activity. Contains consciousness on
how we think, memory, emotions. Process everything inputs it receives

2 Major Divisions of Nervous System

 Central Nervous System (CNS)

 Brain – the most complex organ in our body
 Spinal cord – thin bundle of nerves connected to our brain
 Command center of the nervous system
 Receives information from the body then sends the information to the body
 Responsible for making decisions and for coordinate of our body functions
 Brain and spinal cords
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 All nerves outside of our brain and spinal cord
 Has two parts
 Somatic Nervous system – control voluntary movements
 Autonomic Nervous system – for involuntary movements (blood pressure, heart rate, and
digestions)
 Connect central nervous system to different parts of our body
 Detect stimuli from our environment then will send information to central nervous system
 Nerves, ganglia, sensory receptors
 Two primary divisions
 Sensory divisions – detect stimuli in our environment then will send information to central
nervous system
  Motor divisions – responsible for communication of messages from central nervous system
going to our body
Two primary divisions:

Sensory (afferent) division –from specialized receptors toward the CNS

Motor (efferent) division – from CNS to effector
- Carry signal away from CNS
 Somatic Nervous System – voluntary movement
 Autonomic Nervous System – involuntary movement
o Sympathetic Nervous System – responsible for a fight or flight (increases or heart
rate, blood pressure decreases digestion)
o Parasympathetic Nervous System -

dorsal root ganglion – cluster of sensory neurons outside of the spinal cord
relay station for sensory information

ventral root of spinal nerves – exit of axons in our spinal cords

autonomic ganglion – relays station of motor signal

Branch of components Division Direction Branch of Type of Subdivision effectors Response

Nervous of Signal Peripheral Control at Effector
System Nervous
System
Central Brain and
Nervous spinal cord
System
Peripheral Receptors, sensory Afferent
Nervous nerves,
System ganglia,
plexuses
motor efferent somatic voluntary Skeletal Stimulates
muscle contraction
autonomic involuntary sympathetic Cardiac Readies
and body for
smooth physical
muscle; activity
glands
parasympathetic Cardiac Regulates
and resting
smooth functions
muscle;
glands

Glial cells – half of the weight of our brain

- Supporting cells
- mas marami compared sa neurons at least 10 - 15x
- provide structural and metabolic support to neurons
Neurons – primary signaling cells of the nervous system

Neuron Structure

1. a neuron cell body – receives stimuli and transmit action potentials

- also known as soma
- contains nucleus
2. dendrites – short, branched cytoplasmic extension of the cell
- for receiving electrical signals
- usually seen in junctions called synapses
3. a single axon – transmit action potential to other cells
- extensions
- conduct electrical signals called action potential – away from the cell bodies
 Neuron Cell Body – performs typical functions of any cell
 - nucleus – nucleolus
- contains extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum, called Nissl (nis’l) bodies
 Nissl bodies – stock of rough endoplasmic reticulum
- has Golgi apparatus
 Dendrites – extension of cell body
- Short, highly branched cytoplasmic reticulum
- Dendrites surfaces have small extensions, called dendritic spines
- Dendritic spines – axons of other neurons form connections with other dendrites.
 Axons – cytoplasmic extension, transmit action potential to other cells
- for long distance communication within a nervous system
- Axon-hillock – arise from cone-shaped area
- Axoplasm – cytoplasm of an axon
- Axolemma – plasma membrane
- Synapse – point of contact between axon ending and its effector
- junction of axons
- Presynaptic Terminal – axon ending at the synapse

Types of Neurons

Based on the direction of action potentials conduction

(1) sensory neurons (afferent neurons)
- conduct action potentials toward the CNS
- toward the CNS
(2) motor neurons (efferent neurons)
- conduct action potentials away from Ine CNS toward muscles or glands
- away from the CNS
(3) Interneurons
- conduct action potentials within the CNS from one neuron to another

Based on the number of dendrites

Four major structural categories.
1. Multipolar - many dendrites and a single axon.
• dendrites vary in number and in their degree of branching
• Most of the neurons within the CNS and motor neurons of the PNS are multipolar.
• most common type of neuron in human nervous system
2. Bipolar
■ two processes:
one dendrite - specialized to receive the stimulus
one axon - conducts action potentials to the CNS
• located in some sensory organs. such as in the retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity.
3. Pseudo-unipolar
• have a single axon
• start out as bipolar neurons during development, but the two processes fuse into a single process
• These neurons have a single process extending from the cell body, which divides into two branches a short distance
from the body
• Most sensory neurons are pseudo-unipolar
4. Anaxon
• do not have axons and only have dendrites projecting from their cell body
• Found within the brain and retina. These neurons communicate using only graded potentials and not action
potentials

Glial Cells of the CNS

1. Astrocytes
■ star-shaped glial cells with cytoplasmic processes extending from their cell bodies.
■ Provide structural support for neurons and blood vessels.
■ Astrocytes influence the functioning of the blood-brain barrier and process substances that
pass through it.
■ Astrocytes isolate damaged tissue and limit the spread of inflammation. Astrocytes also help
 maintain synaptic function.

2. Ependymal Cells – produce and circulate of our CSS

■ line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord.
■ Some are specialized to produce cerebrospinal fluid.
■ Choroid plexuses - structure formed from the specialized ependymal cells and blood vessels
- specialized structure of Ependymal cells

3. Microglia for phagocytosis

- CNS-specific immune cells derived from the same embryonic tissue as other immune cells within the blood.
- Phagocytize microorganisms, foreign substances, and necrotic tissue.
- phagocytosis – immune cells of our brain

4. Oligodendrocytes – glial cells that contains myelin sheaths

- Form an insulating layer around axons.
- Form myelin sheaths around the axons of several CNS neurons.

Glial Cells of the PNS

There are two types of glial cells in the PNS:

(1) Schwann cells:

- Form myelin sheaths.
- Form a portion of the myelin sheath around only one axon.
- Neurilemma: Outermost layer of each Schwann cell.
- It contains the majority of the Schwann cell cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles
- myelin sheaths – fatty layer
- in between the Schwann cells there is Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheaths

(2) Satellite cells:

- Support and nourish neuron cell bodies within ganglia.
- Surround neuron cell bodies in sensory and autonomic ganglia.
- Protect neurons from heavy metal poisons.

Summary:

Central Nervous System (CNS):

- Astrocytes: Maintain the blood-brain barrier, control the levels of neurotransmitters around synapses, regulate ion and
providing metabolic support.
- Ependymal cells: Line spinal cord & ventricles of the brain; involved in producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
- Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate CNS axons, provide structural framework.
- Microglia: Brain's immune cells; remove dead cells and pathogens by phagocytosis.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

- Satellite cells: Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia; regulate neurotransmitter levels.
- Schwann cells: Myelinate neurons in PNS; maintenance and regeneration of neurons after injury.

Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons

(1) Myelinated Axons:

- Myelinated axons are wrapped by several layers of plasma membrane from Schwann cells (PNS) or
oligodendrocytes (CNS).
- Nodes of Ranvier: Spaces between the wrappings.
- Conduct action potentials rapidly.
- for rapid communication
(2) Unmyelinated Axons:
- Rest in invaginations of Schwann cells (PNS) or oligodendrocytes (CNS).
 - Conduct action potentials slowly.

Nervous Tissue Groups:

- White matter:
- Consists of myelinated axons; it propagates action potentials.
- Forms nerve tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS.
- for rapid transmission of information

- Gray matter:
- Consists of collections of neuron cell bodies or unmyelinated axons.
- Axons synapse with neuron cell bodies, which are functionally the site of integration in the nervous system.
- Forms cortex and nuclei in the CNS and ganglia in the PNS.
- for processing and integrating of information

Electrical Signals

Action potentials - electrical signals produced by the nervous system are called action potentials.
- Our ability to perceive our environment, perform complex mental activities, and respond to stimuli
depends on action potentials.
- The contraction of muscles and the secretion of certain glands occur in response to action potentials
generated within them.
- A basic knowledge of the electrical properties of cells is necessary for understanding many of the
normal functions and pathologies of the body.

Electrical Properties of Action Potential

1. Ionic concentration – differences across the plasma membrane
2. Permeability – characteristics of the plasma membrane

Ionic Concentration Differences Across the Plasma Membrane

1. The sodium-potassium pump moves ions by active transport. Potassium is moved into the cell, and Na+ is moved out
of it.
2. The concentrations of K+ and negatively charged proteins and other molecules are higher inside the cell, and the
concentrations of Na+ and Cl- are higher outside the cell.
3. Negatively charged proteins and other negatively charged ions are synthesized inside the cell and cannot diffuse out of
it; they repel negatively charged Cl-.

3 sodium out, 2 potassium will go into the cell

Potassium is the nature intracellular flat ion

Permeability Characteristics of the Plasma Membrane

Permeability of the plasma membrane to ions is determined by leak ion channels and gated ion channels.
 Potassium ion leak channels are more numerous than Na+ leak channels; thus, the plasma membrane is more
permeable to K+ than to Na+ when at rest.
 Gated ion channels in the plasma membrane include ligand-gated ion channels, voltage-gated ion channels, and
other gated ion channels.

Establishing the Resting Membrane Potential

1. The resting membrane potential is a charge difference across the plasma membrane when the cell is in an
unstimulated condition.
- The inside of the plasma membrane is negatively charged compared with the outside of the plasma
membrane.
2. The resting membrane potential is due mainly to the tendency of positively charged K+ to diffuse out of the cell,
which is opposed by the negative charge that develops inside the plasma membrane.
Changing the Resting Membrane Potential
1. Depolarization:
When the inside of the plasma membrane becomes more positive, can result from a decrease in the K+
concentration gradient.
a decrease in membrane permeability to K+, an increase in membrane permeability to Na+
an increase in membrane permeability to Ca2+, or a decrease in extracellular Ca2+ concentration.
2. Hyperpolarization:
When the inside of the plasma membrane becomes more negative, can result from an increase in the K+
concentration gradient,
an increase in membrane permeability to K+, an increase in membrane permeability to Cl-,
a decrease in membrane permeability to Na+, or an increase in extracellular Ca2+ concentration.

TABLE

Characteristics Responsible for the Resting Membrane Potential

1. The concentration of K+ is higher inside the cell than outside, and the concentration of Na+ is higher outside the cell
than inside.
2. The plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ than to other positively charged ions, such as Na+.
3. The plasma membrane is impermeable to large, intracellular, negatively charged molecules, such as proteins. In other
words, these anions are "trapped" inside the cell.
4. Potassium ions tend to diffuse across the plasma membrane from the inside to the outside of the cell. Because
negatively charged molecules cannot follow the positively charged K+, a charge difference develops inside the plasma
membrane.
5. The negative charge inside the cell attracts positively charged K+. When the negative charge inside the cell is great
enough to prevent additional K+ from diffusing out of the cell through the plasma membrane, an equilibrium is
established.
6. The charge difference across the plasma membrane at equilibrium is reflected as a difference in potential, which is
measured in millivolts (mV). The resting membrane potential is not equal to the equilibrium potential for K+ to diffuse
out of the cell but not to the actual rate of flow for K+. At equilibrium, very little movement of K+ or other ions takes
place across the plasma membrane.

Graded Potentials

1. A graded potential is a small change in the resting membrane potential that is confined to a small area of the plasma
membrane.
2. An increase in membrane permeability to Na+ can cause graded depolarization, and an increase in membrane
permeability to K+ or Cl- can result in graded hyperpolarization.
3. The term graded potential is used because a stronger stimulus produces a greater potential change than a weaker
stimulus.
4. Graded potentials can summate, or add together.
5. A graded potential decreases in magnitude as the distance from the stimulation increases.

Action Potentials

1. An action potential is a larger change in the resting membrane potential that spreads over the entire surface of the
cell.
2. Threshold: The membrane potential at which a graded potential depolarizes the plasma membrane sufficiently to
produce an action potential.
3. Action potentials occur in an all-or-none fashion. If action potentials occur, they are of the same magnitude, no matter
how strong the stimulus.
4. Depolarization: Occurs as the inside of the membrane becomes more positive because Na+ diffuses into the cell
through voltage-gated ion channels.
5. Repolarization: A return of the membrane potential toward the resting state. It occurs because voltage-gated Na+
channels close and Na+ diffusion into the cell slows to resting levels and because voltage-gated K+ channels continue to
open and K+ diffuses out of the cell.
6. The after potential: A brief period of hyperpolarization following repolarization.

Action Potentials in the Communicating Neuron

- Action potentials in the communicating neuron stimulate graded potentials in a receiving neuron that can summate at
the trigger zone.
- Action potentials are propagated down the axon to the axon terminal.
- Action potentials result in communication of the nervous system.

TABLE 11.6

Characteristics of Action Potentials

1. Action potentials are produced when a graded potential reaches threshold.

2. Action potentials are all-or-none.
3. Depolarization is a result of increased membrane permeability to Na+ and movement of Na+ into the cell. Activation
gates of the voltage-gated Na+ channels open.
4. Repolarization is a result of decreased membrane permeability to Na+ and increased membrane permeability to K+,
which stops Na+ movement into the cell and increases K+ movement out of the cell. The inactivation gates of the
voltage-gated Na+ channels close, and the voltage-gated K+ channels open.
5. During the absolute refractory period, no action potential is produced by a stimulus, no matter how strong. During the
relative refractory period, a stronger-than-threshold stimulus can produce an action potential.
6. Action potentials are propagated and, for a given axon or muscle fiber, the magnitude of the action potential is
constant.
7. Stimulus strength determines the frequency of action potentials.

Refractory Period

1. Absolute refractory period: Time during an action potential when a second stimulus, no matter how strong, cannot
initiate another action potential.
2. Relative refractory period: Follows the absolute refractory period and is the time during which a stronger-than-
threshold stimulus can evoke another action potential.

Action Potential Frequency

1. The strength of stimuli affects the frequency of action potentials.

- Subthreshold stimulus: Produces only a graded potential.
- Threshold stimulus: Causes a graded potential that reaches threshold and results in a single action potential.
- Submaximal stimulus: Greater than a threshold stimulus and weaker than a maximal stimulus. The action potential
frequency increases as the strength of the submaximal stimulus increases.
- Maximal or Supramaximal stimulus: Produces a maximum frequency of action potentials.
2. A low frequency of action potentials represents a weaker stimulus than a high frequency.

Propagation of Action Potentials

1. An action potential generates local currents, which stimulate voltage-gated Na+ channels in adjacent regions of the
plasma membrane to open, producing a new action potential.
2. In an unmyelinated axon, action potentials are generated immediately adjacent to previous action potentials.
3. In a myelinated axon, action potentials are generated at successive nodes of Ranvier.
4. Reversal of the direction of action potential propagation is prevented by the absolute refractory period.
5. Action potentials propagate most rapidly in myelinated, large-diameter axons.

Saltatory Conduction: Action Potential Propagation in a Myelinated Axon

- An action potential forming at a node of Ranvier generates local currents of Na+ (black arrow).
- The Na+ flows to the next node of Ranvier because the myelin sheath of the Schwann cell insulates the axon to the
internode.
- When the depolarization caused by the Na+ entry reaches threshold at the next node of Ranvier, a new action potential
is produced (orange).
- Action potential propagation is rapid in myelinated axons because the action potentials are produced at successive
nodes of Ranvier (1-5) instead of at every part of the membrane along the axon.
The Synapses
Electrical Synapses

- Electrical synapses occur between cells connected by gap junctions.

- Electrical synapses are gap junctions in which tubular proteins called connexons allow local currents to move between
cells.
- At an electrical synapse, an action potential in one cell generates a local current that causes an action potential in an
adjacent cell.

Chemical Synapses

1. Anatomically, a chemical synapse has three components.

The enlarged ends of the axon are the presynaptic terminals containing synaptic vesicles. The postsynaptic membranes
contain receptors for the neurotransmitter. The synaptic cleft is a space separating the presynaptic and post-synaptic
membranes.

2. An action potential arriving at the presynaptic terminal causes the release of a neurotransmitter, which diffuses across
the synaptic cleft and binds to the receptors of the postsynaptic membrane.

3. The effect of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic membrane is stopped in several ways.
-The neurotransmitter is broken down by an enzyme.
-The neurotransmitter is taken up by the presynaptic terminal.
-The neurotransmitter diffuses out of the synaptic cleft.

4. Neurotransmitters are specific for their receptors. A neurotransmitter can be stimulatory in one synapse and inhibitory
in another, depending on the type of receptor present.

5. Neuromodulators influence the likelihood that an action potential in a presynaptic terminal will result in an action
potential in the membrane of a postsynaptic cell.

6. An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a depolarizing graded potential of the postsynaptic membrane. It can be
caused by an increase in membrane permeability to Na+.

7. An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is a hyperpolarizing graded potential of the postsynaptic membrane. It can
be caused by an increase in membrane permeability to K+ or Cl-.

8. Presynaptic inhibition decreases neurotransmitter release. Presynaptic facilitation increases neurotransmitter release.

- Neurotransmitter bound to receptor site opens a ligand-gated Na+ channel

Chemical Synapses

1. Acetylcholine molecules bind to their receptors.

2. Acetylcholine molecules unbind from their receptors.
3. Acetylcholinesterase splits acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid, which prevents acetylcholine from again binding
to its receptors. Choline is taken up by the presynaptic terminal.
4. Choline is used to make new acetylcholine molecules that are packaged into synaptic vesicles.
5. Other acetylcholine molecules simply diffuse into the extracellular fluid away from the synaptic cleft.

Chemical Synapses

1. Norepinephrine binds to its receptor.

2. Norepinephrine unbinds from its receptor.
3. Norepinephrine is taken up by the presynaptic terminal, which prevents norepinephrine from again binding to its
receptor.
4. Norepinephrine is repackaged into synaptic vesicles or broken down by monoamine oxidase (MAO).
5. Other norepinephrine molecules simply diffuse into the extracellular fluid away from the synaptic cleft.

- Spatial and Temporal Summation

1. Presynaptic action potentials through neurotransmitters produce graded potentials in postsynaptic neurons.
-The graded potential can summate to produce an action potential at the trigger zone.
2. Spatial summation: Occurs when two or more presynaptic terminals simultaneously stimulate a postsynaptic neuron.
3. Temporal summation: Occurs when two or more action potentials arrive in succession at a single presynaptic terminal.
4. Inhibitory and excitatory presynaptic neurons can converge on a postsynaptic neuron.
-The activity of the postsynaptic neuron is determined by the integration of the EPSPs and IPSPs produced in the
postsynaptic neuron.

- Spatial and Temporal Summation

(b) Temporal summation. Two action potentials arrive in close succession at the postsynaptic cell from the presynaptic
terminal. The first action potential causes the production of a graded potential in the postsynaptic cell that does not
reach threshold at the trigger zone. The second action potential results in the production of a second graded potential
that summates with the first to reach threshold, resulting in the production of an action potential.

(a) Spatial summation. Action potentials 1 and 2 cause the production of graded potentials at two different dendrites.
These graded potentials summate at the trigger zone to produce a graded potential that exceeds threshold, resulting in
an action potential.

(c) Combined spatial and temporal summation with both excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs). An action potential is produced at the trigger zone when the graded potentials produced
as a result of the EPSPs and IPSPs summate to reach threshold.

- Neuronal Pathways and Circuits

1. Convergent pathways: Have many neurons synapsing with a few neurons.

2. Divergent pathways: Have a few neurons synapsing with many neurons.
3. Reverberating circuits: Have collateral branches of postsynaptic neurons synapsing with presynaptic neurons.
4. Parallel after-discharge circuits: Have neurons that stimulate several neurons arranged in parallel that stimulate a
common output.