Impact of Job Analysis On Job Performance: A Study of Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan

IMPACT OF JOB ANALYSIS ON JOB
PERFORMANCE: A STUDY OF PUBLIC

SECTOR ORGANIZATIONS OF PAKISTAN
By
Muhammad Safdar Rehman
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES

ISLAMABAD
April 2009
Impact of Job Analysis on Job Performance: A Study of Public
Sector Organizations of Pakistan
By
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In Management Science
To
FACULTY OF ADVANCED INTEGRATED STUDIES AND RESEARCH

(Management Science)
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES, ISLAMABAD
April, 2009
DEDICATED TO MY KIND AND
AFFECTIONATE FATHER
MR.ABDUL REHMAN
SOHALVI(LATE)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Myriad thanks to Almighty Allah, the Omnipotent and the Most Merciful, who enabled
me to learn, to understand the complexities and to complete this dissertation. The Holy
Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him), who is the beacon of light to all mankind,
taught his followers to seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave.
I owe deep gratitude and heartiest appreciation to my benevolent supervisor, Dr. Hamid
Rafiq Khattak, Dean, Army Public College of Management Sciences (APCOMS)
Rawalpindi and visiting faculty member of National University of Modern Languages,
Islamabad. His keen interest, generous and expert guidance at every step and continuous
encouragement throughout my entire research work enabled me to achieve my goals.
Here, I must say that without his kind efforts, support and guidance it was impossible to
complete this job.
I am especially thankful to my wife, daughter and son for providing me with every
opportunity and encouraging me to accomplish this job. I am also thankful to my mother
and family members for their prayers, loving behaviour and emotional support.
Thanks to all my colleagues in Pakistan Scientific and Technological Information Centre,

especially Dr. Shaheen Shehzad, Dr. Razi-ul-Hassnain, Mr. Aqil Khan, Mr. Saifullah
Azeem, Syed Habib Akhtar Jafri, Mr. Zaheer Nasir, Mr. Naeem Sajid, Mr. Mahmood
Ahmad Bhutta who really cooperated and provided me every kind of research material
and technical support needed for my work.
I am especially indebted to Dr. Sadia Nadeem and Mr. Muhammad Aasim for their help
in statistical techniques and data analysis in my study and continuous encouragement and
guidance throughout the work. I am thankful to my friends especially Dr. Abdul Jabbar,
Malik Masood-ul-Hassan and Muhammad Shafiq for their kind help, moral support and
continuous motivation during my research work. Last but not least my profound gratitude
is due to all the faculty of Advance Integrated Studies and Research, NUML who
provided me the guidance during the course work.

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES FACULTY OF ADVANCED INTEGRATED STUDIES & RESEARCH
DISSERTATION AND DEFENSE APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read the following dissertation, examined the
defense, are satisfied with the overall exam performance, and recommend the thesis
to the Faculty of Advanced Integrated Studies & Research for acceptance:
Dissertation Title: Impact of Job Analysis on Job Performance: A study of Public Sector
Organizations of Pakistan
Submitted By: Muhammad Safdar Rehman Registration #: 326- PhD /MS/2005
Doctor of Philosophy
Management Sciences
Dr. Hamid Rafiq Khattak ______________________________

Name of Research Supervisor Signature of Research Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Shazra Munnawar ______________________________

Name of Dean (FAIS&R) Signature of Dean (FAIS & R)
Prof. Dr. Aziz Ahmad Khan ______________________________

Name of Rector Signature of Rector
June 30, 2010

Date
ii
CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM
I Muhammad Safdar Rehman
Son of Mr. Abdul Rehman Sohalvi ( Late )
Registration No 326- PhD/MS/2005
Discipline Management Sciences
Candidate of Doctor of Philosophy at the National University of Modern Languages do

hereby declare that the dissertation Impact of Job Analysis on Job Performance: A Study
of Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan
submitted by me in partial fulfillment of PhD degree in discipline/department Faculty of

Advanced Integrated Studies & Research is my original work, and has not been submitted
or published earlier. I also solemnly declare that it shall not, in future, be submitted by
me for obtaining any other degree from this or any other university or institution.
I also understand that if evidence of plagiarism is found in my dissertation at any stage,

even after the award of a degree, the work may be cancelled and the degree revoked.
______________________________
June 30, 2010 Signature
Date

Name
iii
ABSTRACT
Job Analysis forms the core of most human resource activities and can perform a number
of functions. Researchers in strategic human resource management have established a
relationship between human resource management (HRM) practices and organizational
performance, but the relationship between HRM practice like Job Analysis – Job
Performance, the intervening process recruitment, connecting Job Analysis and Job
Performance remains unexplored. This research attempts to assess the impact of Job
Analysis on Job Performance on the basis of the opinions of the employees of public
sector regulatory authorities.
A survey questionnaire was designed and pre-tested. The study was carried out by taking
a sample size of 568 employees of Pakistan public sector regulatory authorities from
Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA), Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority
(OGRA), National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA), Pakistan Electronic
Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA), Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan
(SECP) and State Bank of Pakistan (SBP) dealing with the telecommunications, oil &
gas, power, media, corporate, capital and banking sectors has presented a holistic
conceptual framework of human resource practices in relation to recruitment process and
its impact on employees’ job performance and subsequent job satisfaction and retention.
Results supported the HR-Performance conceptual model by showing significant impact

of Human Resource Management practices on job performance. Correlations and
regression analyses were used to refine and increase the accuracy of six independent
variables of HR practices, one intervening variable conforming to their relationship and
impact on dependent variable job performance. Overall, the independent variables
explained the positive variations in the dependent variable of job performance followed
by the intervening variable, Recruitment. In addition, other statistical tools were also used
to analyze the opinions of employees to ascertain differences in various regulatory
authorities in relation to size and sector. The results revealed that importance of job
analysis has a positive relationship with job performance in all regulatory authorities
except OGRA where it has a negative relationship.
iv
The study further revealed six relationships showing large effect size correlations between
job satisfaction and job succession planning, job security and job succession planning, job
succession planning and job performance, job design and job performance, job
performance and job satisfaction and job security and job satisfaction. These positive
highly significant relationships are the addition to the literature on Human Resource
Management particularly with reference to Pakistan.
The practice in vogue of only carrying out job analysis for successful recruitment process
has met with little success and therefore, other contributing factors like job design, job
evaluation, job security and job succession planning, job satisfaction and job retention
need to be examined. This study found that job analysis, job evaluation and job retention
with the moderating variable Recruitment knowledge, skills and ability (KSA) explained
a much larger proportion of the total variance on dependent variable, job performance.
The relatively stable standardized beta coefficients generated by job analysis, Job design,
job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, job satisfaction and job retention
with recruitment, indicating its unique impact, independent of moderators, support the
central argument of this study that a job analysis is an important HR strategy to achieve
superior job performance results. The study extends to the findings of the HR-job
performance research followed in Western countries to a non-Western context.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 JOB ANALYSIS. 1
1.1.1 Applications of Job Analysis 4
1.1.2 Why Conduct a Job Analysis? 5
1.1.3 Implications for Jobs and Job Analysis 8
1.2 JOB PERFORMANCE 9
1.3 RECRUITMENT PROCESS 13
1.4 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH 17

1.4.1 General Aim 17
1.4.2 Specific aims 17
1.5 EMPIRICAL STUDY 18
1.6 THE PROBLEM STATEMENT 19
1.7 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES 20
1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY 21
1.9 PUBLIC SECTOR REFORMS IN PAKISTAN 24
1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 26
1.11 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 28
CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW 29

2.1 JOB ANALYSIS 29
2.1.1 Job analysis instruments and job performance 33
2.2 JOB DESIGN 35
vi
2.3 JOB EVALUATION 39
2.3.1 Job evaluation and Job design relationship 42
2.4 JOB SECURITY 43
2.5 JOB SUCCESSION PLANNING 47
2.6 EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT 51

2.6.1 Recruitment Process 54
2.7 JOB PERFORMANCE 57
2.8 JOB SATISFACTION 61

2.8.1 Job satisfaction and job performance relationship 65
2.9 JOB RETENTION 67

2.9.1 Job retention and Job Satisfaction relationship 69
2.10 RESEARCH MODEL 71
CHAPTER 3 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 72

3.1 INTRODUCTION 72
3.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH STUDY 72
3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN 74
3.4 OPERATIONALIZATION OF RESEARCH MODEL AND 79

VARIABLES
3.5 REGULATORY AUTHORITIES IN PAKISTAN 82
3.6 SAMPLE AND RESPONSE RATE 87
3.7 DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENTATION 89
3.8 DATA ANALYSIS 89
vii
3.8.1 Descriptive statistics 90
3.8.2 Means and Standard Deviations 90
3.8.3 Correlations 90
3.8.4 Factor Analysis 92
3.8.5 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling 93

Adequacy
3.8.6 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity 93
3.8.7 Regression Analysis 94
3.8.8 Multiple Regression Analysis 96
3.8.9 Elements of Multiple Regression Equation 96
3.8.10 Statistical significance 98
3.8.11 Research Model 98
3.9 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 101
CHAPTER 4 - RESEARCH FINDINGS 104

4.1 INTRODUCTION 104
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE 104

RESPONDENTS.
4.3 VARIABLE MEASURES BY PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 112
ANALYSIS
4.4 CONSTRUCTS 117

4.4.1 Importance of Job analysis. (JA-1) 117
4.4.2 Practice of Job analysis. 118
4.4.3 Job Design 118
viii
4.4.4 Job Evaluation 119
4.4.5 Job Security 119
4.4.6 Job Succession Planning 120
4.4.7 Job Performance 120
4.4.8 Job satisfaction 121
4.4.9 Job Retention 121
4.4.10 Recruitment KSA 121
4.5 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF CONSTRUCTS 122
4.6 SCATTER DIAGRAMS 122
4.7 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 123
4.8 CORRELATION RESULTS 124

4.8.1 Correlation between all variables and recruitment 126
KSA
4.9 COMPARISON AMONGST REGULATORY 134
AUTHORITIES
4.9.1 Correlation of NEPRA (National Electric power 134
Regulatory Authority)
4.9.2 Correlation of OGRA (Oil and Gas Regulatory 137
Authority)
4.9.3 Correlation of PTA (Pakistan Telecom Authority) 140
4.9.4 Correlation of PEMRA ( Pakistan Electronic 143

Media Regulatory Authority)
4.9.5 Correlation of STATE BANK of Pakistan. 146
4.9.6 Correlation of SECP ( Security Exchange 149

Commission of Pakistan)
4.10 RESULTS FOR REGRESSION ANALYSES 161
ix
4.10.1 Regression for independent variables: Job analysis1 161
and Job analysis 2 with the dependent variable Job
performance.
4.10.2 Regression for independent variables: Job Design 162
with the dependent variable Job performance.
4.10.3 Regression for independent variables: Job Evaluation 163
4.10.4 Regression for independent variables: Job Security 164

4.10.5 Regression for independent variables: Job Succession 165

Planning with the dependent variable Job performance.
4.10.6 Regression for independent variables: Job Satisfaction 166

4.10.7 Regression for independent variables: Job Retention 167

4.10.8 Regression for independent variables: Job analysis 1 168

and Job analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job
security, job succession planning, job satisfaction
and job retention with the dependent variable Job
performance
4.10.9 Regression for independent variables: Job analysis 1, 170

job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, job satisfaction and job retention with the
dependent variable Job performance
4.11 TEST FOR INTERVENING EFFECT OF 172

RECRUITMENT
CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS 179

5.1 INTRODUCTION 179
x
5.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 179
5.3 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE MODEL 215
5.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THE CURRENT STUDY 218
5.5 IMPLICATION FOR MANAGEMENT 219
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 221

5.6.1 Limitations of the literature review 221
5.6.2 Limitations of the empirical study 223
5.7 DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 225
5.8 CONCLUSION 227
REFERENCES 229
APPENDIX A. VARIABLE ITEMS WITH ALPHA SURVEY 280
APPENDIX B. JOB ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE 282
APPENDIX C. SCATTERED DIAGRAMS 286
APPENDIX D. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF ALL AUTHORITIES 296
APPENDIX E. DURBIN-WATSON VALUES 298
APPENDIX F. JOB DESCRIPTION FORMS 305
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Demographics percentage 78
Table 3.2 Regulatory Authorities percentage 87
Table 3.3 Organizations percentage 88
Table 3.4 KMO and Bartlett's Test 94
Table 4.1 Analysis of all variables measures. 114
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of all variables. 123
Table 4.3 Means and Standard Deviations 124
Table 4.4 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson 131

Correlation Coefficient in all organizations.
Correlation Coefficient in NEPRA ( National Electric Power
Regulatory Authority ) N= 34
Correlation Coefficient in OGRA ( Oil and Gas Regulatory
Authority ) N=32
Correlation Coefficient in PTA ( Pakistan
Telecommunication Authority ) N= 179
Correlation Coefficient in PEMRA (Pakistan Electronic
Media Regulatory Authority ) N= 48
Correlation Coefficient in STATE BANK N=241

Correlation Coefficient in SECP ( Security and Exchange
Commission Of Pakistan ) N=34
xii
Table 4.11 Job analysis-job performance link amongst the regulatory 158
authorities
Table 4.12 Job performance-job satisfaction link amongst the regulatory 158
authorities
Table 4.13 Job retention-job satisfaction link amongst the regulatory 159
authorities
Table 4.14 Highest correlations amongst the regulatory authorities 159
Table 4.15 Regression summary for dependent variable: job performance 162
relating to job analysis.
relating to job design
relating to job evaluation
relating to job security
relating to job succession planning
relating to job satisfaction
relating to job retention
Table 4.22 Regression summary for dependent variable: 169
job performance relating to job analysis 1, job analysis 2, job

design , job evaluation, job security, job succession planning,
job satisfaction and job retention.
xiii
Table 4.23 Regression summary for dependent variable: 171
job performance relating to job analysis 1, job design , job

evaluation, job security, job succession planning, job
satisfaction and job retention.
Table 4.24 Test for intervening effect of Recruitment KSA 175
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Conceptual / hypothesized Frame work Organizational 71
Characteristics
Figure 4.1 Age 106
Figure 4.2 Education 107
Figure 4.3 Gender 107
Figure 4.4 Years in present job 108
Figure 4.5 Job status 108
Figure 4.6 Years in present position 109
Figure 4.7 Job category 109
Figure 4.8 Mode of appointment 110
Figure 4.9 Job level 110
Figure 4.10 Recruitment matters dealt by 111
Figure 4.11 Scattered diagram Job analysis 1and Job performance 284
Figure 4.12 Scattered diagram Job analysis 2 and Job performance 284
Figure 4.13 Scattered diagram Job design and Job performance 285
Figure 4.14 Scattered diagram Job evaluation and Job performance 285
Figure 4.15 Scattered diagram Job security and Job performance 286
Figure 4.16 Scattered diagram Job succession planning and Job 286
performance
Figure 4.17 Scattered diagram recruitment and Job performance 287
Figure 4.18 Scattered diagram Job satisfaction and Job performance 287
Figure 4.19 Scattered diagram Job retention and Job performance 288
xv
Figure 4.20 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job analysis 1 289
Figure 4.21 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job analysis 2 289
Figure 4.22 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job succession 290

planning
Figure 4.23 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job security 290
Figure 4.24 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job design 291
Figure 4.25 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job performance 291
Figure 4.26 Histogram of Frequency distribution of recruitment 292
Figure 4.27 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job satisfaction 292
Figure 4.28 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job retention 293
xvi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The introduction of this dissertation explains about the job analysis, job performance,
recruitment process, aim of the research, empirical study, the problem statement, public
sector reforms and justification for the study. Nine specific hypotheses have been presented.
Finally the significance of the study has been explained.
1.1 JOB ANALYSIS.
As human resource activities grow in scope and complexity, many human resource practices
such as recruitment and selection, compensation, performance management, career planning,
training and development and rewards are delegated to the Human Resource department.
Most of the Human Resource specialists do not know about the detail of jobs. Knowledge
about the jobs and their requirements must be collected through a process known as job
analysis, in which information about jobs is systematically collected, evaluated and
organised. Data about each job but not about every person is gathered in an organization. It is
a descriptive process of breaking down a specific job into its component by using a collection
of tools and techniques to establish job requirements.
Hall & Mirvis, 1995; Lamprecht, 2002; Rodriguez & De Pablos, 2002 studied that the world
of jobs is changing rapidly due to advancements in technology, electronics and the use of data
which have contributed to the globalization of the organizations. Baruch, 1999; Furnham,
2000 and Lamprecht, 2002 further discussed that this increased competition has resulted in a
need for sharpened organizational efficiency. According to Menday ; 1996, Clegg, 2000 and
Read; 2000 service has become a business focus and was promoted as a key ingredient in
1
distinguishing an organization from its competitors. Job analysis is the process of
comprehensively studying the job to determine what it entails. Byars and Rue (2006, p.64)
shared that “it involves determining the tasks that encompass the job and skills, knowledge,
abilities and responsibilities required of the receptacle for successful job performance”. This
definition includes reference to both the task and person requirements of the position.
Public sector regulatory authorities in Pakistan have emerged as one of the response to this
changing world of work and the need to improve efficiency and productivity. Therefore, a
strong emphasis on services and regulatory frame work is evident. Effective management of
the regulatory authorities and recruitment of the right people are critical to the success of
regulatory authorities. O’Hara, (2001) studied that the selection of the right personnel can
potentially reduce turnover.
Byars & Rue, (2006) discussed that the backbone of the most human resource activities is
Job analysis which can serve a number of functions. Job analysis is key to recruitment,
selection, orientation, training, career development, counseling, health, safety, performance
management and compensation. According to Pearn & Kandola, (1993) keeping in view the
selection process, job analysis would enhance and assist the exactness of selection criteria. A
significant progress has been observed during the precedent three decades with regard to job
analysis.
Schultz & Schultz, (1998, p.74) defined Job analysis as “the study of a job to describe in
specific terms the nature of the component tasks performed by the worker” and Grobler,
2
Warnich, Carrell, Elbert & Hatfield, (2006, p.150) defined job analysis ( JA ) as “the process
by which management systematically investigates the tasks, duties and responsibilities of the
jobs within an organization”
Definitions mentioned above reflected the task requirements of a job. Borman et. al. (1997)
highlighted that it has become increasingly apparent that job performance related not only to
ability but also to personal traits and dispositional factors. Goodstein & Lanyon, (1999)
studied that Job analysis required to focus not only on job tasks, duties and responsibilities but
also on the interpersonal requirements of the job.
Three key points identified by the most definitions are as under:-
i. Job analysis is a broad term not a single methodology which refers to a variety
of techniques as well as surveillance, interviews and questionnaire based
survey.
ii. Job analysis is a controlled activity. The study of the function is guided and
focused, though the degree of formation varies with the techniques used.
iii. Job analysis is an analytical process which attempts to break down the job into
the parts, rather to depict the job as a whole. Depending on the purpose, job
analysis may appear at jobs in diverse ways:-
Job oriented procedures have a propensity to focus on the work itself, like the use of
equipment, working conditions and outcome of the job.
3
Worker oriented procedures deliberate on the skills, knowledge and abilities which
are required to perform the job efficiently and effectively.
Behaviour oriented analysis focused on the specific behaviours pre requisite for
successfully job performance.
Job analysis is a process of comprehensively studying the job or task to determine what it
entails. In looking to the future Amos et al. (2004) highlighted that it was no longer merely
sufficient to have knowledge of a job and what it entailed. In the competitive business
environment in which organizations function, standards were needed against those job outputs
and to this end job analysis formed a relation to performance management.
1.1.1 Applications of Job Analysis.
Organizations exploit job data obtained by job analysis to meet a diversity of organizational
objectives. Very common applications of job analysis include:-
• Employees recruitment, selection and placement.
• Orientation plans.
• Performance management.
• Job design
• Job evaluation
• Job succession planning
• Job descriptions.
• Job enlargement
4
• Job classification
• Compensation.
• Training and development.
• Staffing.
• Proper utilization of workforce.
• Review of manuals and other publications.
• Organizational development.
1.1.2 Why Conduct a Job Analysis?
Job analysis is conducted for numeral purposes. Researchers Prien and Ronan (1977) ,
McCormick (1979) , Ash and Levine (1980) and Ash (1988), have developed a list of the
outputs of job analysis which are as under:-
Job Description.
Statt, (2004) discussed that the job description outlines the job tasks, duties and
responsibilities and serves as a guide for the recruitment and selection process going forward
In general, a job description can be seen as relating to all the technical , administrative and
managerial aspects of the job, the job title, job summary, job duties, tasks and outputs. Byars
& Rue (2006) further described job description as a written narrative of the tasks to be
performed and what it entails.
5
Job Specification
Amos et al., (2004) defined that job specification deals with the personal aspects of the job
and education or qualification background, skills, knowledge and ability. In a layman human
resources term, the job description can be associated with the hard issues whilst the job
specification may focus some soft issues.
Amos et al. (2004, p.30) highlighted that the “content and context of the job should serve as
the basis for recruiting and selecting the most suitable candidate for the job”. Both, job
description and job specification have a significant role in the selection process and the
identification of the best possible match for a position.
Job Evaluation
Job evaluation is a systematic procedure to determine the relative worth of jobs.
Although different approaches exist, each one considers the responsibilities, skill,
knowledge, abilities and working conditions inherent in the job. It determines which
jobs are worth more to the organization than others.
Job Design
A job is more than a collection of tasks recorded in job analysis and summarized in job
description. Jobs are the foundation of organizational productivity and employee
satisfaction. How well are job designed would reflect a vital position in the
6
accomplishments and even survival of many organizations. Job design reflects the
organizational, environmental and behavioural demands placed on it.
Human Resource Attributes, knowledge, skills and abilities ( KSA)
Human resource attributes required for better job performance are knowledge, skills and
abilities ( KSA). A degree to which an employees have mastered is called knowledge which
is directly involved in the job performance. Capacity to execute tasks requiring apply of
tools, machinery and equipment is known as skill. Ability is the competence to take out
mental and physical acts obligatory by a task where the involvement of tools, machinery
and equipment is not an overriding factor.
Performance Appraisal.
A process of evaluating the job performance of an employee during a given period is termed
as performance appraisal. Usually, at the end of a calendar year performance appraisals are
carried out in the form of performance evaluation reports. Some of the part of the report is to
be completed by the official reflecting personal data and job description. These reports help
management to take decisions about the job succession planning.
Training and development
Training is imparted to the employees to enhance their skills for the current job whereas
development is to prepare an employee for the future job. Performance appraisal also help
the management to identify the training need assessment of an individual.
7
Job Succession Planning
The most important action an employee can take to further his or her career is good, ethical
job performance. The assumption of good performance underlies all career development
activities. When performance is substandard, regardless of other job succession efforts, even
modest career goals are usually unattainable. Career growth rest largely on job performance
which is measured by performance appraisal.
1.1.3 Implications for Jobs and Job Analysis
Drucker, 1987; Olian & Rynes, 1991; Young, 1992 studied that It was anticipated that at least
for some specific tasks, jobs would become rather flexible and contain boundaries that were
vague or dynamic. Some authors have criticized job analysis because they view it as legalistic
and serving to increase boundaries rather than to reduce them. Sanchez & Levine, (1999) have
responded that the problem is not job analysis itself, but rather some of the purposes that job
analysis serve, such as narrow job descriptions. In addition, Sanchez, 1994; Sanchez & Levine,
(1999) have suggested that the term work analysis should replace job analysis. Others have
used the term work profiling to substitute for job analysis.
Changes in society, business and technology which can be expected due to job analysis will
be the new challenges to supply the kinds of information needed to ensure the success of
future human resource planning. However, there will also be new possibilities for
producing, analyzing, and updating information due largely to changes in technology. It can
be considered that likely developments in job analysis with regard to descriptors or types of
data, the sources of information, data collection methods, and the units of analysis and
8
introduction of methods for data storage, retrieval and dissemination. Sanchez, 1994 and
Sanchez & Levine, 1999 have identified numerous emerging trends in the business and
organizations that have implications for job analysis. Some of the trends are as under:-
• Static jobs with fixed KSA to fluid work with dynamic KSA
• Selecting individuals for jobs to select individual for teams
• A hierarchical approach to performance appraisal to input from multiple

constituents.
1.2 JOB PERFORMANCE
Amos & Ristow, (2004) studied that effective management of performance was critical if the
goals and objectives of the organization were to be achieved. Organizations were in existence
to succeed and the achievement of the strategy through individual output places the spotlight
directly on performance and the management thereof. An integrated human resource (HR)
strategy supports the fulfilment of business strategy and the attainment of organizational
goals. This integrated HR strategy represents a network of human resource processes, geared
towards the achievement of business goals and introduces links of performance to sourcing,
staffing, development, rewards, recognition and employee relations.
According to Storey & Sisson, (1993) concept of performance management appeared
relatively self-explanatory. It related to overseeing employee job performance. Formally it
was defined as “an interlocking set of policies and practices which have their focus on
enhancing achievement of organizational objectives through a concentration on individual
performance.” Performance management encompasses cascading overall business goals and
9
objectives into individual employee objectives. Amos et al., (2004) discussed that it was an
approach to the management of the people which dealed with setting individual objectives that
are related to organization objectives.
Spangenberg and Theron (2001) highlighted that potentially the most important organization
link for performance management is to drive the implementation and realization of strategy.
Den Hartog, Boselie & Paauwe, (2004, p.558) studied that this alignment was required so that
employee performance and development could be enhanced, with the aim of maximizing
organizational performance. The word ‘strategy’ has been referred to ensure a shared meaning
of this term given in the research context. Therefore, strategy defined by Price, (1997) was
“the means by which an organization seeks to meet its objectives. For the purpose of this
research, strategy can therefore be compared to a high level thought or plan of action of how
human resource practices will be linked with the employee’s job performance to achieve its
goals and objectives.
Pfeffer, (1994) discussed that human resource practices like recruitment and selection,
job evaluation, job succession planning, training and development and job security be
just a diminutive practice ascribed with massive worth to the organization. Researchers
Arthur, 1994; Husilid, 1995; Delaney & Husilid, 1996 proved empirically the constructive
association of the human resource ( HR ) practices and organisational outcome like
improved efficiency, job retention and job performance. All these studies have
established a set of human resource "best practices." Husilid (1995, P. 635) narrated these
practices as "high performance job practices". Succeeding studies by Delery & Doty,
1996; Huselid, Jackson, and Schuler, 1997 emerged to sustain the concept that there was a
10
bunch of HR practices that can hamper the job performance of an employee. This study
contains nine HR "best practices" which are considered as job analysis, job design, job
evaluation, job security, job succession planning, employee recruitment, job
performance, job satisfaction and job retention.
Pfeffer 1994, Wright et al ; 1998; Applebaum, 2002 studied that the premeditated use of
human resource practices were significant for the organisational performance. Further, by
the implementation of best human resource practice for overseeing the employees was
whispered resulting an affirmative impact on the organisational performance. Heneman,
Tansky & Camp, 2000 discussed that Human Resource was recognized as an area of
momentous significance to an organization's achievement. As a result, the significance
of a human resource (HR) function in an organization might articulate how vital that task
was to a specified organization.
A sturdy positive association has been found by Delery & Doty, 1996 & Husilid 1995
between organisational performance and individual performance appraisal. According to
Huselid, 1995 and Ichniowski & Shaw, 1999 effective HR practices for recruitment and
selection were linked to job performance. Huselid, 1995 and Gelade & Ivery, 2003 studied
that motivation of an employee was opened to the elements to have a momentous impact on
job performance
Performance management relates to the co-ordination and measurement of individual
performance in line with organization’s goals and objectives. Critical elements include the
alignment of business and individual goals, setting of measures and evaluation thereof.
Performance management systems assist in structuring and achieving these outputs. Byars and
11
Rue (2006) defined performance as the degree to which an employee accomplished the tasks
that made his or her job. In order to establish whether such tasks have or are being
accomplished, indicators or measures are needed to assist in tracking, measuring and
managing this job performance. In an effort to track and measure job performance, outputs
and behaviour, organizations make use of key performance indicators (KPIs). Els & De
Villiers, 2000 discussed KPIs were statistics and other measures that were considered to be
critical indicators that reflect key job performance behaviours.
Clear and specific performance standards or measures assist in ensuring that employees know
what he or she was required to perform, but to what benchmark this required to be completed.
Meyer & Donaho, (1979) studied that employees further serve future purposes in aiding the
ease of performance assessment, guiding counselling interviews and defining the parameters
for performance discipline.
Meyer and Donaho (1979) shared additional five benefits of establishing performance
measures which includes:-
i.) Employee and their supervisors were aware of the requisite level of performance.
ii.) Employee was able to constantly evaluate his / her own performance.
iii.) Employees experience greater comfort in the job, knowing what was required of them.
iv.) Better relations between the employee, peers and supervisor were likely as each of the
parties knows what was expected. Communication and the absence of anxiety about
performance requirements were more likely.
v.) Employees were more likely to discuss their performance and seek assistance and
direction from their supervisors when performance standards were known.
12
The central role of job analysis once again reverberated and it was highlighted that job
analysis assists in identifying performance measures. Performance measures aid the tracking,
measurement and management of performance and can serve as the criteria of job success.
Both objective and subjective measures of performance are typically in use. Gekoski, in 1964
studied that the starting point in the construction of appropriate performance measures was the
identification of organizational goals and objectives with consideration of divisional purpose
and objectives. The role of business strategy in performance measurement construction should
therefore not be underestimated.
Impact of HR practices, such as job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, employee recruitment, job satisfaction and job retention on job
performance is required to be explored. Differences in significance places on each of
these human resource practices would have also to be explored.
1.3 RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Levin, (2001) studied that finding and selecting the right person poses a business challenge.
O’Hara, (2001) also discussed that several candidates were accessible in the marketplace but
the recruitment of the appropriate candidates was not always easy. According to Els & De
Villiers, 2000 & Phelps, 2002 improved recruitment strategies were required to aid the
identification and selection of the right candidates and selection instruments suggested as one
way to aid this decision-making process. More efficient and effective recruitment processes
were needed to identify the right person for the positions of regulatory authorities as a result
of their direct impact on stakeholders and organization’s performance. In order to test for
adding value to the recruitment process there is not only need to meet formal requirements but
13
need to assist in the prediction of future performance.
Recruitment and selection of the right person for right job is a critical business activity. Poor
selection is not only expensive but can be detrimental to organizational functioning and can
negatively impact the organization’s ability to compete. In the race to succeed and achieve,
organizations need to make sure that right people are being selected to accomplish the right
job. It has become critical to ensure that selection processes are effective. Amos et al., studied
in 2004 that selection was the process of identifying the most suitable candidate to perform a
specific job from a pool of candidates obtained in the recruitment phase. It is in essence a
matching exercise whereby an organization sets out to find the best possible match of person
to job. The process is driven by pre-set criteria based on the job and the kind of individual
ideally appropriate to the job. These criteria need to be carefully and accurately mapped and
will ensure that the organization will identify a person that will be able to effectively perform
the job.
Robertson & Smith, (2001) studied that the ability to source and evaluate the right candidates
with the right skills and attributes was the main goal of personnel selection methods and
practices. Identification of the right skills and attributes was critical to organization’s
performance and success. Borman, Hanson & Hedge, (1997) studied that the main function of
the selection process could be seen as matching knowledge, skills and abilities to job
requirements
14
Amos et al. (2004) suggested a number of guidelines or elements for an effective selection
process. These include a clear selection policy, fair processes, legal compliance, thorough
analysis of the job, identification and understanding of appropriate recruitment and selection
criterion, fair assessment methods, trained selectors and follow up processes to determine and
assess the effectiveness of the selection process and decision-making. O’Hara, (2001) studied
that the starting point in the recruitment and selection process was a detailed analysis of the
job. Byars and Rue (2006) shared this sentiment and highlighted that the starting point in the
selection of human resources for an organization required to be a systematic considerate and
perfect description of the job that requests to be completed and how it should be completed.
Read, (2000) discussed that by understanding the position and detailing the job parameters, a
clear depiction of what would make a good match. In 2006 according to the study of Byars &
Rue job analysis was one of the methods suggested to assist in this regard. Job analysis
identifies the skills and abilities needed for the position and their relative importance viz-a-viz
contribute to a more objective comparison of candidates. Borman et al., 1997; Byars & Rue,
2006; Els & De Villiers, 2000; Statt, 2004 discussed that job analysis has a crucial role to
perform and expand a clear indulgent of the nature of person that will fit into the position and
to guide the selection of the right employees.
Great importance should be given for the selection of right person with the right knowledge,
skills, experience and attitude in the competitive business environment in which organizations
function. Improper selection processes can result in the placement of inappropriate candidates.
Improper selection can have an impact on the candidate and the organization. Performance
will suffer, if the individual is unable to produce as per the job requirements according to
15
Amos et al.,(2004) this was costly and time-consuming
Conversely, effective selection can have extremely positive effects on the individual and the
organization. A well selected individual will experience the achievement and fulfilment of
work goals. The organization in turn will achieve its goals and objectives by way of a
performing employee. This performance focus is critical in the public sector regulatory
authorities to improve the productivity. Within the regulatory authorities environment where a
positive link exists between selection of the right staff and productivity the emphasis on
effective selection is more prominent.
Knowledge about the job leads towards an effective selection process. It is critical that the
traits measured through the recruitment process must be important for job success. If the
organization has a clear understanding of what is needed, they can set a criterion about
matching individuals to the various positions. In order to make effective recruitment
decisions, knowledge is therefore needed about what the job requires to ensure successful job
performance. Byars & Rue, (2006) studied that job analysis was the starting point in an
effective process which assisted in highlighting the criteria for job success.
Personnel recruitment procedures and practices are in place to assist in predicting future job
performance. Tools are available to assist in this process, particularly with regard to the
measurement of the identified traits. Personality assessment and ability tests are two of the
tools presented to aid in this process. Research by Wright et al., 1995 and Outtz, 2002 has
shown that personality and performance were related with an intervening effect of cognitive
ability but jobs were constantly changing (Robertson & Smith, 2001). Ongoing validation of
16
recruitment methods and procedures is therefore critical to ensure that practices and tools are
measuring what is intended to measure. Recruitment and performance, brining together
through an accurate job analysis, form an integrated network in guiding a valid, fair and
reliable recruitment process. Ongoing validation is necessary to ensure that a relationship
between the recruitment process and performance exists, that the selection process is
measuring what it intends to, namely future job performance
1.4 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH
Following are the aims for this research:-
1.4.1 General Aim
The general aim of the research is to authenticate the impact of job analysis on job
performance with intervening part of recruitment process within the public sector regulatory
authorities and their stake holders.
1.4.2 Specific aims
The following aims are formulated for the literature review:-
• To conceptualize job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, job performance, job satisfaction, job retention and validity.
• To conceptualize the role of recruitment process in predicting job performance.
• To integrate the aspects of job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, job performance, job satisfaction, job retention and validation.
The following aims are formulated for the empirical study:-
• To determine the correlation between the job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job
security, job succession planning, job performance, job satisfaction and job retention.
• To determine the correlation of variables amongst the regulatory authorities.
17
• To evaluate whether job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, job satisfaction and job retention can be utilized as a predictor of job
performance.
• To determine an intervening outcome of the recruitment process on job performance.
1.5 EMPIRICAL STUDY
The empirical study is quantitative by nature and is presented in the shape of a descriptive
correlation study.
Following are the steps to be covered in this empirical study:-
Step 1. Defining the population and sample
Step 2. Outlining the measurement of biographic variables
Step 3. Outlining the measurement of constructs
Step 4. Describing the data gathering process
Step 5. Describing data processing
Step 6. Formulating and reflecting on the research hypothesis
Step 7. Reporting and interpreting research results
Step 8. Formulating conclusions
Step 9. Detailing research limitations
Step 10. Devising recommendations.
18
1.6 THE PROBLEM STATEMENT
There is a conflict and ambiguity in identifying right man for the right job in an organization.
Attempts to increase the productivity and reduce the turnover through proper job analysis
which is the foundation of a successful recruitment process that can be met with success and
other contributing factors like implementation of a suitable human resource model to
improve the process through a strategy is needed to be examined.
Identification of the right person for the right job presents a challenge and no single perfect
method exists. The challenge of the identification of the right person for the right job through
an effective human resource planning, keeping in view the recruitment process, is the pillar on
which this research is based. Different tools are required to aid the recruitment process. In
order to ensure their value-added and continuous use, however, assessments need to prove
their predictive power and link to job performance. Lowery, Beadles & Krilowicz, 2004,
(p.304) studied that the defining factor in the effectiveness of an organization was the quality
of its human resources, any procedure which can assist in making better recruitment decisions
was of immense benefit.
Lack of systemic structuring of a job portfolio (job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job
security and job succession planning) results in flawed recruitment. This leads to low
productivity due to inadequate job performance and eventually results in high turnover. The
practice in vogue of only carrying out job analysis for successful recruitment process has met
with little success and therefore other contributing factors need to be examined.
19
1.7 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis 1: Ho1 Job analysis is not positively related to job performance.
H1 Job analysis is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 2: Ho2 Job design is not positively related to job performance.
H2 Job design is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 3: Ho3 Job evaluation is not positively related to job performance.
H3 Job evaluation is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 4: Ho4 Job security is not positively related to job performance.
H4 Job security is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 5: Ho5 Job succession planning is not positively related to job
performance.
H5 Job succession planning is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 6: Ho6 Recruitment KSA will not mediate the relationship between job
analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, job satisfaction, job retention and job performance.
H6 Recruitment KSA will mediate the relationship between job
Hypothesis 7: Ho7 Job satisfaction is not positively related to job performance.
H7 Job satisfaction is positively related to job performance
Hypothesis 8: Ho8 Job retention is not positively related to job performance.
H8 Job retention is positively related to job performance
20
Hypothesis 9: Ho9 Job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning and recruitment KSA will not be positively
related to job performance.
H9 Job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning and recruitment KSA will be positively related to job
performance.
1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Human Resources HR-performance linkage has been given an enormous recognition in the
western countries and a lot of work has been carried out on this linkage. As a result, it has
been recommended by Anthony et al., 2002 & Dessler, 2003 that organizations those
actively adhere to the human resource practice like job analysis as a human resource planning
( HRP ) strategy were likely to expand competitive advantage. In the same line of analysis,
this study examines the impact of job analysis, a vital human resource practice, on the
employee job performance through creating HR-performance link in a non-western country,
through data collection from the selected public sector regulatory authorities of Pakistan
particularly with reference to recruitment process. Most of the earlier research on HR-
Performance link in on organizational performance whereas a diminutive work has been done
on the individual job performance.
A number of developing countries have instituted public sector reforms as a result of low
productivity and poor development indicators. Regardless of many efforts made to reform the
public sector the general perception was that the system basically remained alike to that
21
hereditary as of the past. Recently, the increasing Public-Private partnerships have sensitized
the public sector to concentrate on Human Resource Planning and subsequently introducing
Human Resource best practices that are generally observed in the private sector. The shift
from the dominatingly administrative mind set and culture, traditional policies and practices
to systemic Human Resource functions is more of a challenge as it would help in improving
the job performance resultantly enhancing the productivity in the public sector organizations.
The absence of systemically carrying out job analysis results in lack of other human resource
practices like job design, job evaluation, job security and job succession planning, making it
difficult to identify the right person for the right job leading to flawed recruitment
At present, public sector in Pakistan encompasses 42 ministries, 45 divisions and 232
organizations under the control of Federal government. As per Pakistan Public
Administration Research Centre, Establishment Division, sanctioned strength for the year
2006-07 in respect of all categories of federal government employees was 419,499 while the
number of occupied posts was 375,932 as on 1st July, 2006 which was 89.61% of the total
sanctioned strength. Of the total sanctioned posts, 5.29%, were sanctioned for BS-17 to 22
(Officers grades), 3.81% for BS-16, 12.58% for BS-11 to 15, 57.13% for BS-3 to 10 and
21.18% for BS-1 to 2 (Non-officers grade). Sanctioned strength for the year 2006-07 in
respect of employees of 198 autonomous bodies was 385,595 while the occupied posts were
330, 531 as on 1st July, 2006.
The evolving competition in a huge job market, having a population over 160 million, has
made productivity conscious, both the public and private sector. This aspect has geared up a
22
strapping significance and interest amongst the organizations to explore actively for the best
human resource practices to improve their effectiveness and efficiency and taken as a whole
performance. Thus, public sector offers an appropriate action to observe how human resource
practice, job analysis, which has received extensive deliberation in the developed countries as
a productive human resource planning tool effecting the job performance.
This study might be taken as an opening to corroborate and broaden the findings of Human
Resource-performance linkage conducted in the developed countries to a developing country.
The significance of job analysis as a vital human resource practice might be noticed from the
studies of researchers like Schuler & Jackson, 1996, Sherman et al., 1998 & Dessler et al.,
1999 who viewed it as the cornerstone and even above of all backbone of all human resource
activities. It gave an affluent basis of information about jobs and employees that human
resource professionals used to prepare documents such as job descriptions ( JDs ), job
specifications and performance evaluation reports. The usefulness of the human resource
practices required that jobs must be understood by the employees and the organization. The
conducting and importance of job analysis facilitated this consideration.
Despite of the fact and growing appreciation of the function of job analysis, there is a lack of
an empirical research in Pakistan which explicitly links job analysis to job performance with
relation to effective recruitments. This study has been premeditated to elaborate Human
Resource- performance association and test it with pragmatic data collected though a survey
of selected public sector regulatory authorities. The growth of regulatory regime in Pakistan
and having their own employee service regulations, several innovative human resource
management practices had been introduced. There is a recognition that organizations must
23
put together best HR practices to maintain its striving social and economic development
programmes. This study has been intended to come across the affects of positive basic HR
practices mainly job analysis and recruitment with the involvement of HR professionals and
employees on job performance in Pakistan.
1.9 PUBLIC SECTOR REFORMS IN PAKISTAN
In order to increase the rate of reformation, public sector organisations are installing the
concepts of best human resource practices that have been successful Human Resource
Planning (HRP) innovations adopted in the private sector. In accordance with the World
Bank’s Project Information Document (PID) report (2004), in Pakistan, the quality and
capability of public sector has been abating over time. To hasten growth, diminish poverty,
and facilitate private sector to comprehend their full talent in an aggressive market globally, a
widespread development is imperative in efficiency and culture of the government.
According to the World Bank report in 2003 implementation of on-going public sector
reforms was inseparably related with the potential and the worth of public sector.
It has been observed that the administrative and managerial proficiency of the public sector
employees has been declining. Human resource planning ( HRP ) in the public sector has not
been given adequate significance which led to stable erosion in capability and managerial
skills of the public sector employees. Public sector organizations rely on the consultants hired
locally of from abroad even for usual policy formulation and its execution, and their output is
generally not efficiently being utilized due to their lack of ability to understand. Job
succession planning depends upon performance evaluation reports quantification, job
experience, promotion quota, seniority cum fitness and in some cases fitness cum seniority.
24
As per Pakistan Public Expenditure Management PPEM, World Bank, 2003 report , Public
sector employment in Pakistan is enormously huge in the inter-country assessment, which is
certainly extreme with relation to its productivity and job performance. Furthermore, job
titles are heavily tilted towards lower grades, showing the productivity levels. Discrepancy
between skills and salaries has become increasingly inadequate to create a centre of attention
for managerial and technical talent at the superior levels but may be too munificent at lower
levels.
The rationale for the public sector reforms is to move forward and effectiveness of the
organizations to ensure their sustainability and affordability overtime. The eventual goal is to
get better the system which the society believe imperative and to move forwards the
institutional potential in public sector to perform main government functions. The core
intentions were to produce a competent and specialized civil service regime, reactive to the
requirements of the employees in varying socio-economic setting and fervent to become
accustomed of change and applying innovative and inspired solution by utilizing their
knowledge, skills and abilities to handle the worldwide and nationwide challenges.
Public sector employment in Pakistan is about 3.5 million which is 2.4% of the population.
The expenditure incurred on account of salaries is about 4.4% of (GDP) gross domestic
product. This data was closed to the countries like China, India and Bangladesh, but are
beneath for such vivacious countries like Korea or Malaysia. The average salary in public
sector organization was a numerous of per capita GDP as 2.9 which was at higher level in
25
Korea and Malaysia and at low level in China and Sri Lanka. Hence, there was a capacity for
rationalising the basic structure of the public sector.
1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Effectual recruitment is vital to enhance the job performance and productivity of an
organization through proper job analysis which is an important function of human resource
practices. This valuable information of job analysis will contribute to the knowledge of the
researchers as well as provide much needed information to the human resource managers.
The outcomes of the present study would be of great attention to the human resource
professionals and top-management as they search for ways to increase the productivity and
reduce the turnover through job satisfaction of their employees. Observing and documenting
the factors which influence job performance of an employee will form a data bank of
information that will be useful to HR managers / recruiters. Knowledge of such information
will facilitate a better method of manpower planning by the management and can be given to
HR professionals for integration of HRM into the business strategies. Policy-makers can also
benefit in developing budgets and long term plans for their respective organizations. An
understanding to assess the key success factors of a job insight (in the light of Knowledge,
Skills and Abilities) self-insight possessed by an employee will increase our knowledge of
behaviour in the job performance and contribute to the HR literature.
Indeed, this study defines how job analysis flows in the public sector organizations. In the
age where employment generation is a necessity, public sector organizations are faced with
challenges to hire the best among the aspirants. Basically, job analysis provides public sector
26
an avenue to relate its organizational needs with the prospects. Although, most of the public
sector organizations have developed quality recruitment processes but the effects of such
procedures are rare. Pubic sector has realized that something should be done to change the
environment. It helps when job analysis is incorporated in the process of recruitment. To
understand and analyze impact of job analysis on job performance in Pakistan's public sector
regulatory authorities of telecommunications, oil & gas, power, electronic media, capital,
corporate and banking sectors; and organizations being regulated by these regulatory
authorities have been selected for the present study.
27
1.11 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Research topic in this chapter has been introduced by briefly describing the job analysis, job
performance and recruitment processes to understand the impact of job analysis on job
performance in public sector organizations of Pakistan. The primary objective was discussed
concerning identifying those attributes of an employee that may influence the behaviour and
attitude in job performance. The literature review and the aim of research provided direction
for the focus of this study. This dissertation will be organized into five chapters. Chapter one
will discuss the background of the study and the research problems. Chapter two will
annotate the findings of relevant literature related to job analysis, job design, job evaluation,
job security , job succession planning and job performance in relation with recruitment-KSA
which influence the job performance and presents the theoretical foundation upon which this
study has been presented. The literature review would cover all the human resource practices
involved in the study and the work of other authors. The reader should be familiar with the
history and points of agreement and disagreement among the preceding studies, as well as
with the theoretical and empirical significance of each to the current research. Chapter three
will explain the Research Methodology. The Research Findings will be discussed in chapter
four. Finally, Chapter Five will present the discussion and implications of findings as
presented in Chapter IV and make suggestions and recommendations.
28
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review will be conducted to provide a conceptual framework from which to plan
and organize the research and interpret results. The literature review will entail obtaining
recent and relevant literature and the presentation of this material in a qualitative manner.
2.1 JOB ANALYSIS
Job analysis is an organized study of jobs to recognize the visible work activities, tasks, and
responsibilities related with a particular job or cluster of jobs. It is a process of looking at
exactly what a job entails and to identify the particular job duties and requirements in detail
reflecting the importance of these duties for a given job. The significance of job analysis in
applying human resource practices cannot be ignored, as job analysis has been described as
"the fundamental building block upon which all later decisions in the process would rest."
Importance of Job analysis has been narrated in the subject of personnel psychology which
determines the personal attributes like knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA) which are
imperative for the thriving job performance. Brannick and Levine (2002) defined the job
analysis as an organized process whereby nature of a job is discovered. Job or task is divided
into smaller units. McCormick, studied in 1976 that the collection and processing of job-
related information and other related tasks and qualifications through job analysis was a base
for human resource management (HRM). In Human Resources (HR) functions like
recruitment & selection, training & development, compensation & performance management,
job analysis has a vital role. Sanchez and Levine, discussed in 2000 that erroneous practice of
the job analysis may affect other HR activities based on it.
29
Practice of Job analysis as a management tool was developed just about 1900. Since than Job
analysis become one of the imperative tools by which managers and professionals directed
the organizations. Former research by Mullins & Kimbrough, 1988; Avolio & Waldman,
1989; Schmitt & Cohen, 1989 and Landy & Vasey, 1991 on job analysis persistent on the
variable like demographic in job analysis ratings.
Having interest in improving the efficiency of job, Taylor, studied the job as one of his
principles of scientific management. From his ideas and data, time and motion study of jobs
was emerged. This consciousness on job analysis stimulated as the human relations
associated with the determination on other issues and other human resource practices
emerged. Behavioural scientists and Psychologists rediscovered in 1960 jobs as a focal point
of study in the organizations. Till such time, job analysis has been focused only on the work
being carried out. This was altered in the 1970s as psychologists were attracted in job
analysis. Their involvement was in three areas such as (i) quantifying job analysis by
developing questionnaires for data collection; (ii) worker orientation to job analysis; and, (iii)
focusing on smaller units rather than the whole job, task, or elements within jobs.
Cascio, (1998) and Bowin & Harvey (2000) stressed the significance of job analysis as a
strategic HRM practice linked with the organizational performance. Antheny et al;(2002) and
Desslar, (2003) recommended that with the recognition of the Human Resource–Performance
linkage, organizations vigorously adopting job analysis as a human resource strategy were
likely to grow more and put on aggressive benefits. Gatewood & Feild, (1994) illustrated
that extent to which tasks and employee attributes for an assigned job was termed as job
analysis hence, job analysis techniques can also be termed as worker-oriented or work-
30
oriented. They further discussed that work oriented methods engaged clear description of
a variety of jobs or tasks to be performed, while, worker-oriented methods examined
human behaviours concerned with the work activities. Work or worker-oriented
technique what so ever be, job analysis methods allow the assumption of employee’s
knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) characteristics. Davis (1995), Gatewood & Feild,
(1994) studied the KSAs characteristics included in job-related information and the
necessary human abilities to perform certain job activities. The significance of
applicable KSAs could not be overstated, as these have an association with job
performance. According to Gatewood & Feild, (1994) job analysis was an instrument to
analytically gather data on tasks and behaviours leading to KSAs about virtually and any
kind of work activity.
Prien, (1977) emphasized on the importance of carrying out job analyses to recognize valid
predictors and criteria for job success which has also been acknowledged by the other
researchers and human resource professional, fully engaged in recruitment and selection
process. Dunnette, (1976) and Wernimont & Campbell, (1968) linked job analysis
information with recruitment process which was originated in the literature. Some of these
researchers pointed job analysis as the base of the entire recruitment and selection process.
The divergence was in a through consideration of the job performance realm which could
lead to the development of the system in which the personal attributes ( KSA ) required to
acceptably perform the jobs, identified and empirically linked with corresponding job
performance. In 1991, Harvey acknowledged the job analysis in relation with work
behaviours and associated tasks those were required for successful job performance.
31
Schuler & Jacksoon, (1996), Sharman et al., (1998) & Desslar et al., (1999) discussed the
importance of Job Analysis and conduction of Job Analysis which was obvious from the fact
that most of the researchers have declared job analysis as a backbone and cornerstone of each
and every human resource activity. Job analysis provides a foundation of requisite
information regarding jobs and employees that human resource professionals used to build up
such important documents such as job description (JD), job specifications and performance
appraisal. Despite of the acknowledgment of the pivotal role of job analysis in all human
resource activities, there was rear empirical research which linked job analysis to job
performance specifically. Towars, 1992, Pfeffar, 1998,Grerr, 2001 and Drucker 2002 studied
that the accomplishment of objectives set by the organizations in the current aggressive
situation mainly depends upon the talent of their human resources and professional
development programmes. Huselid (1994), Huselid, (1995); Delaney & Huselid, (1996)
confirmed that well-established human resource practices not only enhance job retention but
also make a considerable involvement in objective performance and enhance productivity.
As noticed above, linkage between the practice of job analysis and Job performance has not
been analytically found as yet, so there is an adequate amount of subjective evidence in the
current human resource practices -performance literature to anticipate a significant impact of
job analysis on job performance. Data of case studies has described how various
organizations have achieved an advantage upon following the practice of job analysis, one
imperative reason for exploring a significant association between job analysis and job
performance was the innermost position that job analysis occupy in the human resource
practices that contributed to job performance. Sharman et al. (1998) claimed that the
definitive rationale of job analysis was to improve job performance and output of an
32
employee. The significance and carrying out the job analysis has the latent to devise this
input to job performance both directly and inter-actively with other core HR practices.
In 1994, Clifford studied that the organizations admiring the importance of the job analysis
and regularly practicing the job analysis have a better knowledge and understanding of their
employees strengths and weaknesses accordingly a timely remedial action may be taken to
improve their deficiency in skills and abilities. Practice of conducting regular job analysis
can assist an organization in establishing an appropriate infrastructure by determining the
tasks to be performed as well as the deadlines for performing them. Regular practice of job
analysis contributed to the organizational performance by enhancing a positive job attitude
and job dedication. In addition, job analysis was capable to identify factors such as
employees motivation and job satisfaction. Gomez Mejea et al.,2000 & Mondy et al., 2002
studied that normal review of Job descriptions (JDs) and performance appraisal standards by
applying job analysis enormously helped the HR professionals and researchers to recognize
and eradicate redundant job requirements and areas of divergence causing job frustration.
2.1.1 Instruments of Job analysis and job performance
In order to initiate the management decisions, an organization requires an effective Human
Resource Information System (HRIS). This system must endow with existing but correct data
of the employees. Job analysis was found a useful means to glance insight the actual job
features of each job being an essential element of an efficient HRIS. The key documents like
job description, job specification and job standards were usually included in an
organization’s human resource information system. Other information contained in the HRIS
concerning with the employees, like job performance standards, fringe benefits, perks ,
33
compensation, government rules and prevailing regulations, legal issues, etc., made it a vital
resource for human resource professionals and managers to stay alongside each other of
organizational needs and innovative developments in the exterior environment. HRIS, a
valuable human resource planning tool, would certainly improve effectiveness and efficiency
of an organization and job performance.
Cardy & Dobbans, (1992) and Langdoon & Whitteside, (1996) and Siegal, (1997) defined
each job in terms of its specific role in an organization, recruitment and selection functions
could be polished to identify the candidates who might actively move forward organisational
targets and goals. Cardy & Dobbins, (1992) and Langdon & Whiteside, (1996) and Siegel,
(1997) emphasized on the competency-focused approach in the present environment, where
jobs and skills required to perform them successfully are rapidly changing and may be seen
as an indispensable improvement over the criterion approach to achieve organizational goals.
In 1991 Harvey has discussed four steps which were actively involved in conducting the Job
analysis. First, job or work activities performed on the job were elicited from job occupants
and supervisors. Second, activities and operations were grouped into tasks or duties to
simplify and organize statements and to eliminate overlapping. Third, the resultant list of job
tasks were rated on measures of overall significance to successful job performance. Finally,
the knowledge, skills and abilities required for successful job performance were identified for
development of selection instruments and potential training needs.
34
2.2 JOB DESIGN
According to Fried & Feriss, (1987); Parkar, Wall, & Corrdary, (2001) Job design has
developed a great deal of interest in the area of HRM during the recent decades. Morgason &
Campion, (2003) and Parkar & Waall, (1998) have discussed a basic principle in the job
design research according to which jobs were stimulated and associated with motivational
factors which contributed to the attitudinal and behavioural job performance outcomes.
Hackman & Oldham, (1976, 1980) developed Job Characteristics Model (JCM) derived from
the modern research on job design. Core job characteristics of Job Characteristics Model
were skill multiplicity, task distinctiveness, tasks implications, self-sufficiency and job
feedback which actively contributed to job stimulus and subsequently to three vital emotional
states practised meaningfulness, experienced responsibility and knowledge of results, which
has a great positively impact on employee motivation, job performance and outcome of
these like job satisfaction and job retention.
Kopelman, (1985); Fried & Ferris, (1987); Fried, (1991); Oldham, (1996) and Parker et al.,
(2001) exposed diverse results on the linkage between inspiring job characteristics and job
performance and outcome like turnover and absenteeism. Rousseau & Fried, (2001) and
Johns, (2006) found inconsistent results and suggested that background might play a vital
role in moderating employee reactions. Fried & Ferris, (1987); Fried, (1991); Xie, & Fang
(1992) and Parker et al., (2001) supported the hypothesized linkage between stimulating job
characteristics and job satisfaction, the extent of the relationship between the core job
characteristics and outcomes appeared to be moderate rather than high.
35
Johns, (2006) observed that job design theory and research endure from a lack of structured
attention to skeleton due to the situational opportunities and constraint that have an effect on
attitudes and behaviours. Kelly, 1992; Lidan, Wayne & Sparrowe, 2000; Parkar et al., 2001;
Rousseau & Fried, 2001; Wall, Corderry & Clegg, 2002 , Torraco, 2005 have recommended
the analytically incorporated relative factors into job design theory and research. Scholars
like Kelly, 1992; Campion, Papper & Medsker, 1996; Parker &Wall, 1998; Liden et al.,
2000; Parker et al., 2001; Wall et al., 2002; Andreou & Boone, 2002; Morgeson &
Humphrey, 2006; Grant, Campbell, Chen, Cottone, Lapedis, & Lee, 2002 have noticed that
by incorporating a range of factors such as operational and environmental uncertainty,
technological advancements, information technology, collective norms and characteristics
and social relations and relationships might move forwards the understanding of job design.
Herzberg, 1966; Chems, 1976; Steers & Mowday, 1977 and Hackman & Oldham, 1980
discussed four job design approaches which have been delineated as it demonstrated that
each approach was oriented toward the optimum utilization of a different sort of outcomes.
The first job design approach evolved was derived from the organizational psychology which
was the motivational. Focus of this approach was on those characteristics of jobs that
enhanced psychological meaning and motivational potential only like skill variety, autonomy
and task significance. Hackman and Oldham (1980) stressed that by growing skill variety,
through utilizing a greater number of skills, would lead towards job enlargement as
Herzberg's (1966) notion of job enlargement. Socio technical and managerial approaches
defined by Chems, (1976) would also increase the skill variety by expanding the boundaries
of the work process.
36
Taylor, 1911, Bames, 1980 and Niebel, 1988 discussed the second approach which came
from classic industrial engineering. It predicted that decreased complexity would increase
human resource competence and flexible outcome like ease staffing and short training
programmes resultantly it would decrease skill requirements. Efficiency could be attained as
specialize reduced the skill variety and simplification reduced the intensity of skills required.
Astrand & Rodahl, 1977; Tichauer, 1978 and Grandjean, 1980 discussed the third approach
of the job design which was the biological, evolved primarily from ergonomics which
focussed on reducing physical damage on the employee by tumbling strength and survival
requirements and working conditions. It resulted in less distress, fatigue and illness for
employees and the jobs have decreased physical ability requirements as well. The fourth job
design approach was discussed by Welford, 1976; Salvendy, 1987 and Sanders &
McCormick, 1987 according to which the perceptual/motor, which came primarily from
human factors oriented toward human mental capabilities and limitations, primarily by
striving to reduce the attention and concentration requirements of jobs.
Hackman & Oldham, (1976, 1980) and Pasmore, (1988) studied two dominated theoretical
framework of job design, one was Job Characteristics Model and other Socio-technical
System. Susman, 1976; Rousseau, 1977; Cummings, 1978; Kelly, 1978; Pasmore, Francis,
Haldeman & Shani, 1982; Wall & Jackson, 1995; Oldham, 1996; Holman & Wall, 2002
stressed about the employee autonomy over the aspects of the job e.g., timing and methods
which were acknowledged as the job characteristic of vital significance.
Wall and Jackson in 1995 noticed the significance of research explored by these job design
theories in the current working environment. In their view, job design theory has failed to
37
keep pace with the rapid changes in the technology particularly those which are dominated
by the information technology and by other management practices such as just-in-time (JIT)
and total quality management (TQM).
In this perspective, Roberts & Glick, 1981; Stone & Gueutal, 1985; Zaccaro & Stone, 1988;
Oldham, 1996; argued and questioned a denigration which had been raised repeatedly over
the years that prevailing job design frameworks presented an excessively limited perception
on psychologically important basics of job content. Wall and Jackson (1995) discussed a
strong prejudice inside the job design theory headed for motivational explanation of the link
between job characteristics and psychological outcomes, like job performance and job
satisfaction.
Empirical studies of Wall, Corbett, Clegg, & Jackson, 1990; Jackson & Wall, 1991; Wall,
Jackson, & Davids, 1992 suggested that increased in autonomy were related with qualitative
changes in employee’s behaviour steady with the learning and for job design researchers to
include a knowledge-based mechanism in their guided frameworks. Demerouti, Bakker,
Nachreiner, & Schaufeli (2001) emphasized the requirement to broaden the variety of
variables distressing job experiences.
Feldman & Bolino (1996) discussed factors such as world as a global village, rightsizing &
downsizing and rapid technological advancements brought about periods of vagueness and
revolutionization, which were likely to affect employee’s experiences and jobs both at
present and their future career stages. As per Hall & Chandler, (2005) studies career changes
and job transitions had become gradually more recurrent; employee’s reaction to their jobs
38
were probable to be created in a dominant way. Thompson, Baker, & Smallwood, 1986 and
Hall, 1996 studied that the careers of professional employees normally involved several
stages but most important were the first two stages of the Thompson et al. model (Blau,
1999).
In the first stage, employees were likely to focus on their routine work, by giving them little
autonomy. In the second stage, professional employees were involved independently by
giving them high autonomy even in complex tasks which required the use of multiple skills.
Carstensen, Isaacowitz & Charles, (1999) studied that employees near to their retirement
become more concerned with building meaningful relationships in which they can make long
lasting contributions that outlast themselves, benefit future generation, and build a legacy
which has further been observed by Wade-Benzoni in 2006. Further Grant, 2007 studied that
employees near to their retirement or completion of their contract period were expected to
exhibit predominantly constructive response to task or job significance opportunities to have
a constructive impact on other employee as a pathway to build relations and creating
meaningful, long lasting contributions those have been appreciated and accepted by the
others.
2.3 JOB EVALUATION
As defined by Werther & Davis (1993) “Job evaluation is a systematic process used to
determine the worth of jobs and creating a link between job worth and salary”. Gupta &
Chakraborty (1998) further clarified that as the worth of a job is determined, it might be seen
in terms of salary and other fringe benefits in accordance with the existing salary structure of
the organization. Normally, other factors like age, gender, relevant job experience and
39
additional qualification were also considered. The vital role of job evaluation in wage
administration has been grown and gained importance hence several organizations are
implementing alike worth policies. Das & Garcia-Diaz (2001) intimated a widely used
method of job evaluation called point based job evaluation method, where jobs were rated on
a set of various factors, which were easily understandable. This system has reliability in
producing accurate results.
Job evaluation is implemented in many large private and public sector organizations since
long, however smaller organizations are less interested to adopt it. Formal job evaluation
schemes have been prepared having empirical research conducted since the 1940s. Several
attempts have been made to establish the factors and their point weightages. Charnas et. al.
(1955), Llewallyn (1964), Gupta & Ahmad (1988), Ahmad (1989); Gupta & Chakarborty
(1998) developed a linear model to evaluate the comparative worth of the job. In such
method, the weightage was given to every factor which was assigned any value and all the
factors were equally important. Pittal (1999) and Das & Garcia Diaz (2001) determined the
factor weights by means of the regression analysis results of the salary survey. Further
studies of Collans & Muchinsky 1993, Chen et al. 1999, Rutt & Doverspikke 1999, Olson et
al. 2000, Welbourne & Treivor 2000, Arnault et al. 2001, Morgeson et al. 2001, Rotundo &
Sackatt, 2004 have also tested the validity and outcome of the job evaluation system in vogue
used for salary determination.
Job evaluation may be conducted through two distinct processes namely matching and
restricted evaluation. Quite a lot of jobs were aliked to each others and corresponding jobs
40
involved interpreting them and comparing them factor by factor. Three stages were involved
during the job evaluation process:-
i.) Watts & Green (2004) developed a forty four page job analysis questionnaire
which was to be completed by the employees with help of their supervisor or
peers.
ii.) Questionnaire was reviewed by two professional job analysts to make sure that it
was accurate.
iii.) Questionnaire on completion has to be signed and a panel was deputed to evaluate
it. If all factor levels were within the specified range, this called a perfect profile.
The development of a high performance work systems has raised questions about the
viability of job evaluation in the workplace. Job evaluation is essentially a system that
formally compares the characteristics of dissimilar jobs and links these to pay. It has been
most prevalent in large organizations and for jobs for which there is no direct market rate of
pay and can vary in terms of its content, orientation and objectives. All jobs are evaluated,
but in some cases the process of evaluation is more formal. Evaluation can thus involve, on
the one hand, the invocation of a formal system for comparing jobs across an organization,
or, on the other, a set of ad hoc principles developed by management. Formal systems
themselves can vary markedly and a key distinction is between those which involve the
detailed points rating of jobs (analytical schemes) and those which adopt a more holistic
approach (non-analytical).
Levine, (1983) studied the nature of job evaluation which can also vary according to the
rationale behind its introduction. In some cases, it represented an attempt to develop a feeling
41
of fairness among employees about the relative remuneration of workers who work alongside
each other. As such, it could be seen as a part of the process for generating the commitment
of employees to their organization’s aims and objectives. Such commitment were unlikely to
be impending among workers who felt that the distribution of rewards was not equitable.
Consequently, their organizations were unlikely to operate at a high level of efficiency.
Additionally, formal job evaluation involves the organization specifying job structures and
career-paths, thereby suggesting to employees clear development paths and promotion
opportunities. This could be an important element in generating the employee commitment
on which many high performance work systems depend.
2.3.1 Job evaluation and Job design relationship
Milkovich & Newman, (1990) studied that Job design and job evaluation are included in the
shape of job analysis for various purposes. In order to conduct job analysis by assigning the
tasks and formation of job descriptions ( JDs ) it was recommended to conduct job evaluation
as a first step. Researchers Schwab, 1980; Milkovich & Newman, 1990 suggested that while
considering job design as a method of analysis it must be incorporated for conducting job
evaluation. Finally, most job design measure like Job Emagnostic Survey was carried out by
Hackman & Oldham in 1975; Sims, Szilagyi, & Keller, 1976 discussed Job characteristics
Inventory in 1976 and Multi method of Job design Questionnaire was discussed by Campion
in 1988.
Correlation between job evaluation and job design has been studied and empirically proved.
Dunham (1977) tested correlations between job evaluation based on the Position Analysis
42
Questionnaire. McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham, (1972) also founded correlations with job
evaluation. Other empirical studies of Rousseau, 1982; Schneider, Reichers, & Mitchell,
1982 and Gerhart, 1988 provided indirect support by testing correlations with Job skill
requirements. In all such cases, positive correlations were observed, there was found no
negative correlations with skill requirements and negative relationships were also observed
with physical needs. Campion replicated these findings in 1988.
2.4 JOB SECURITY
Job security is defined as employee’s desires to be retained in their current jobs till their
retirements. Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984; Borg & Elizur, 1992; Greenhalgh & Sutton,
1991 and Jacobson, 1991 studied apprehension of the employees upon lack of enviable job
characteristics like slow promotions, working environment and conditions and enduring
career opportunities. Job security was an important research topic for the social scientists as
it has an impact on social justice and human dignity. Human dignity was directly related to
the job security as it affected the ability of employees to satisfy the basic physiological and
security needs. Psychologists have recognized job insecurity as an imperative cause of stress
which involved anxiety and panic.
Media reporting on downsizings and surplus staff has created an acuity amongst the general
public that job security was evolving as an article of the past. There are several reasons for
the growing literature on job security. One relates to the large number of people involuntarily
unemployed during the 1980s: 4.3 million people were permanently displaced between 1985
and 1989 alone (Herz, 1991). Ashford et al. (1989), highlighted the frequency of
43
organizational restructuring and merging, while Bennett (1990) noted the growing concern
over worker obsolescence and technological displacement.
Over the past decade, Greenhalgh & Rosen- Blatt, 1984; Ashford, Lee & Bobko, 1989;
Roskies & Louis-Guerin, 1990; Greenhalgh & Sutton, 1991; Jacobson, 1991; Borg & Elizur,
1992 focused on the relationship between job security and employee work attitudes and
behaviours. McLean Parks & Schmedemann, (1994) studied that job security controlled in an
emotional contract might affect an employee’s perception about the organization.
Various human resource policies and procedures have value addition in the development of a
psychological contract. For instance, human resource researchers Sims, 1994; Rousseau &
Greller, 1994 have considered how recruitment and selection, Sims, (1994) training,
Rousseau & Greller, (1994); compensation and fringe benefits and employee relations by
Lucero & Allen, (1994). Further studies of McLean Parks & Schmedemann in 1994 and
Rousseau & Greller in the same year encouraged the creation of a psychological contact.
This had a particular importance in case of job security amongst the employees, as job
insecurity has been noticed as pessimistic consequences for the organizations and represented
a mounting apprehension for a lot of professionals.
Consistent with the research on psychological contract breach, Morrison & Robinson, 1997
Lester, Turnley, Bloodgood, & Bolino, 2002 argued that regular employees would make
external and internal attributions to notice that why such organization has relied on
temporaries or contractual employees. Pfeffer & Baron, 1988; Davis-Blake & Uzzi, 1993;
Matusik & Hill, 1998 studied that temporary, contractual and daily wages employee may be
44
hired during the peak period and subsequently may be released when demand was
downwards.
Jacobson, 1991 studied that a large number of employees have experienced a basic and
instinctive change in their set of beliefs about the organization and their position in it.
Cameron, Sutton & Whetten, 1988; Davy, Kinicki & Scheck, 1991; Greenhalgh & Sutton,
1991 stressed that the involuntary change in beliefs was triggered by mergers, layoffs signs
of reduced effectiveness by the organization, restructuring to cut costs. The importance of
understanding job security's role has been studied by Brockner, DeWitt, Grover & Reed,
1990 and Davy et al., 1991 in connection with the emphasis over the past decade on
employee reactions to major organizational change. Davy, Kinicki, Kilroy & Scheck, 1988
explained such major organizational changes as downsizing and mergers, the most threatened
set of employee expectations was job security. Therefore, it was necessary to understand
how this threat has an impact on individuals' psychological and cognitive reaction.
Interest in the effects of job security and insecurity have led to a prevalence of empirical
research focused on the relationship between job security and its outcomes. Arnold and
Feldman, 1982; Oldham, Julik, Ambrose, Stepina & Brand, 1986 studied and tested that job
security was positively correlated with job satisfaction and organizational commitment but
on the other hand Arnold and Feldman, 1982; Ashford et al., 1989 found negatively
correlated with intention to quit . Although these studies uncovered significant correlations,
they did not investigate the sequential and indirect effects between job security and important
work outcomes. These studies also failed to examine whether the nature and strength of the
relationships between job security and its outcomes are different in situations with different
45
levels of insecurity or threat. These are important omissions because they limit the ability to
theoretically explain or understand the psychological process by which job insecurity affects
various criteria. This lack of understanding limits our ability to develop effective remedial
programs that will limit serious organizational consequences.
Roskies & Louis-Guerin, 1990; Davy, Kinicki, & Scheck, 1991; Geary, 1992; Tsui, Pearce,
Porter, & Tripoli, 1997 found that employee having concerns regarding job security were
found as a result from the organizational practices which affected the existing employee and
employer relationship, as per Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984; Ashford, Lee, & Bobko, 1989;
studies or from the nature of the psychological contract itself as discussed by Rousseau in
1989. Rousseau, 1990; Robinson et al., 1994; Shore & Tetrick, 1994; Cavanaugh & Noe,
1999 and Smithson & Lewis, 2000 believed that job security was imperative in this situation
as it was indicated that extent to which the employee’s psychological contracts were based on
conviction and shared affection.
Ashford et al., 1989; Boselie, Hesselink, Paauwe, & Van Der Wiele, 2000 studied that Job
insecurity was negatively related to the belief and trust in the organization, further Ashford et
al. found that perceived job insecurity explained 26% of the variance of trust and belief in the
organizations. Thus, findings of Porter et al., in 1974 provided an evidence of job security as
a relational psychological contract built on shared trust and confidence. Organizational
commitment was found as a strength of an employee’s recognition with their affection to an
organization. Allen & Meyer identified three forms of commitment in 1996 which were
affective, normative and continuance. Affective was examined and related with the job
performance, O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986 and Randall, 1990 linked with job satisfaction,
46
Bowen & Schneider, 1999 with turnover and Blau & Boal, 1987; Huselid & Day, 1991;
Cohen & Hudecek, 1993 and Somers, 1995 with Intention to turnover. Mobley et al., 1978
and Tett & Meyer, 1993 studied willingness of employees to leave the organization for
another job and their intention to begin searching for a new job Intention to turnover was the
most predictive variable of actual turnover in organizations also confirmed by Hom et al.,
1992; Griffeth et al., in 2000.
2.5 JOB SUCCESSION PLANNING
Job Succession planning was a positive effort to ensure that top management and human
resource professionals in an organization would be identifying how the vacant positions
would be filled if an employee quit his or her job. Rothwell, 2005 studied that job Succession
planning ( JSP ) included cultivating and preparing talent from within an organization, or
forecasting recruitment and selection activities for outside talent. Job Succession planning is
a way of conducting potential evaluations. This process, which is usually done for top
management positions, requires senior managers to identify employees who should be
developed to replace them. Information generated during succession planning may not be
communicated to the employee.
If top management believe that employee has a high potential for advancement, they may be
more likely to evaluate the person favourably and promote him or her more quickly than
actual performance warrants. If succession plans are not communicated to the employee, the
organization runs the risk of a mismatch between the employee’s career plans and its plans for
47
the employee. Making this information available to the employee can ensure that he or she
develops realistic career plans and reduces the chances that the person will refuse the position.
Job Succession planning is an important human resource practice for private as well as public
sector organizations. According to Frauenheim studies in 2006 , Job Succession planning was
becoming very common practice in the Public sector organizations also. Greenwald, (2001)
found that Job Succession planning was more likely to happen if new positions were created.
Bernthal, Rioux & Wellins, 1999; Guilford, 2000 discussed the visualization of an extensive
percentage of senior management retirements during the next three to five years considering
a major challenge to fill such positions.
Previously a widespread modus operandi used to resolve probable replacements of senior
managers was referred as implementation of job succession planning. The term referred to a
systematic and controlled system of identifying job position substitution, best used in
comparatively stable work environments. Bernthal et al., 1999 studied that it relied a great
deal on performance management data and recommendations of the top management within
the organization. In 2001 Byham et al., noticed that several organizations supposed job
succession planning as cumbersome and neither effective in the retention of talented staff nor
in the replacement of outgoing senior management.
Hall & Associates (1986) defined job succession planning as a premeditated process for self
awareness, constraint, choice, opportunity and consequences to identify career related goals
and development for future jobs, education and related experience to provide the direction,
timing and series of steps to achieve a precise career goal. A significant stress will be on the
development of internal capability, which can also contribute to organizational willingness
48
when contingency crop up. Future competencies are utilized as the criteria towards which
employees should be trained and developed. The role of top management is not to
categorize specific employee to replace them, but to identify developmental
opportunities, create challenging assignments that are innermost to the organization
and create a tea orientation and serve as a role models for those who are being developed.
Greenhaus, et al. studied in 2000 that changing environments, like change of business
strategies and directions, organization downsizing and rightsizing, mergers and acquisitions
and fast paced technological changes, would require fragmentary career management,
resulting in the need to reappear career option and modifying job succession planning.
Further research work carried out by Greenhaus, Callanan & Godshalk in 2000 supported the
controversy that effective job succession planning could enable individuals to make informed
decisions those were steady with their aspiration, talents and values to improve
organizational effectiveness.
Lee (2000) studied that practice of job succession planning in the organizations was expected
to boost employee’s job satisfaction and reduce turnover. Several researchers, who studied
other views of job satisfaction, have also appreciated this concept. First, many authors
identified job satisfaction as a condition of brains and interpreted differently. Chay &
Bruvold in 2003 defined job satisfaction as an employee’s arousing comeback to explicit
aspects of the job. Noe (1996) defined it as a enjoyable emotions that resulted from the
observation that his or her job fulfiled or allowed for the achievement of his or her important
job values as stated by Appelbaum et. al., in 2002
49
Chen, Chang & Yeh (2004) surveyed the ability of job succession planning in respond to
career desires at different career stages and its influence on job satisfaction, training and
development and productivity amongst the research and development workforce. One of the
major conclusions of the research was job succession planning positively influenced job
satisfaction and productivity. The eventual purpose of job succession planning was to prepare
an organization for risks linked with the planned or unplanned loss of knowledge that was
vital to the achievements of the organization.
50
2.6 EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT
There is an extensive increase in the research of employee recruitment since 1970s. If some
one peruse review on recruitment research of Rynes, 1991; Breaugh, 1992; Wanous, 1992
and Barber, 1998;, one can find a mix of hopefulness and glumness. Researchers were
satisfied upon increased research on recruitment with a confidence that advancement in
appreciative of the belongings of recruitment activities was being considered. At the same
time they were found frustrated due to sluggish advancement in understanding the
recruitment process. Workings of Rynes in 1991, Breaugh (1992) and Barber (1998) was
referred as a comprehensive exposure of recruitment research .
Taylor & Collins, (2000) studied recruitment as one of the most critical Human Resource
activity which was vital for the organizational success. Boudreau & Rynes, (1985) studied
that it was not so easy for organizations to attract potential employee as the organizational
attraction influenced the effectiveness of successive selection. Barber, 1998; Chapman,
Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin & Jones, 2005 conducted an extensive research in the area of
recruitment and candidate attraction during the last 25 years.
Barber, ( 1998) discussed the recruitment function more closely related to the organization’s
strategic human resource planning. From the organization’s perspective, developing a
recruitment strategy involves three basic decisions, determining the target population,
determining the applicant source, and deciding how to attract applicants to the organization.
Organizations must consider what to offer applicants in the form of pay, benefits, work
environment, and other fringed benefits. Research Scholars Rynes, 1991, Barber, 1998;
51
Breaugh & Starke, 2000; Anderson, 2001; Highhouse & Hoffman, 2001 have frequently
asked for more research addressing the recruitment process as characterized by the
candidate’s congregation information from a variety of organizations and controlled personal
relations with the organizational representatives. Taylor & Collins, 2000, Turban & Cable,
2003, Slaughter, Stanton, Mohr, & Schoel, 2005 discussed that such stages were significant
as the information incorporated in recruitment material predisposed the job seeker’s first
organizational attractiveness and thus the type of those composing the applicants pool.
Recruiting is not just a game of human numbers anymore. For HR professionals, this means
going a step further than developing a recruitment plan. It means working closely with
management on shaping organization culture and looking closely at the job attribute
preferences of its current and future employees. One liability of the HR professional is to
converse the attributes of a particular job undoubtedly. Butler, Sanders, & Whitecotton, 2000
studied the extent to which the recruiter knew, what was really important to the candidate,
same information about the job could be provided. To attract the people wanted, many
organizations are just “increasing” their pay levels, trying to buy the talent they need by
paying more. However, this strategy may not be delivering the best results. Skills that are
scarce now may not remain so in the future, presently IT skills are scarce, but many
remember when engineers were in short supply. Paying more can lead to an eventual
imbalance between what people are paid and how much their skills are worth in the longer
term. Paying more also leads to higher compensation costs for the organizations.
The term recruitment defined by Barber sufficed: "recruitment included such activities which
were being carried out by the organization to identify and attract potential employees" (p.5).
52
Rynes (1991) noticed that a large amount of the recruitment research has determined the
recruitment sources. Bergmann & Taylor, 1984; Rynes, 1991; Williams, Labig, & Stone,
1993 and Vecchio, 1995 studied that most of the recruitment research focused on the
accomplishment of one recruitment method over another and the effect on job candidates
and realistic job previews as studied by Breaugh, 1992; Fedor, Buckley, and Davis, 1997;
Hom, Griffeth, Palich, & Bracker, 1998 allowed applicants to feel easy and self-selected by
giving them positive and negative information about the job
Rynes, Bretz, & Gerhart, 1991 discussed that HR professionals have to play a vital role in the
overall recruitment process as they have to communicate information about the job itself and
the organization. Barrick & Zimmerman, 2005 further studied that source of information
about the job and the organization influenced similar to perceived person-job fit and
subsequent attraction and job retention. Wanous, 1977, Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh & Starke,
2000 studied that the fundamental assumption was that precise and pragmatic job information
enables applicants to think about the degree of similarity between their knowledge, skills and
abilities (KSA) and the other job requirements.
Phillips, (1998) and Meglino, Ravlin, & De Nisi, (2000) studied that precise and pragmatic
job information during the recruitment and selection process was linked with positive work
outcomes like low attrition, job satisfaction, low voluntary turnover and enhanced job
performance. Applicants who felt a better fit between their knowledge, skills and abilities
(KSA) and their job requirements were likely to accept a job offer.
Chatman, 1989 discussed in Person-Organization (P-O) fit the experience of hiring
workforce for organizations not just jobs. Person-organization fit attempted to be aware of
53
selection processes that occurred beyond knowledge, skills and abilities corresponding to
offer the potential for a more stretchy and broad approach to employee. The significance of
person-organization fit for organizations was studied by significant relationships between
person-organization fit and turnover by Chatman, 1991; Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001;
Cable & DeRue, 2002, work or job attitudes by Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Cable & DeRue,
2002, organizational citizenship behaviours by O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986; Cable & DeRue,
2002, teamwork by Posner, 1992, ethical behaviour by Posner, Kouzes & Schmidt, 1985,
stress by Matteson & Ivancevich, 1982 and job performance by Tziner in 1987.
2.6.1 Recruitment Process
Personnel recruitment and selection activities are quite an investment. Every year,
organizations spend enormous amounts of money recruiting and selecting job applicants.
Pearlman and Barney (2000) estimate, for example, that organizations sometimes spend in
excess of $10,000 for the recruitment and administration of standard selection procedures for
each job applicant. Not only does this costly estimate highlight the importance of utilizing
valid selection procedures so that money is not wasted hiring poorly qualified individuals,
but it also highlights the importance of ensuring that an organization's selection procedures
do not work against it by turning away qualified and desirable applicants. Recent years have
seen an abundance of research noticing the applicant reactions to recruitment and standard
selection procedures.
Rynes (1991, p. 429), Heneman & Skoglind (1997) and Judge (2006) described recruitment
process as a part of the staffing process whereby the individual and the organization become
54
mated to form the employment relationship. Meyers (1992) defined recruitment as the human
resource management activity of developing external and internal sources of qualified
applicants. The recruitment process concentrated on planning about the recruitment,
cultivating recruitment sources, attracting applicants for job vacancies and evaluating their
results. These definitions described the recruitment process from the organizational
perspective. Research scholars have suggested a different, and more productive, approach to
the recruitment process. Newton (1998) suggested that the recruitment process is not just a
function of the organization, but rather an interactive process where both the organization
representative and the applicant make decisions. How and where to advertise position
vacancies, deciding which applicants to interview and invite for site visits and offering jobs
are all decisions made by organizational representatives. Applying for open positions,
accepting interviews and site visits, and whether or not to accept a position if offered are all
decisions made by job applicants. Both the applicant and the organizational representative
must make affirmative decisions at each stage of the process for the recruiting efforts to be
successful. Schwab, Rynes and Aldag (1987) defined recruitment as a two-way process
where organizational representatives and job applicants make decisions.
Most of the researchers believe that understanding the recruitment process from both
perspectives is crucial to achieving positive recruiting results. Stern (1999) suggests that
organization should treat candidates as customers and that organization need to sell their
positions as well as their organization. Consequently, he contends that organizations need to
be proactive in selling their job openings by tailoring the sell toward the applicant specific
needs. Organizations that view applicants as customers will also plan their search properly,
devote the appropriate time on the process, understand the job market, find out all they can
55
about the applicants, understand and respond to the applicant's concerns or misgivings early,
assume they are competing for each applicant and be prepared to praise the organization and
outline future goals and objectives.
As the number of qualified applicants continues to decline, successful organizations are
beginning to understand the important role that applicants have in entire the recruitment
process. Regardless of which approach might work best, practitioners and researchers agree
that the recruitment process needs to be well planned and organized. Fernandez and Araoz
(1999) suggested that “it was impracticable to rotate hiring into a Science but it was found
that an organized approach significantly improves the probability of hiring the right person.
Heneman & Skoglind, (1997) studied that consistent with actual recruiting practices, early
recruitment studies focused on organizational perspectives investigating activities undertaken
to further the attainment of organizational goals, such as survival, profitability, and growth.
Various literature reviewed by Harris & Fink 1987, Ulrich et al; 1995 suggested that during
the first half of the century researchers investigating personnel selection did so from the
organizational perspective. Arvey et. al., (1982) noted that researchers have depleted more
than 60 years attempting unsuccessfully to establish the reliability and validity of the
selection interview.
Researchers seem to agree that even though the interview is not a good predictor of future job
performance, it is still widely used to identify and select applicants. As a recruitment tool the
interview can be an invaluable tool for sharing information about vacant positions and the
organization. According to the research literature on interviews, some structural factors will
maximize the success of the interview process, especially as it relates to recruiting.
56
Campion, et al; (1996) reviewed nearly 200 articles and books to identify a number of
structural components that enhance the interview process.
2.7 JOB PERFORMANCE
In order to identify the vital aspects of a job and what knowledge, skills and abilities ( KSA )
are mandatory for thriving job performance, Job analysis methods and outcome of job
analysis like job specifications and job descriptions are the organized procedures and
documents extensively used in the organizations. Visser et. al., (1997) studied in Psychology
literature that core competencies were characteristically unoriginal by means of various job
analysis methods. Job performance may be defined as how glowing the job is being
completed as per well-known standard operating procedures. McConnell, (2003) defined job
performance as an accomplishment which could be pragmatic and measurable. Popovich
(1998) narrated Job performance as a complex phenomenon as diverse variables manipulate
job performance. Such variables comprising age studied by Wright & Bonett, (2002),
recognition of achievements discussed by Cronin & Becherer, 1999; Fort & Voltero, 2004
and job satisfaction by McConnell, 2003; Tzeng, 2004. Each and every one of these
variables would positively persuade employee job performance.
Judge & Ferris, 1993 considered Job performance appraisal as one of the most imperative
human resource (HR) practices. Although the requirement for several variety of performance
appraisal (PA) system was frequently acknowledged but the realistic worth of performance
appraisals was often questioned as studied by McNerney, 1995; Murphy & Cleveland, 1995
but this was found steady with other management practices. Murphy & Cleveland, (1995)
57
discussed the performance appraisal procedure as one of the function which believed to be a
requirement in terms of making administrative and financial decisions, providing legal
protections and even recuperating job performance
Zedeck & Cascio, 1982, Bernardin & Beatty, 1984; De-Nisi, Cafferty, & Meglino, 1984;
Kellam, & Armstrong, 1984, DeNisi, Blencoe, & Cafferty, 1985, Longenecker, Gioia, &
Sims, 1987; Murphy, Balzer, Murphy & Cleveland, 1995; discussed that earlier research
specified that the developmental and evaluative use of performance appraisal were unsuited.
Human resource professional Harvey, 1995; McNerney, 1995 advised to separate the job
evaluation from employee career growth, even portentous that employees could not receive
accurate feedback about their strengths and developmental needs if use of performance
appraisal were associated. This divergence was whispered to thwart the performance
appraisal procedure from attaining its targets and goals and worth to the organization.
Borman & Motowidlo (1993) presented a model of job performance which reflected such
behaviours that were inclusive of job performance sphere , classified as either task or relative
performance. Coleman & Borman, 2000 studied that task performance was termed as
behaviours that contributed in a straight line to the organization’s technical core and included
those actions which were typically recognized as a part of the job. Borman & Motowidlo,
1993 studied that appropriate performance referred to those behaviours that maintained the
enormous social environment in which the technical core must function. It included more
unrestricted behaviours that assisted the organizations to function
Personnel selection usually requires the identification of the human attributes required for job
performance and the subsequent assessment of applicants in those terms. An important issue
58
in this process is the translation of job descriptions into the attributes required to attain
appropriate levels of performance. Generally this process is conducted intuitively and, as
Guion (1976) remarks, is only based on some more or less plausible relationship between job
duties and human attributes. The challenge of establishing a systematic translation between
descriptors of job and human attributes has recently received considerable attention.
Two broad approaches of job performance have been developed. The first involved the'
ability requirements approach' and was characterized by the work of Fleishman and his
colleagues Fleishman, 1967; Fleishman & Hogan, 1978. An alternative approach concerning
'job components' has largely been associated with the work of McCormick and his co-
workers at Purdue University McCormick, 1959, 1967, 1974; McCormick et al., 1979.
Fleishman's ' ability requirements approach described jobs in provisos of the abilities
obligatory to perform them. The attributes involved in a job are assessed by using a set of
behaviourally anchored rating scales. Profiles of basic abilities which account for job
performance can therefore be derived. Fleishman & Hogan, 1978 studied that performance
on tasks with ' similar' ability requirements can be predicted and individual performance is
consequently predictable on the basis of the requisite abilities possessed
The professional HR literature is currently dedicated to measuring, and reporting upon, the
quantifiable relationship between an organization’s human resouce practices and its
performance, referred to henceforth as the Human resource - Performance link. Kingsmill, in
2003 studied that the government was also interested in this link. Wright et al., 1999
discussed the question of how HRM policies and practices were linked to organizational
performance which was a subject of immense attention to both academics and professionals
59
However, linking human resource management practices with employee job performance
was unexplored and required an enormous consideration predominantly in the perspective of
public sector organizations. Cascio, 1998; Bowin and Harvey, 2001 have taken a step by
emphasizing the importance of job analysis not only as a vital human resource practice but
also as a strategic human resource management practice having a contribution to the
organizational performance. Anthony et al., 2002; and Dessler, 2003 explored that with the
growing identification of the human resource practice - performance linkage, it has been
recommended that organizations that vigorously follow job analysis as a Human Resource
Planning (HRP) strategy were likely to achieve competitive lead on others.
Earlier research by Beer et al., 1985; Barney, 1991, Pfeffer, 1994; Lado and Wilson, 1994,
Becker et al., 1997; Lengnick-Hall M.& Lengnick-Hall C.A 1999; Sandberg, 2000; in the
field of human resource management identified some instant sound effects of human
resources practices, acknowledged as human resource management outcomes. Such human
resource management outcomes included knowledge, skill and abilities ( KSA ) or
competence. Gaining a lead from the concept of the self insight which is the competence and
job insight, human resource practices like job analysis, tasks and responsibilities conceptual
models and immediate human resource management outcomes identified by earlier
researchers, it was possible to develop an integrated HR practice-job performance model.
Underpinning claims from the professional HR community and government, empirical
research papers that have appeared over the last decade, claiming there was a quantifiable
link between an organizations’ human resouce practices and its performance. However, there
was a problem with this approach of empirical research on the HR-Performance link, that
60
was under-theorized. Some, but by no means all, of those involved in this research were
aware of the problem.
2.8 JOB SATISFACTION
One of the most used research definition of job satisfaction was narrated by Locke in 1976,
who defined it as “a pleasant or optimistic arousing state consequential from the evaluation
of one’s job or job experiences” (p. 1304). Inherent in Locke’s definition was the
significance of both affects, or emotion and cognition or thoughts. Whenever we imagine, we
have belief about what we consider. On the contrary, when we feel, we assume about what
we believe. Cognition and influence are thus inextricably related in psychology and even in
biology. Thus, while evaluating the jobs most important factor was both thinking and feeling
involved.
Fried & Ferris, 1987; Parisi & Weiner, 1999; Weiner, 2000 studied that foremost job
satisfaction area was dependent on the nature of the job itself, which integrated job
challenges, autonomy, skill variety and job scope, best predicted overall job satisfaction, and
other important outcomes like employee retention. Thus, to comprehend what made people to
be satisfied with their jobs, nature of job itself was one of the first places for researchers to
spotlighting. There was an emerging interest amongst the human resource researchers and
professionals to find a degree to which employees were satisfied with their jobs, and more
usually in comfort at job. Marks, (2006) discussed a positive linkage between employees’
happiness and productivity. Previosly, Layard in 2005 has studied this interest in employee
61
happiness which reflected in other fields, especially within the new ‘economics of happiness’
literature
In order to explore the association between HR practices and job satisfaction, there has been
extensive debate in the literature over the sound effects of HR practices on job satisfaction.
Guest, (2002) identified that job satisfaction as a key variable mediating or intervening any
positive link between human resources ( HR ) practices and organizational performance.
Green, (2006) studied that in disparity, researchers suggested that in UK, the implementation
of human resources practices has been related with higher levels of job intensity resultantly
lowered the levels of job satisfaction. Appelbaum, (2002) noted that human resource
practices adopted as part of a high-performance work system were not mainly premeditated
to increase job satisfaction, in practice, they might or might not have such effect. It might be
the case that human resource practices impact on job satisfaction such as satisfaction with
sense of achievement or satisfaction with salary. Hence, future research is required to assess
the actual effects of human resource practices on individual’s job satisfaction and overall job
satisfaction.
What might be the expected impact of human resource practices on job satisfaction? It might
be expected that these practices would have an affirmative impact on fastidious aspects of job
satisfaction. Cartwright and Holmes, (2006) pointed out the critical role of human resource
policies, such as participatory job practices, on employee’s ability to derive a sense of
meaning from job and to achieve satisfaction with job itself. If human resource practices such
as team working, upward communication systems and problem-solving groups provided
employees with greater autonomy and greater opportunities to contribute to decision making,
62
then this might be expected to have a positive impact on other aspects of job satisfaction,
particularly satisfaction with influence. However, Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) argued
that the degree of influence provided by participatory work practices under the umbrella of
human resource management was often overstated and that these initiatives resulted instead
in job intensification and higher levels of stress.
It may also be the case that HRM practices impact on extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction,
including satisfaction with pay. Pendleton and Poutsma, 2004; Morris et al., 2006 discussed
that financial participation schemes, in particular, have the potential to either reduce or
increase inequalities in pay. Such changes will in turn impact on reported levels of
satisfaction with pay, given that the satisfaction that individual employee derive from income
depends on relative income rather than absolute income. Turning to the evidence, research on
the impact of human resource practices on job satisfaction have presented varied results.
Green, (2006) argued that the well-established decline in job satisfaction in Britain during the
1990s was in part associated with the implementation of human resource practices such as
involvement schemes and performance related pay. Hence, these practices were seem to have
contributed to higher work effort over the 1990s, leading to lower satisfaction with job
Human resource practices, of course, were not the only factors influencing job satisfaction.
Job effort, for example, could be seen as one other important factor, hence, higher work
intensity might be expected to lower reported job satisfaction, other things being equal.
Green, (2004) found that higher work effort in Britain , in conjunction with decreasing task
discretion, was a key factor behind the fall in reported job satisfaction among British workers
over the 1990s. In addition, job security has been viewed as an important influence on
63
satisfaction with work, with higher job security positively related to higher satisfaction with
work.
64
2.8.1 Job satisfaction and job performance relationship
There was a controversial history to find link between job satisfaction and job performance.
Hawthorne studied were attributed due to alerting the researchers on the sound effects of
employee attitudes on job performance during 1930. Thereafter, researchers commenced a
crucial look at the concept that a “happy worker was a productive worker.” However earlier
reviews of the literature defined a weak and somewhat incompatible relationship between job
satisfaction and performance.
Review of the literature of Iaffaldano & Muchinsky in 1985 noticed the statistical correlation
between job satisfaction and performance was very less about .17. Thus, authors concluded
that the perceptible relationship between job satisfaction and performance was a management
fad and illusory. These studies have an important impact on researchers and some managers
and HR practitioners who concluded that the relationship between job satisfaction and
performance was insignificant. Further research did not agree with this conclusion. Organ
suggested in 1988 that the failure to explore a significant strong relationship between job
satisfaction and performance was due to the slight means often used to characterize the job
performance. Organ further argued that when performance was defined to take account of
important behaviours which were not reflected in performance appraisals, like organizational
citizenship behaviours, its link with job satisfaction was improved.
A review of 301 studies by Judge, Thoresen, Bono, and Patton in 2001 found that when the
correlations were properly correct for sampling and measurement errors, the average
correlation between job satisfaction and job performance was as higher .30. In addition, the
65
link between job satisfaction and job performance was found to be even higher for complex
and professional jobs. Thus, deviating to earlier reviews, it appeared that job satisfaction was,
in fact, predictive of job performance and the link was even stronger for professional jobs.
Bagozzi 1978; Brown & Peterson, 1993 also found that the link between job performance
and job satisfaction was weak. As Brown & Peterson (1993) noticed that if the outcome of
job performance on job satisfaction was insignificant, organizational activities planned to
enhance the job performance should not have a direct effect on job satisfaction and related
outcomes like employee turnover. On contrary, there was consensus that many antecedents of
job satisfaction and job performance were common e.g., endeavour, reward, quality of
supervision, simplicity of job responsibilities.
Walker, Churchill & Ford, 1977, Behrman & Perreault, 1984; Lusch & Serpkenci, 1990;
made an attempt to consider a part of job performance defined generally as a collective
assemble of efforts, skills and outcomes those were important to the employee and their
outcomes that were very important for the organization. Related work of Bagozzi in 1978, a
few studies used a constricted definition of job performance based on actual output measures.
However, these studies did not include physical exertion and efforts as a detached construct.
They argued that it was imperative to define effort as different from the job performance. As
per point of view of an employee, job performance and effort were dissimilar. Effort was an
input to work and job performance was an output from this effort.
66
2.9 JOB RETENTION
Beadles et al. (2000) found a positive and significant correlation between job retention and
organizational performance. Campion (1991) found that inescapable turnover was
characteristically viewed as critical to an organization. The notion that turnover decreases
organizational performance was supported by the most of researchers. Mobley (1982)
suggested that turnover might interrupt job performance when an employee who intended to
leave became less efficient and effective. Shaw, Gupta, & Delery, 2002 found empirically
that voluntary turnover was associated with the inferior organizational performance. Other
researchers suggested that turnover could improve performance. One probable advantage of
turnover was the exclusion of poor performing employees (Price, 1989). Furthermore, Staw
et al; (1986) proposed that turnover might enhance performance if most of the turnover was
by employees with longer or very short tenure.
Regular or permanent employees were investigated in the most of the literature on job
retention. Causes, effects and results of turnover were addressed in the majority of the
studies. Employee’s turnover has been defined as the “total number of employees hired
during six months to replace those were dropped from the workforce". Employee retention
was also defined as "the tendency to keep daily wager employees in service at a temporary
housing facility beyond a one year period". Several studies by Boles, Ross, & Johnson, 1995
and MacHatton Van Dyke, & Steiner, 1997 found that turnover rate was found related with
employees' personal characteristics and demographic , by and large job satisfaction, work
environment, motivation, external environment, absenteeism and job performance.
67
Dery and Shaw (1999) studied the association between employee turnover and organizational
culture and Kaak, Feild, Giles, and Norris in 1997 explored the concept of turnover culture
amongst lower staff. Some studies by Pizam & Ellis, (1999) recommended retention
programs that could diminish turnover and its cause and effects. Realistic job previews, job
enrichment, socialization practices were included. Boles et al. (1995) studied to make use of
the pre-employment application demographics to reduce employee turnover. Hampton, 2000;
Shanahan, 2000; Schreiber, 2000; Baumann, 2000 studied that the literature was also
immersed with recommendations to undertake turnover and reduce retention.
It was important to mention that most of the studies noticed the management retention of
regular employees and neglected contractual and temporary staff. In their effort to find and
keep hold of employees, many organizations used incentives such as increase in pay,
benefits, promotions and trainings locally and abroad. Buckingham & Coffman, (1999)
studied the efforts often missed the goal, as some research indicated that the top management
decisions were vital to attract and retain the employees.
Price, 1989 and Abbasi & Hollman, 2000 discussed that turnover was an importunate
dilemma in the organizations. Abbasi & Hollman, 2000; Beadles, Lowery, Petty, & Ezell,
2000 noticed this in every type and size of organization and at every organizational level.
Abbasi and Hollman (2000) stated that turnover was ‘‘one of the most significant causes of
declining productivity and slumped morale in both the public and private sectors’’ (p. 333).
Turnover was also very expensive for the organizations. It was estimated in a study by
Abbasi & Hollman in 2000 that American industries incurred $11 billion annually as a result
of voluntary and involuntary turnover. This cost was due to termination, advertising,
68
recruitment, selection and hiring. Turnover also produced ethereal costs, such as declining
morale, and the interruption of social and communication patterns as noticed by Mobley, in
1982. Beadles et al., (2000) stressed the study of turnover as a well-researched area which
was one of the major interest in organizational behaviour
2.9.1 Job retention and Job Satisfaction relationship.
Cohen 1993; Hom and Griffeth 1995 and Allen, Shore & Griffeth 2003 discussed the
evidences from theoretical as well as empirical studies which indicated that turnover
intentions represented a reliable indicator of actual voluntary turnover and were heavily
influenced by job satisfaction. For instance, Hom and Griffeth (1995) noted that employees
decided to leave their organization when they become dissatisfied with their Jobs. Likewise,
Meyer and Herschovitch (2001) argued that when employees were dissatisfied with their
jobs, their desire to remain in their organization started to erode. In fact, initial consequences
of these negative affects, in the form of low job satisfaction were turnover cognitions.
Research by Allen and Griffeth (2001), Allen et al. (2003), and Chiu and Francesco (2003)
described that job satisfaction was a strong predictor of turnover intentions. Elangovan’s
(2001) extensive research reflected that job satisfaction predicts both turnover intentions and
commitment and in return commitment predicts only turnover intentions. It was enlightening
to note that, according to Jaros et al. (1993) and Wasti (2003), organizational commitment
depicted the strongest negative relationship with turnover intentions.
69
Van Breukelen, Van der Vlist, and Steensma 2004 , Abbott, White, and Charles 2005;
suggested through extensive review of literature that organizational tenure influenced job
attitudes and turnover intentions. For instance, Steers (1977) strongly agued that tenure was
the single best predictor of turnover because it represented an employee’s past behaviour and
summarized his or her relationship with the organization. The attraction selection attrition
hypothesis presented by Schneider and Reichers, (1983) suggested that employees were
attracted and selected by organizations that satisfied their needs and desires and long term
and short term goals. In such cases where there was a good fit, it was expected low levels of
attrition and longer tenure. In cases of mismatches, however, it should be expected that high
attrition rates and shorter tenure provided that other job opportunities were readily available.
Thus, tenure was expected to correlate with climate perceptions, job satisfaction,
organizational commitment and turnover intentions.
2.10. RESEARCH MODEL
Based on the review of the literature a research model has been developed and presented in
Figure 2.1. In fact many of the approaches and concepts presented in the literature and
discussed above are integrated in the present study into a composite model. In this research
model ten (10) variables are considered for the analysis out of those six (06) are independent
variables one (01) is dependent variables whereas one (01) is an intervening variable
remaining two (02) are the outcome of dependant variable. These variables will be discussed
and explained in detail in Chapter three.
70
Figure 2.1 Conceptual / hypothesized Frame work
Independent
variables
Intervening Dependent
variable variable
Job Analysis
JA1 Job
(Importance of Satisfaction
Job Analysis)
Job Analysis
(Knowledge, Skills, Abilities)
JA2
Recruitment
Performance
(Practice of Job
analysis)
KSA
Job
Job Design
Job
Evaluation
Job Security
Job Job
Succession Retention
Planning
71
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter addresses the approach to the study. It provides rationalization of the
research design (Sample size, questionnaire development, Survey, instruments description)
details regarding the sample, research model and variables (Independent variables,
intervening and dependent variables), hypotheses and response rate, selected measurement
instruments, data collection means and data analysis. The core objective of this chapter is to
delineate the steps followed in carrying out the research.
3.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH STUDY

The broader purpose of the present study is to explore the association among job
analysis and job performance and in detail the linkage of job design, job evaluation, job
security, job succession plan with job performance, intervening role of recruitment process
and outcome of job performance , job satisfaction and employee retention.
Specific objectives of the study are:-
• To recognize and analyze impact of job analysis on job performance in Pakistan's
public sector organization specifically regulatory authorities of telecommunication, oil and
gas, power , media, security exchange and banking sector and organizations being regulated
by these regulatory authorities.
72
• To explore the scope of job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, employee job performance, resulting job satisfaction and employee
turnover in abovementioned organizations.
• To investigate recruitment process KSA as a new tool for increasing employee job
performance in Pakistan's regulatory authorities.
• To investigate what difference exists amongst the six selected sample regulatory
authorities and their controlled organizations regarding employee job performance.
73
3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN
In order to obtain the most valid findings, research design relates to the planning and
structuring of research. Research design relates largely to decision-making which impacts
the research question; formulating the research problem, conceptualizing and taking action
on the research, collecting the research data and analysing and interpreting the results
(Mouton & Marais, 1990). Research design entails consideration of the measurement of the
research variables (Bailey, 1987). Durrheim (2002) suggested that the following dimensions
be considered in selecting the appropriate research design:-
• Purpose of the research.
• Paradigm perspective.
• Research context and the techniques utilized to gather and process research data.
The research takes the form of a descriptive study with the researcher setting out to illustrate
the association that exists among the dependent and independent variables. The researcher’s
main goal in a descriptive study is to describe accurately the relationship between two
phenomena (Mouton & Marais, 1990). The word ‘accurate’ should not be underplayed.
Descriptive studies require accurate observations and issues of validity, reliability and sample
representatives are critical elements in research design (Durrheim, 2002).
A quantitative approach will be adopted in this research. The quantitative approach is
described as “that approach to research in the social sciences that is more highly formalized
as well as more explicitly controlled, with a range that is more exactly defined, and which in
74
terms of the methods used, is relatively close to the physical sciences” (Mouton & Marais,
1990, p.155). By nature, quantitative research involves measurement. It focuses on causality
with a view to making generalizations and is geared towards replication and verification
(Bryman, 1995). Quantitative research entails the gathering of data in numbers and the
statistical analysis thereof. Results of these data analyses are used to make generalizations
(Durrheim, 2002).
The research is conducted by way of a correlation study with a view to determining
concurrent validity. In this type of design predictor and criterion data are obtained
simultaneously in an effort to determine the relationship to job performance. A correlation
study is conducted on the variables using statistical methods to test the stated hypotheses.
Mostly in primary researches survey is considered the most effective tool. This research
study is relational for exploring link among job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job
security, job succession plan and job performance, at first step the association between job
analysis and job performance will be analyzed, at second step the link among job analysis,
job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession plan will be explored, at third step
impact of job analysis on job performance, recruitment process KSA, job satisfaction and
retention is tested and fourth model is indicating relationship / association among same
variables (job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession plan and job
performance).
75
For the tangible research work, information regarding regulatory authorities, organizations
being controlled number of employees and employee data was collected through a
questionnaire from the officers / officials of targeted organizations. The officials were
requested to respond all questions up to the best of their knowledge with reference to the
operational practices implemented in their organizations.
The survey questionnaire contains five sections. The first section comprises the name,
designation, organization, department and grade, second section contained demographic
questions – relating to gender, age, education, length of service, job status, job category, job
level, mode of appointment and recruitment matter dealt by HR or other section. The third
section of the questionnaire, which was in two parts, was designed to capture the general
purpose of the position and summary of the job responsibility. Forth portion was concerned
with the job analysis, its importance and occurrence on 6 point likert scale. Fifth portion
comprises 2 point Yes/No questions on recruitment and job analysis. The remaining portion
included questions on 5 point likert scale concerning job analysis, job design, job evaluation,
job security, job succession plan, job performance, job satisfaction and retention.
Before sending the questionnaires to the targeted organizations a pilot survey was conducted
in three organizations from the selected sectors so that validity of the formulated questions
could be checked. The employees were asked to rate statements about questions in a likert
scale from 1 to 5, where 1 means , strongly disagree; and 5 indicates the strongly agreement
with the statement. The questionnaire for the pilot survey included 45 questions and 10
76
background questions; the respondents were also asked to evaluate the language and the
understanding of the statements and the length and the depth of the questionnaire.
A pilot study was carried out among 45 employees from Pakistan Telecom Authority,
National Electric Power Regulatory Authority and Securities and Exchange Commission of
Pakistan to test the questionnaire. A number of employees highlighted the importance of the
questionnaire, as it is capable to confine many diverse sides of being an employee. After
having composed results from the questionnaire, a through interview was held with these
employees. As a result, the wording and spirit of some questions were altered. The pilot
study helped to revise the questionnaire and prepare it for the final survey. In addition seven
more questions were added to capture the diverse aspects in which perceived recruitment
process reveals.
The questions are largely based on extensive study of literature review. The wording is
adapted to the English linguistics and Pakistani cultural context. The results showed that only
two questions from recruitment portions and one from job performance portions were
ambiguous for the employees. To eliminate this problem these questions were rephrased after
getting information from those employees. Data of employee demographics is depicted in
table 3.1
77
Table 3.1
Demographics % ( N= 568 )
Variables
Percentage (%)
Male 74.1
Gender
Female 25.9
Below 25 years 21.0
25-35 years 47.0
35-45 years 16.7
Age
45-55 years 12.7
55-60 2.5
Above 60 0.2
PhD 1.2
Masters Degree 66.4
B.Sc. Engineering 5.6
Educational Level
Graduation 18.3
Intermediate 6.9
Matriculation 1.6
Permanent 64.6
Contractual 31.0
Job Status
Deputation 2.8
Daily wagers 1.6
Technical 28.7
Job Category Managerial/Admin 47.5
Any other 23.8
Top 4.9
Middle 44.9
Job Level
Supervisor 23.2
Non-managerial 26.9
Direct 67.6
Mode of
Promotion 28.2
appointment
Deputation 4.2
Less than 1 12.7
Number of years 1–2 26.1
In present 3–5 32.9
Organization 6 – 10 10.2
Over 10 18.1
Recruitment HR Department 77.5
Matters dealt by Any other 22.5
78
3.4 OPERATIONALIZATION OF RESEARCH MODEL AND
VARIABLES
Conceptual frame work is presented in Figure 2.1, chapter two. In this framework ten (10)
variables are considered for the analysis out of those six (06) are independent variables one
(01) is dependent variables whereas one(01) is intervening variable remaining two (02) are
the outcome of dependant variable.
The questionnaires consisted on relationship among job analysis, job design, job evaluation,
job security, job succession plan and job performance, questionnaire was developed
depending upon the extensive literature review. Each variable consisted on the questions
which are a follows:
Job Analysis
Job analysis contained two items in which the respondents had to specify the importance
attached to the practice of the job analysis and its occurrence on a scale of six ranging from 0
to 5
• How important is job analysis to conduct? JA ( 1 )
• How often your organization conducted job analysis? JA ( 2 )
Job Design
• I like my job because it allows me to be creative.
• My job allows me to work in my own style.
• I can take responsibility for my work as there is no interference.
79
• I can discuss my job related issues with my supervisor.
• My superiors listen to my suggestions regarding my job.
Job Evaluation
• I joined this job because it pays well.
• My job meets my financial needs.
Job Security
• If I perform well, I will not loose my present job.
• If I fail to perform to the satisfaction of my supervisor, I will loose my job.
• I perform better once I feel secure in my job.
• I perform better once I feel that is needed to keep my present job.
• I joined this job because it is secure.
Job Succession Planning
• I will get promoted to the next grade in any case
• My promotion to the next grade is subject to my good performance
• I see a career path to my present job
• I will have to enhance my present knowledge base to get promoted
• I require improving my skills to perform well on the higher post
• I joined this job because it has a regular career path
80
Recruitment KSA
• The job demands and the level of eligibility/experience as advertised/announced
match
• Considering the time spent, I realize the functions match the job portfolio/position
• I believe I have enough knowledge about the job
• I possess the abilities to perform my present duties
• I have mastery of the specific skills that I need to successfully perform the tasks
related to my present job
Job Performance
• My present job gives me the opportunity to enhance my performance on job
• My present job has a direct impact on achieving the organizational objectives
• My job performance outcomes are consistent with the goals of the organization
• My good performance on job is rewarded financial terms
• My good performance on job is given formal appreciation by the higher ups
• The job performance evaluation system is objective
Job Satisfaction
• My present job gives me internal satisfaction
• I am respected because of my job
• My job gives me a sense of fulfilment
• I can seek my peers help regarding my job
81
• I will recommend this job to a friend if it is advertised /announced
• I feel cared for by my organization
Retention
• I will continue in my present job even if I am paid less
• Had my job met my expectations, I would have given it my best.
• I like my job because it is totally monotonous in nature
• I joined this job because I had no other options
• I can consider changing my job in the next 12 months
• I would like to reach my superannuation in my present organization
3.5 REGULATORY AUTHORITIES IN PAKISTAN.
A brief overview of the regulatory authorities dealing with telecom, power, oil & gas,
electronic media, capital, corporate and banking sectors have been selected for this study
which is as under:-
Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA)
Key regulatory structure for the telecom industry was established under Pakistan
Telecommunication Ordinance, 1994 which included the establishment of an authority.
Afterwards, Telecommunication (Re-Organization) Act - XVII was promulgated in 1996 that
planned to re-organize the telecom sector of Pakistan. Pakistan Telecommunication
82
Authority (PTA) was established in January, 1997 under Telecom Reorganization Act 1996,
to regulate the establishment, operation and protection of telecommunication systems and the
provision of telecom services. Pakistan Telecommunication Authority has its headquarters at
Islamabad and regional offices located at Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta and Rawalpindi.
National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA)
NEPRA was established in 1995 through a Presidential ordinance, later an act was passed by
the parliament and an authority was formally notified on 13-01-1998. NEPRA, with
exclusive power to regulate the provision of electric services in the country is also
independent in the performance of its functions without any administrative control from the
Government.
Role of National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA) is to regulate the Electric
Power in the country and issuance of the licenses and enforcing performance standards,
codes of practices, enforcing competitive policies and setting charges for the monopoly of the
industry. It is also authoritative to protect stake holders against monopolistic prices, sustain
efficiency in licensee’s operations through financial incentives, support economic
competence by encouraging competition and eradicate cross-subsidies.
Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority (OGRA)
Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority (OGRA) was set up under the Oil and Gas Regulatory
Authority Ordinance, 2002 to promote competition, boost up private investment and rights in
the midstream and downstream petroleum industry, defend the public interest while
83
respecting individual rights and provide effective and efficient regulations. Authority creates
a working environment where the interests of all stakeholders, investor and Government are
protected through autonomous and fair regulatory practices are also among its functions.
Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA)
Under the PEMRA Ordinance, 2002 Pakistan Electronic Media regulatory Authority was
established to facilitate and regulate the electronic media in Pakistan. PEMRA has
authorization to advance the values of information, entertainment and education and to
broaden the media range available to the general public for current affairs, news, religious
awareness, entertainment, cooking and cultural as well as education. PEMRA is also
responsible for facilitating and regulating the establishment and operation of all distribution
and broadcast media services in Pakistan established for the rationale of national,
international, provincial, district, and local or special target audiences.
Major functions of PEMRA are to improve the values of information, education and
amusement and widen the media choice accessible to the public for news, current affairs,
religious knowledge, art, culture, science, technology, economic development, social sector
concerns, music, sports, drama and other areas of public and national interest. PEMRA
facilitates the transference of accountability and empower to the grass roots by recuperating
the right of entry of the public to mass media at the local and community level and warrant
accountability, lucidity and good governance by optimization of liberated flow of
information.
84
The Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP)
Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP) was established in 1997 under the
Act. The act formulated clear policy decisions relating to the constitution, structure, powers
and functions of the SECP, thus giving it managerial authority and financial autonomy in
carrying out its regulatory and statutory functions. Securities and Exchange Commission of
Pakistan was entrusted to lay down the foundation of good corporate governance by building
institutional, legal and regulatory framework for the improved management of the corporate
sector entities.
The deprived organizations reflect the fact that the regulatory instruments are not only
unsuitable for many organizations but also raises questions about the general applicability of
the regulatory principles themselves and reinforces the need to analyze and examine the costs
and benefits linked with a particular regulation. This calls for a systematic appraisal of the
possible impacts, social, economic and environmental; positive and negative of the Code of
Corporate Governance adopted by the SECP to make listed companies comply with the
principles of corporate governance mechanisms.
SECP was initially detailed with the regulation of capital market and corporate sector. Over
the passage of time, SECP mandate prolonged to comprise supervision and regulation of the
insurance companies, private pensions and non-banking finance companies. The SECP has
also been authorized to regulate a variety of peripheral service providers to the corporate and
financial sectors, including credit rating agencies, chartered accountants, brokers and
surveyors.
85
State Bank of Pakistan (SBP)
State Bank was established in 1948 with a mandate to "regulate the issues of Bank notes and
observance of reserves with a view to sheltered monetary constancy in Pakistan and
commonly to manage the currency and credit system of Pakistan to its benefit". The extent of
the State Bank operations was extensively broaden in the State Bank of Pakistan Act 1956,
which required the State Bank to "regulate the monetary and fiscal policy of the Pakistan and
to promote its expansion in the best national interest with a vision to secure monetary solidity
and full deployment of the country’s dynamic resources". In financial sector reforms, the
State Bank of Pakistan was given self-sufficiency in February 1994. On 21st January, 1997,
this autonomy was further reinforced by issuing three amended Ordinances, approved by the
Parliament.
The amended State Bank Act extended complete and exclusive authority to the State Bank to
regulate the banking sector to carry out a self-governing monetary policy and to impose
limits on government borrowings from the State Bank of Pakistan. The Banking Council was
abolished as a result of amendments in Banks Nationalization Act. Other amendments also
distended the autonomy and accountability of the Chief Executives and the Boards of
Directors of Banks.
86
3.6 SAMPLE AND RESPONSE RATE
The sample for this research was drawn from the public sector authorities regulating
telecommunication, power, oil & gas, media and corporate, capital and baking sectors of
Pakistan and some of the organizations being controlled by these regulators. Fifteen (15)
organizations were selected for the research. The platform which helped to choose the sectors
and the organizations was the data taken from Pakistan Public Administration Research
Centre, Establishment Division, Annual Statistical Bulletin of Autonomous Bodies
Employees and website of these organizations. Name of regulatory authorities and
organizations selected are given in table 3.2
Table 3.2
Regulatory Authorities % ( N= 568 )
Regulatory Authority
NEPRA ( National Electric and Power Regulatory Authority ) 6%
OGRA ( Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority ) 6%
PTA ( Pakistan Telecommunication Authority ) 31%
PEMRA ( Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority ) 9%
STATE BANK 42%
SECP ( Security Exchange Commission of Pakistan ) 6%
87
Research participants included both officers and officials of these organizations. Fifty (50)
questionnaires were distributed in each organization for minimizing the possibility of
uncertainty and biasness. 750 questionnaire were distributed in 15 organizations out of which
568 questionnaire were received back response rate remained (76 %) which is given in Table
3.3
Table 3.3
Organizations response rate % (N= 568)
(Number of questionnaire distributed amongst each organization: 50)
Organizations
No of
questionnaire Percentage.
received.
NEPRA (National Electric and Power Regulatory Authority) 39 78%
OGRA (Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority) 46 92%
PTA (Pakistan Telecommunication Authority) 36 72%
PEMRA (Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority) 36 72%
SBP (State Bank of Pakistan) 43 86%
SECP (Security Exchange Commission of Pakistan) 34 68%
IESCO (Islamabad Electric Supply Company) 34 68%
OGDCL (Oil and Gas Development Corporation Limited) 32 64%
PTCL (Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited) 34 68%
U FONE 38 76%
TELECARD 28 56%
PTV (Pakistan Television) 48 96%
HBL (Habib Bank Limited) 48 96%
PICIC (Pakistan Industrial) 34 68%
Khushhali Bank 38 76%
TOTAL 568 76%
88
Organizations operating in Rawalpindi and Islamabad were personally visited and the
questionnaires were disseminated to the officer / officials and human resource professional of
these organizations. Total sample size became 568 and results were entered for further
analysis by using SPSS, Factor Analysis, Alpha calculations, KMO and Bartlett’s test,
Regression Analysis and Multiple Regression Analysis.
3.7 DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENTATION
This research was conducted from very initial level because there was no data available prior
to this research. Therefore, a likert scale / categorical questionnaire was developed to find out
the impact of job analysis on job performance with intervening role of the recruitment KSA
process.
3.8 DATA ANALYSIS
Data for the research was analyzed. Descriptive statistics were firstly done with the aim to
describe the data (Durrheim, 2002b). Further statistical analyses were then utilized to test the
research hypotheses to determine if a statistical association existed between the research
variables (Bailey, 1987). The computerized statistical package, SPSS Version 12, was used
for this purpose. Details of the specific statistical analyses are discussed below.
89
3.8.1 Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics enable us to obtain an overall picture of the research data and assist by
presenting the data in a user-friendly and orderly way (Durrheim, 2002). Descriptive statistics
assist in providing a concise description of the quantitative data (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2001).
For the purpose of research, descriptive statistics was considered for reporting on the profile
of the sample. Descriptive statistics by way of means, standard deviations and reliabilities
were calculated for the sample, predictors and criteria. Means represent the average response
values whilst standard deviations highlight the degree of variance or distance away from the
mean (Durrheim, 2002).
3.8.2 Means and Standard Deviations

As mentioned above, descriptive statistics provides means and standard deviations for
independent and dependent variables. Average distance from the mean is given by the
standard deviation. Zero standard deviation is obtained when all responses to a question are
the similar. The minimum and maximum value indicates the range of answers given by the
respondents.
3.8.3 Correlations
Measure of the relation between two or more variables is called as correlation. Correlation
coefficients may range from negative 1.00 to positive 1.00. The negative value represents a
negative correlation while a positive value represents a perfect positive correlation. A value
of zero represents a lack of correlation. Pearson r is the most widely used kind of correlation
90
coefficient which also called linear correlation. Pearson correlation assumes that two
variables are calculated on at least interval scales and it determines the degree to which
values of the two variables are “proportional” to each other.
Correlation coefficients are typically utilized in concurrent validation studies (Cronbach,
1960). Correlation coefficients gives a mathematical value for measuring the strength of the
linear relationship between two variables. It can take values from -1 to +1. The Pearson-
product moment correlation coefficient is one of the most common ways of computing
correlation coefficients (Anastasi, 1988) and was utilized for the research. This correlation
considers not only an individual’s position within a group but also their standard deviation
from the mean. A number of correlations were calculated for the purpose of testing the
hypotheses and to determine the relationship between the variables.
Correlation coefficients (r) were calculated to measure the existence and strength of the
statistical relationship between the research variables (Bailey, 1987; Cronbach, 1970;
Gekoski, 1964; Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2001). r=1 indicates a perfect positive relationship whilst
r=-1 indicates a perfect negative relationship (Cascio, 1982; Durrheim, 2002b).The sign of the
correlation coefficient serves to indicate the direction of the relationship (Howell, 1997) and
usually correlations higher than zero but less than 1.00 are found (Anastasi, 1988).
Ability correlations are typically positive although often low. A negative score would
normally be as a result of the type of expression of the scores (Anastasi, 1988). Coefficients as
low as 0.30 are of practical value. Although far from a perfect prediction, it is not typical to
find validity coefficients of 0.60. Far smaller validity coefficients are normally reported, yet
91
the reporting of a positive validity coefficient still provides a measure of predictive power that
would be absent without the use thereof (Cronbach, 1970) and therefore, requires
consideration. Inter-correlations were conducted on the raw test scores to determine the
magnitude and significance of their relationship to assist in determining construct validity.
Correlation assists in determining the degree of relationship between the dependent and
independent variables but does not enable the prediction of one set of scores from another set
of scores. For this purpose, regression analysis was utilized (Cascio, 1982).
3.8.4 Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is a technique used to identify a smaller number of factors underlying a large
number of observed variables. Variables that have a high correlation between them and are
largely independent of other subsets of variables are combined into a factors. A common use
of factor analysis is in developing objective instruments for measuring constructs which are
not directly observable in real life. Factors are produced by factor analysis which is a data
reduction technique.
A large sample size is required for conducting factor analysis. Factor analysis is based on the
correlation matrix of the variables concerned, and correlations usually require a large sample
size before they become stable. Barbara.G, Tabachnick and Fidell (2001, page 588) cited
Comrey and Lee's (1992) recommend regarding sample size 50 as very poor, 100 poor, 200
fair, 300 good, 500 very good and 1000 or more excellent.
Following are the commonly used techniques in SPSS for factor analysis:-
• Exploratory factor analysis.
92
• Extraction.
• Factor loading.
• Rotation.
• Communalities.
• Eigenvalue and Scree plot.
• Scale Reliability.
• Sample size consideration.
3.8.5 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.
When the partial correlations amongst the variables are small, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure
of sampling adequacy test is used. This measure varies between zero and one, ( 0-1 ) and
values closer to 1 are better. A value of .6 is recommended as minimum. The KMO
measures the sampling adequacy which should be greater than 0.5 for a satisfactory factor
analysis to proceed. Looking at the table 3.4 below, the KMO measure is 0.788
3.8.6 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity.
In order to test whether the correlation matrix is an identity matrix, Bartlett's test of
sphericity has to be carried out. This test would indicate the appropriation of the factor
model. Taken Together with Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy test , these
endow with a minimum standard which should be accepted before a factor analysis has to be
conducted. Both the values are reflected in table 3.4
93
Table 3.4
KMO and Bartlett's Test

( a ) Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .788
Approx. Chi-Square 9904.061
( b) Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 990
Sig. .000
From the table, it is observed that Bartlett's test of sphericity is significant.
3.8.7 Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a statistical tool to measure the relationship between one dependent
variable and several independent variables. This is the most commonly used technique in the
social sciences research carried out by the help of Statistical package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) software. Usually, the regression analysis is carried out to ascertain the causal effect
of one variable upon another. It also typically assesses the “statistical significance” of the
relationships, degree of confidence that the true relationship is close to the estimated
relationship. Linear regression analysis estimates the coefficients of a linear equation,
involving one or more independent variables that best predict the value of the dependent
variable. In the present model, there is one dependent variable only.
The results display R, R squared, adjusted R squared, standard error and Durbin-Watson
value. R represents the correlation between the values of the independent and dependent
variable. The values of R range from negative 1 to positive 1. The absolute value of R
indicates the strength indicating the extent of relationships.
94
R squared reflects the proportion of variation in the dependent variable explained by the
regression model. Adjusted R squared attempt to correct R squared to more closely reflect
the goodness of fit of the model in the population. Use of R Square provides the help to
determine the best model. Durbin value in the last column informs about whether the
assumption of independent errors is tenable. The closer to 2 that the value is, the better.
( Durbin values of all models may be seen under appendix- E )
If the significance value of the F statistic is smaller than say 0.05, then the independent
variables have a good job explaining the variation in the dependent variable. If the
significance value of F is larger than say 0.05 then the independent variables do not explain
the variation in the dependent variable, and the null hypothesis that all the population values
for the regression coefficients are 0 is accepted.
The un-standardized (B) coefficients are the coefficients of the estimated regression model.
The standardized coefficients or betas attempt to make the regression coefficients more
comparable. The t statistics helps to find out the relative significance of each variable in the
model. The beta coefficient reflects that how strongly the independent variable linked with
the dependent variable. It is also equal to the correlation coefficient between the two
variables.
95
3.8.8 Multiple Regression Analysis
The general purpose of Multiple Regression Analysis, the term was first used by Pearson, is
to study more about the association between a number of independent or predictor variables
and a dependent or criterion variable. When there are two or more independent variables,
multiple regression analysis is used. Multiple regression analysis is a method for explanation
of phenomena and prediction of future events. In multiple regression analysis, a set of
predictor variables X1, X2, ….., Xn is used to explain variability of the criterion variable Y.
3.8.9 Elements of Multiple Regression Equation
Correlation coefficients are typically utilized in concurrent validation studies (Cronbach,
1960). The Pearson-product moment correlation coefficient is one of the most common ways
of computing correlation coefficients (Anastasi, 1988) and was utilized for the research. This
correlation considers not only an individual’s position within a group but also their standard
deviation from the mean. A number of correlations were calculated for the purpose of testing
the hypotheses and to determine the relationship between the variables.
Correlation coefficients (r) were calculated to measure the existence and strength of the
statistical relationship between the research variables (Bailey, 1987; Cronbach, 1970;
Gekoski, 1964; Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2001). r=1 indicates a perfect positive relationship whilst
r=-1 indicates a perfect negative relationship (Cascio, 1982; Durrheim, 2002b). The sign of
the correlation coefficient serves to indicate the direction of the relationship (Howell, 1997)
and usually correlations higher than zero but less than 1.00 are found (Anastasi, 1988).
96
Ability correlations are typically positive although often low. A negative score would
normally be as a result of the type of expression of the scores (Anastasi, 1988). Coefficients as
low as 0.30 are of practical value. Although far from a perfect prediction, it is not typical to
find validity coefficients of 0.60. Far smaller validity coefficients are normally reported, yet
the reporting of a positive validity coefficient still provides a measure of predictive power that
would be absent without the use thereof (Cronbach, 1970) and therefore requires
consideration.
Inter-correlations were conducted on the raw test scores to determine the magnitude and
significance of their relationship to assist in determining construct validity. Correlation assists
in determining the degree of relationship between the dependent and independent variables
but does not enable the prediction of one set of scores from another set of scores.
Regression equation is given below:-
Y=a+β1X1 +β2X2+U
Y is the value of the Dependent variable (Y), what is being predicted or explained a (an
Alpha) is the Constant or intercept. The regression coefficients (or β1... β2 coefficients)
represent the independent contributions of each in dependent variable to the prediction of the
dependent variable. Β1 is the Slope (Beta coefficient) for X1. X1 First independent variable
that is explaining the variance in Y. β2 is the Slope (Beta coefficient) for X2. X2 Second
independent variable that is explaining the variance in Y. U is the uncontrollable factor.
97
3.8.10 Statistical significance
Significance levels refer to the risk of error that researchers are willing to take in drawing
conclusions from research data. If a correlation is said to be significant at p<=0.05, the
researcher is indicating that the probability of error is 5 out of 100 or 5 percent (Hinton, 2004).
In considering significance levels, probabilities are therefore considered. Probability is an
expression of the likelihood that the observed difference could occur by chance. If p<=0.01,
the risk of obtaining the observed effect by chance is less than 1 percent.
3.8.11 Research Model
To measure the affect of job analysis , job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, job satisfaction and job retention on job performance , following regression
Equations were used to test the research model: -
Equation A:
JP =A +β1 X1+ β2 X2 +U
Job Performance= Intercept + Coefficient (JA1) + Coefficient (JA2)
Equation B:
JP=A+ β3 X3 +U
Job Performance = Coefficient (Job Design)
Equation C:
JP=A+ β4 X4+U
Job Performance = Coefficient (Job Evaluation)
98
Equation D:
JP=A+ β5 X5+U
Job Performance = Coefficient (Job Security)
Equation E:
JP=A+ β6 X6+U
Job Performance = Coefficient (Job Succession Planning)
Equation F:
JP=A+ β7 X7+U
Job Performance = Coefficient (Job Satisfaction)
Equation G:
JP=A+ β8 X8+U
Job Performance = Coefficient (Job Retention)
Equation H:
JP =A +β2 X2+ β3 X3+ β4 X4+ β5 X5+ β6 X6+ β7 X7+ β8 X8+U
Job Performance= Intercept + Coefficient (JA1) + Coefficient (JA2) +Coefficient (JD) +
Coefficient (JE) + Coefficient (JS) + Coefficient (JSP) + Coefficient (J – Sat) + Coefficient (J –
Ret)
99
Explanation of Variables
JA: Job analysis
JA 1 Importance of Job analysis
JA 2 Job Analysis conducted
JP Job Performance
JD Job Design
JE Job Evaluation
JS Job Security
JSP Job Succession Planning.
JS Job Satisfaction
JRtn Job Retention
A Intercept (Alpha)
β1, β2, β3, β 4 β 5 β 6 β 7 β 8 are the coefficients of respective variables
U Other Variables
100
3.9 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Research hypothesis were formulated for the research to indicate whether a relationship
between the job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, job
satisfaction, job retention and job performance exists. Moderator role of the Recruitment KSA
was also checked. The following hypotheses were set:
Hypothesis 1: Ho1 Job analysis is not positively related to job performance.
H1 Job analysis is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 2: Ho2 Job design is not positively related to job performance.
H2 Job design is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 3: Ho3 Job evaluation is not positively related to job performance.
H3 Job evaluation is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 4: Ho4 Job security is not positively related to job performance.
H4 Job security is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 5: Ho5 Job succession planning is not positively related to job
performance.
H5 Job succession planning is positively related to job performance.
Hypothesis 6: Ho6 Recruitment KSA will not mediate the relationship between job
H6 Recruitment KSA will mediate the relationship between job
101
Hypothesis 7: Ho7 Job satisfaction is not positively related to job performance.
H7 Job satisfaction is positively related to job performance
Hypothesis 8: Ho8 Job retention is not positively related to job performance.
H8 Job retention is positively related to job performance
Hypothesis 9: Ho9 Job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning and recruitment KSA will not be positively
related to job performance.
H9 Job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning and recruitment KSA will be positively related to job
performance.
Alternate Hypothesis:
Job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning and recruitment KSA together helps to improve the job
performance of employees in public sector regulatory authorities.
102
This chapter explained the research methodology by providing objectives of research study,
specifically to analyse impact of job analysis on job performance in Pakistan's public sector
organization regulatory authorities of telecommunication, oil and gas, power , media,
security exchange and banking sector and organizations being regulated by these regulatory
authorities, research design (Sample size, Survey, questionnaire development, description of
instruments) has been discussed in detail regarding sample size, research model and variables
(Independent variables, intervening and dependent variables), demographics of the
respondents and research hypotheses. Brief introduction of the regulatory authorities has
been mentioned.
Description of the instrumentation for data analysis including descriptive statistics to obtain
an overall picture of the research data assisted by presenting the data in a user-friendly and
orderly way, means and standard deviations of all variables, correlations to measure the
relation between two or more variables, factor analysis for data reduction and regression
analysis to ascertain the causal effect of one variable upon another and to assesses the
“statistical significance” of the hypothesized relationships has been discussed. Regression
equations to measure the affects of independent variables on dependent variables to test the
research model have also been formulated. Nine research hypothesis have been developed to
test whether a relationship between the job analysis and other HR practices with job
performance exists. Moderator role of the Recruitment KSA was also to be checked. The main
objective of this chapter was to outline the steps followed in carrying out the research.
103
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The core aims of the research were to figure out the relationship among job analysis,
job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession plan and job performance with respect
to the recruitment process, job satisfaction and employee retention and also what difference
they create will practicing in six different regulatory authorities of Pakistan. For this purpose
research has been originated from primary level onward and then data is tested thorough
statistical tools. This chapter will highlight the important findings with comprehensive
explanation.
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE RESPONDENTS.
It is common to ask for background information about the respondents as part of the survey.
Common survey questions include age, education, gender, experience in the job, job status,
job level and so forth. Such information can be used to describe the sample of respondents, to
show how well the sample of respondents represents the whole population of potential
respondents, and to split or group the data for additional analysis. Descriptive statistics
summarize quantitative data in a manageable and user-friendly way and enable the researcher
to obtain a holistic overview of the research data (Durrheim, 2002b; Kaplan & Saccuzzo,
2001). Descriptive statistics were calculated for the sample, the predictors and the criteria and
are reported on in this section.
In general, ratings are not markedly affected by incumbent demographics such as age
104
(Spector et. al., 1989), although there are instances where they have been. Education
(Cornelius & Lyness, 1980) and job level (Smith & Hakel, 1979) have been shown to affect
ratings; job level is associated with education. Incumbent job performance and tenure appear
not to affect ratings (Conley & Sackett, 1987; Cornelius & Lyness, 1980; Schmitt & Cohen,
1989; Silverman, Wexley, & Johnson, 1984; Wexley & Silverman, 1978).Given these
findings, it is generally recommend that large, representative samples of informants be used
to make ratings of tasks. However, should circumstances require, technical panels of
carefully selected job experts with broad experience in the job under study can provide
ratings very similar to large samples of incumbents (Ash, Levine, Higbee & Sistrunk, 1982 ).
Biographic data by way of age, education level, gender, length of service, job status, number
of years in present position, job category, mode of appointment and job level were requested
for the sample. Graphs on next page provide an overview of the gender and other information
of the sample. Figure 4.1 represent the age of the respondents showing 47 % between the age
of 25-35. More than 60 % respondents are master degree holders as per figure 4.2. Male
respondents are greater than females showing more male participation as depicted in figure
4.3. Respondents more than 33% were such having experience of 3-5 years in their current
organization as indicated in figure 4.4. More than 60 % respondents have permanent status in
their job as shown in figure 4.5.As reflected in figure 4.6 most of the respondents have 1-5
years service in their current position depicting year of service required for the next
promotion. Most of the respondents were from managerial position as shown in figure 4.7.
Induction of the respondents as shown in figure 4.8 was through direct appointment. Middle
management respondents may be seen from the figure 4.9. Human Resource departments are
105
dealing with the matters related with human resource activities in the selected regulatory
authorities and organizations being regulated by these authorities as reflected in figure 4.10
Figure 4.1 Age distribution of the respondents.
50
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
Under25 25 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 55 55 - 60 Above 60
A
106
Figure 4.2 Educational qualifications of the respondents.
70
60
50
Percent
40
30
20
10
0
P.hD Masters B.Sc. Graduation Intermediate Matricultion
Degree Engineering
Figure 4.3 Male and Female distribution.
80
60
Percent
40
20
0
Male Female
107
Figure 4.4 Number of years served in present organization
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
Less than 1 1-2 3-5 6 - 10 Over 10
Figure 4.5 Job status of the respondents
70
60
50
Percent
40
30
20
10
0
Permanent Contractual Deputation Daily wagers
108
Figure 4.6 Number of years in present job position
30
Percent
20
10
0
Less than 1 1-2 3-5 6 - 10 Over 10
Figure 4.7 Job category of the respondents.
50
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
Technical Managerial/Admin Any other
109
Figure 4.8 Mode of appointment of the respondents
70
60
50
Percent
40
30
20
10
0
Direct Promotion Deputation
Figure 4.9 Job level of the respondents
50
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
Top Middle Supervisor Non-managerial
110
Figure 4.10 Name of the department dealing with the recruitment matters.
80
60
Percent
40
20
0
HR Department Any other
111
4.3 VARIABLE MEASURES BY PRINCIPAL COMPONENT
ANALYSIS.
A descriptive study aims to describe the relationship between two phenomena. These phenomena
are known as variables. The independent variable relates to the “antecedent phenomenon” whilst
the dependent variable relates to the “consequent phenomenon” (Mouton & Marais, 1990, p.130).
The results of the job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security and job succession planning
are the independent variables for the research and consist of the results from the Questionnaire
designed. The dependent variable is job performance and additional variables such as recruitment,
job satisfaction and job retention may have an influencing effect on results. These can be referred to
as extraneous or organismic variables (Mouton & Marais, 1990). These variables will be
considered statistically to determine their effect.
In an attempt to determine if the variables measuring instrument contained any underlying factors,
a principal components analysis with an Obliman rotation was conducted. Three criteria were
established for keeping/eliminating items. First, items with a secondary loading of 0.25 or larger
were considered factorally complex items and were dropped from further analysis. The factor
analysis yielded a ten-factor solution that accounted for 60.25% of the variance and is presented in
Table 4.1
The first factor, labelled “Importance of job analysis” consisted of one item that reflects the
importance of job analysis in the selected organization. It accounted for 21.89% of the variance.
The second factor consisted of one item that measured frequency of the practice of job analysis, not
performed, every year, every two years, after every three years, after four to five years and when it
is felt necessary. This factor accounted for 7.501 % of the variance and was labelled “Practice of
112
job analysis.” The third factor, labelled “job design” accounted for 5.97% of the variance and
consisted of five items that measured an individual’s ability to be creative, working style,
interference, superior support and suggestions. The fourth factor, labelled “job evaluation”
accounted for 5.00% of the variance and consisted of two items that measured an individual’s
worth of the job and financial needs fulfilment. The fifth factor, labelled “Job Security”
consisted of five items that measured an individual’s ability to secure his job on performance
basis, consistency in job performance and security of job. This factor accounted for 4.14% of
the variance. The sixth factor, labelled “job succession planning” accounted for 3.46% of the
variance. It consisted of six items that measured an individual’s ability to career growth on
the basis of performance, knowledge and skills.
The seventh factor, labelled “Recruitment KSA” accounted for 3.40% of the variance. It
consisted of knowledge, skills and abilities and matching of job demand with the level of
eligibility. The eighth factor, labelled “Job performance” accounted for 3.20% of the
variance. It consisted of six performance items that measured an individual’s ability to
achieve the organizational goals and objectives, enhancement of performance on job,
monetary and non-monetary performance awards and objectivity of the performance
evaluation system. The ninth factor, labelled “job satisfaction” accounted for 2.92% of the
variance. It consisted of six items that measured an individual’s satisfaction upon sense of
fulfilment, internal satisfaction, peers support, referral to the others and organization support.
The tenth factor, labelled “job retention,” accounted for 2.77% of the variance. It consisted of
six items that measured an individual’s ability to retain his or her job on the basis of pay,
expectations, monotony of the job, other job options and changing of the job.
113
Table 4.1 Analysis of all variables measure.
FACTORS
Items
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Importance of Job Analysis to conduct 0.341 0.011 0.23 0.007 -0.052 -0.142 0.24 0.12 0.175 -0.156
Practice of Job Analysis 0.143 0.389 0.078 0.161 -0.373 0.101 -0.19 -0.015 0.276 -0.235
I like my job because it allows me to be creative 0.128 0.098 0.670 -0.157 -0.115 -0.185 0.092 -0.002 0.036 0.194
My job allows me to work in my own style 0.260 0.023 0.687 -0.134 0.062 -0.055 0.1 0.072 0.048 0.399
I can take responsibility for my work as there is no
-0.004 -0.12 0.460 -0.008 -0.079 -0.142 -0.03 0.266 -0.112 0.52
interference
I can discuss my job related issues with my
0.201 0.258 0.554 -0.009 -0.031 -0.265 0.203 -0.185 -0.25 0.062
supervisor
My superiors listen to my suggestions regarding
0.094 0.052 0.539 -0.291 -0.121 -0.079 0.139 -0.124 -0.172 0.382
my job
I joined this job because it pays well 0.197 0.079 0.372 0.448 0.13 0.186 -0.292 0.256 -0.296 -0.289
My job meets my financial needs 0.241 0.36 0.380 0.391 -0.106 0.004 -0.289 0.083 -0.012 -0.163
If I perform well I will not loose my present job -0.22 -0.074 0.316 -0.151 0.516 -0.233 0.018 0.387 -0.032 0.038
If I fail to perform to the satisfaction of my
0.130 -0.087 0.259 0.247 0.431 -0.374 -0.062 0.108 0.243 0.338
supervisor, I will loose my job
I perform better once I feel secure in my job 0.168 -0.29 0.315 -0.235 0.466 -0.132 -0.039 0.099 0.126 -0.339
I perform better once I feel that is needed to keep
-0.164 -0.149 0.460 -0.054 0.475 -0.141 -0.219 -0.003 -0.093 -0.22
my present job
I joined this job because it is secure -0.123 0.420 -0.151 0.498 0.298 -0.224 0.229 -0.304 0.026
-0.181
I will get promoted to the next grade in any case -0.184 -0.198 0.405 0.047 0.098 0.435 -0.164 -0.313 -0.006 0.372
My promotion to the next grade is subject to my
-0.099 -0.069 0.618 0.150 -0.239 0.628 0.026 -0.064 0.286 -0.036
good performance
I see a career path to my present job -0.188 0.604 0.020 -0.071 0.640 -0.224 -0.394 0.15 -0.146
-0.064
I will have to enhance my knowledge to get
0.016 -0.168 0.515 0.117 0.031 0.535 -0.248 -0.116 0.107 -0.321
promoted
114
FACTORS
Items
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I require improving my skills to perform well on
0.064 -0.241 0.339 -0.108 0.181 0.499 -0.273 0.172 -0.234 -0.268
the higher post
I joined this job because it has a regular career
-0.19 -0.034 0.604 -0.048 -0.114 0.644 -0.122 0.044 -0.103 -0.102
path
Job demands and level of eligibility matched with
0.141 -0.211 0.419 -0.17 0.063 0.232 0.399 0.015 -0.018 -0.134
advertisement
Functions match the job position -0.097 0.404 -0.121 0.17 0.262 0.375 0.106 -0.016 -0.095
0.294
I believe that I have enough knowledge about the
0.045 0.027 0.191 0.024 0.174 0.163 0.630 0.213 0.037 0.055
job
I have abilities for the current duties -0.11 0.104 0.196 -0.047 0.286 -0.102 0.638 0.175 0.195 -0.24
I have mastery of the specific skills needed to
-0.133 0.148 0.195 0.052 0.245 0.07 0.635 -0.181 0.099 -0.23
perform the tasks related to my present job
Present job gives me the opportunity to enhance
0.025 -0.165 0.224 -0.055 -0.255 0.048 0.361 0.624 -0.186 0.052
my performance on job
Present job has a direct impact on organizational
-0.004 -0.185 0.449 0.324 -0.078 -0.105 0.412 0.452 -0.206 0.142
objectives
My job performance are consistent with goals of
-0.086 -0.1 0.403 0.329 0.098 0.032 0.405 0.525 -0.179 -0.051
org.
My good performance is rewarded financial terms -0.161 -0.104 0.372 0.39 -0.062 0.084 0.052 0.592 0.043 0.064
My good job performance is appreciated by higher
-0.132 0.171 0.425 0.318 -0.246 0.087 0.061 0.625 0.034 0.095
ups
The job performance evaluation system is
-0.196 0.223 0.431 0.12 0.042 0.112 0.042 0.560 0.068 -0.248
objective
My present job gives internal satisfaction 0.152 -0.13 0.483 -0.093 -0.142 0.102 -0.206 -0.099 0.683 -0.055
I am respected because of my job 0.222 0.386 -0.019 -0.024 0.012 -0.032 -0.142 0.416 -0.38
-0.231
My job gives me a sense of fulfilment -0.217 0.148 0.506 -0.265 -0.183 -0.12 -0.138 0.116 0.606 -0.105
I can seek my peers help regarding my job 0.118 0.309 0.234 -0.055 0.056 -0.167 -0.143 -0.417 0.409 -0.014
I will recommend this job to a friend if it is
-0.122 0.215 0.478 -0.306 -0.281 0.011 -0.021 0.031 0.598 0.088
advertised
I feel cared for by my organization 0.187 0.414 0.421 -0.101 0.002 0.078 -0.121 0.145 0.561 -0.16
115
FACTORS
Items
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I will continue in my job even paid less 0.073 -0.191 0.356 0.211 0.118 0.371 -0.205 -0.135 0.132 0.458
Had my job met my expectations I would have
0.043 0.194 0.317 -0.131 0.327 0.043 0.001 -0.256 0.064 0.574
given it my best
I like my job because it totally monotonous in
-0.057 -0.039 0.467 -0.04 0.371 0.104 -0.353 -0.182 0.156 0.473
nature
I joined this job because I had no other options 0.026 0.17 0.150 0.232 0.436 0.035 -0.369 0.126 -0.139 0.537
I can consider changing my job in the next 12
-0.13 0.258 -0.108 0.048 0.29 -0.051 0.026 0.098 0.360 0.462
months
I like to reach my superannuation in my present
0.086 0.059 0.424 -0.196 -0.026 0.236 -0.159 0.019 0.154 0.546
organization
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Note. N = 568. Items with a secondary loading of 0.25 or greater were considered factorally complex.
Factor 1 labelled “ Importance of job analysis” Factor 2 labelled “ Practice of job analysis”; Factor 3 labeled “ Job Design”; Factor
4 labelled “ Job Evaluation”; Factor 5 labelled “ Job Security” Factor 6 labelled “ Job Succession Planning ”; Factor 7 labeled
“Recruitment KSA ”; Factor 8 labelled “ Job performance .” Factor 9 labelled “Job satisfaction.” Factor 10 labeled “Job Retention.”
116
4.4 CONSTRUCTS
Byars & Rue, 2006 discussed that construct validity related to the degree to which a test or
instrument measured the extent of likeness of an employee’s characteristics to those
associated with successful job performance . Wolfaardt (2001) defined construct validity
as “the extent to which it measured the theoretical construct or trait it was supposed to
measure”.
4.4.1 Importance of Job analysis. (JA-1)

No prior instrument was accessible to measure the sensitivity of HR practices like job
analysis from the point of view of public sector organisations of Pakistan, a new
instrument was developed on the basis of an exhaustive review of literature on human
resource management and personal management practices. Clifford, (1994) studied that
organisations that frequently carry out job analysis get a better awareness of their
employees’ skills, knowledge and abilities, strengths and weaknesses, to initiate timely
and accurate decisions to improve the deficiencies in their skills and job behaviour.
Job analysis can also be used to recognize factors that form employee’s motivation and
job satisfaction. Gomez Mejia et al., 2000 and Mondy et. al., 2002 studied that job
descriptions and performance standards updated frequently with the help of job analysis
would enormously help human resource professionals to categorize and eradicate
redundant job requirements, areas of divergence or dissatisfaction . Importance of Job
analysis for this study was measured on 6-point Likert scale has responses ranging from 0
(Not performed) to 5 (when it is felt essential)
117
4.4.2 Practice of Job analysis.
Practice of Job analysis for this study was measured on 6-point Likert scale having
responses ranging from 0 (Not performed) to 5 (when it is felt essential). Since the
present study was interested in the frequency or regularity with which organisations
perform job analysis, the survey participants were requested to report as to how often
their organizations conducted job analyses. The responses were recorded as , when it is
felt essential, after four to five years, after every three years, every two years, every year,
and not performed.
4.4.3 Job Design
Job design was measured with 5 items on a 5-point likert scale, respondents were asked
to respond to the different aspects of their jobs. The Appendix-A provides detail of items
which has been used to measure job design. The measure has good reliability properties.
Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.78
118
4.4.4 Job Evaluation
Job evaluation was measured with 2 items on a 5-point likert scale, respondents were
asked to respond to the worth of job in terms of their financial needs and salary. The
measure has moderate reliability properties. Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.62
4.4.5 Job Security
Job security was measured with 5 items on a 5-point likert scale, respondents were asked
to respond to the different aspects of security in their jobs. The Appendix-A provides
detail of items which has been used to measure job security. The measure has moderate
reliability properties. Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.60
119
4.4.6 Job Succession Planning
Job succession planning was measured with 6 items on a 5-point likert scale, respondents
were asked to respond to the different aspects of their career growth. The Appendix-A
provides detail of items which has been used to measure job design. The measure has
good reliability properties. Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.73
4.4.7 Job Performance
In this study, job performance was measured in two dimensions i.e., working
performance and monetary performance. Working performance was defined in terms of
employee retention, achievement of the goals of organization, employee productivity and
objectivity of performance evaluation system. Monetary performance was measured in
terms of monetary and non-monetary benefits of the employees.
Job performance was measured with 6 items on a 5-point likert scale, respondents were
asked to respond to the different aspects of their jobs like performance enhancement on
job, objective achievement and consistency with the goals of the organization, objectivity
of the performance evaluation system, monetary and non-monetary benefits. The measure
has good reliability properties. Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.77
120
4.4.8 Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction was assessed Respondents indicated the degree to which they were
satisfied with the six factors inner satisfaction, respect, sense of fulfilment, peer support,
cared by the organization. Five point likert scale was used. 1 (strongly disagree),
2(disagree), 3 (neither agree nor disagree), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s
alpha was calculated to test the reliability of the data and was found to be 0.72
4.4.9 Job Retention
Retention was measured with 6 items, respondents were asked to respond, on a 5-point
likert scale, 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neither agree nor disagree), 4 (agree)
and 5 (strongly agree). The Appendix- A provides detail of items which has been used to
measure job retention. The measure has moderate reliability properties. Cronbach’s alpha
value was 0.57
4.4.10 Recruitment KSA
Recruitment KSA was measured with 5 items on a 5-point likert scale, respondents were
asked to respond to the different aspects of their skills, knowledge and abilities. The
Appendix-A provides detail of items which has been used to measure Recruitment. The
measure has good reliability properties. Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.73
121
4.5 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF CONSTRUCTS.
All the measures mentioned above were exclusively designed for this study , A number
of statistical analyses were conducted to make certain their reliability and validity.
Nunnally, (1978) discussed the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient to test the reliability of all
multi-item composite measures. McDaniel & Gates, (1996) studied the validity which
may be tested by means of a correlation analysis. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of each
variable is placed under Appendix- A.
4.6 SCATTER DIAGRAMS
After collecting the data an attempt has been made to plot it to see what degree of
relationship they have between variables. The scatter diagrams have been developed so
that instinctive and qualitative results could be drawn between two variables. The scatter
diagram is a useful tool for testing a likely variation between two variables. The scatter
diagram shape presents precious information about the graph. It reflects the level of
variation which may be happening between the variables. Scattered diagrams of all
independent variables with dependent variable job performance and histogram of all
variables are placed under appendix-C
122
4.7 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics summarize quantitative data in a manageable and user-friendly way
and enable the researcher to obtain a holistic overview of the research data (Durrheim,
2002b; Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2001). Descriptive statistics were calculated for the sample,
the predictors and the criteria and are reported on in this section. Descriptive statistics of
data collected is given below in table which reflects that mean value varies between
variables from 2.19 to 4.06, whereas, standard error varies from 0.021 to 0.089 and
standard deviation from 0.70 to 2.14. Value of median and mode varies from 1.00 to 4.00
and 3.00 to 5.00 respectively.
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of all variables.
JA1 JA2 JD JE JS JSP Rec JP JStn Rtn

Mean 2.83 2.19 3.63 3.56 3.67 3.57 4.06 3.68 3.71 3.17
Std. Error
0.04 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03
of Mean
Median 3.00 1.00 3.80 3.50 3.60 3.67 4.00 3.83 3.83 3.00
Mode 3.00 5.00 3.80 4.00 3.40 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00
Std. Dev. 1.00 2.14 0.71 0.86 0.59 0.66 0.52 0.65 0.57 0.60
Sum 1609.00 1242.00 2060.60 2019.50 2082.80 2029.17 2306.20 2092.83 2105.17 1799.67
Count 568 568 568 568 568 568 568 568 568 568
JA 1 Importance of Job analysis

JA 2 Job Analysis conducted
JD Job Design
JE Job Evaluation
JS Job Security
JSP Job Succession Planning
JP Job Performance
JStn Job Satisfaction
JRtn Job Retention
Rec Recruitment
123
Means Standard Deviation and number of items of each variable is shown in table 4.3.
Descriptive statistics of six regulatory authorities are placed under appendix- D
Table 4.3 Number of items and means and standard Deviations of the
variables N= 568
Sl.No. Variable Number of Mean Standard

Items Deviation
Job Analysis 1
1 1 2.83 1.00
( Importance of Job analysis )
Job Analysis 2
2. 1 2.19 2.14
( Practice of Job analysis )
3. Job Design 5 3.63 0.71
4. Job Evaluation 2 3.56 0.86
5. Job Security 5 3.67 0.59
6. Job Succession Planning 6 3.57 0.66

Recruitment KSA
7. 5 4.06 0.52
( Knowledge, skills and Abilities)
8. Job Performance 6 3.68 0.65
9. Job Satisfaction 6 3.71 0.57
10. Job Retention 6 3.17 0.60
4.8 CORRELATION RESULTS
Correlations help to determine the relationship between variables. A number of correlation
coefficients were calculated in line with the objectives of the research and for the purpose
of testing the research hypotheses. Correlation coefficients between the job analysis, job
design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, recruitment, job satisfaction
and job retention are reported in table 4.4. In presenting the results correlation coefficients
124
are depicted. For the purpose of analysis and interpretation p-values of <= 0.01 and
<=0.05 were considered statistically significant as suggested by Anastasi (1988).
In interpreting the correlation the guidelines suggested by Cohen (1988) were followed.
In terms of these writings, correlation coefficients of r=0.10 show a small effect size.
Correlations of r=0.30 show a medium effect size whilst those of r=0.50 indicate a large
effect size. These guidelines assist in quantifying and reporting on the effect sizes of the
findings.
A number of correlation analysis were performed on the research data. This included
analysis within each of the measures as well as analyses between the research measures.
The outcome of these analyses is presented and discussed in this section Pearson
correlation coefficient was used to measure the strength of association between these
variables at *p<0.01 and **p<0.05 level the result of correlation supported the hypothesis
that there is a positive and significant relationship between Job Analysis and Job
performance, further Job performance is significantly related with job design, Job
Evaluation, job security, job succession planning , recruitment job satisfaction and job
retention.
125
4.8.1 Correlation between all variables and recruitment KSA
Correlations between the job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, recruitment, job satisfaction and job retention are presented in
Table 4.13
The positive correlations of job analysis 1 with job analysis 2 was found r=0.06
(p<=0.01), job design r=0.14 (p<=0.01), job evaluation r=0.10 (p<=0.05), job security
r=0.12 (p<=0.01) , job succession planning r=0.13 (p<=0.01), recruitment
r=0.22(p<=0.01), job performance r=0.19 (p<=0.01) , job satisfaction r=0.22 (p<=0.01) all
were showing within small effect size and negative correlation ( -0.043) with job
retention.
The positive correlations of job analysis 2 with job evaluation r=.16 (p<=0.01), job
succession planning r=.13 (p<=0.01), job performance r=.05 , job satisfaction r=0.08
(p<=0.05) all were showing within small effect size and showing negative correlation
(-0.052) with job design, job security (-0.052) and job retention(-0.043) which indicates
that in those organizations which do not practice Job Analysis had nothing to do with Job
Retention. Though Job Retention has negative relation with JA1 but all other dependent
and independent variables are however, positively correlated.
The positive correlations of job design was found with job evaluation r=0.19 (p<=0.01),
job security r=0.45 (p<=0.01), job succession planning r=0.47 (p<=0.01), within medium
effect size recruitment r=0.25 (p<=0.01), job performance r=0.53 (p<=0.01) within high
effect size, job satisfaction r=0.48 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=.33 (p<=0.01) within
126
medium effect size. There was no negative correlation.
The positive correlations of job evaluation was found with job security r=0.35 (p<=0.01),
job succession planning r=0.40 (p<=0.01), within medium effect size recruitment r=0.03,
job performance r=0.32 (p<=0.01) within medium effect size, job satisfaction r=0.43
(p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.28 (p<=0.01) within medium effect size. There was no
negative correlation.
The positive correlations of job security was found with job succession planning r=0.61
(p<=0.01), within high effect size recruitment r=0.23 (p<=0.01), job performance r=0.45
(p<=0.01) within medium effect size, job satisfaction r=0.51 (p<=0.01) within high effect
size and job retention r=0.41 (p<=0.01) within medium effect size. There was no negative
correlation.
The positive correlations of job succession planning was found with recruitment r=0.14
(p<=0.01), job performance r=0.56 (p<=0.01) within high effect size, job satisfaction
r=0.65 (p<=0.01) within high effect size and job retention r=0.37 (p<=0.01) within
medium effect size. There was no negative correlation.
The positive correlations of recruitment was found with job performance r=0.47 (p<=0.01)
within high effect size, job satisfaction r=0.19 (p<=0.01) within low effect size and job
retention r=0.08 (p<=0.01) within low effect size. There was no negative correlation.
127
The positive correlations of job performance was found with job satisfaction r=0.52
(p<=0.01) within high effect size and job retention r=0.23 (p<=0.01) within low effect
size. There was no negative correlation. The positive correlations of job satisfaction was
found with job retention r=0.34 (p<=0.01) within medium effect size.
Most of the hypothesized correlations correlated higher than r=0.10.Some unexpected
correlations were, however, found negative. A statistically high significant correlation
was found for job satisfaction and job succession planning (r=0.65), job security and job
succession planning (r=0.61), job succession planning and job performance (r=0.56), job
design and job performance (r=0.53), job performance and job satisfaction (r=0.52) and
job security and job satisfaction (r=0.51), Job analysis 1 showed a negative correlation
with job retention r= -0.04 and job analysis 2 with job design ( r= -0.05), job security
(r= -0.05),recruitment (r= -0.08) and job retention (r=-0.07) An unexpected correlation
was found with job analysis 1 r=0.19 (p<=0.01) and job analysis 2 r=0.05 with job
performance. Correlation between job design and job performance was r= 0.53 (p<=0.01)
which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job design and job
performance was r=0.53 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant.
Correlation between job evaluation and job performance was r=0.32 (p<=0.01) which was
moderate statistically significant. Correlation between job security and job performance
was r=0.45 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. It indicates that when
there is highly scientific and rigorous Job Evaluation, up to much extent Job Performance
increases. Correlation between job succession planning and job performance was r=0.56
(p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between recruitment and
128
job performance was r=0.47 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant.
Correlation between job satisfaction and job performance was r=0.52 (p<=0.01) which
was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job retention and job performance
was r=0.23 (p<=0.01) which was moderate statistically significant. Correlation between
job satisfaction and job retention was r=0.34 (p<=0.01) which was moderate statistically
significant.
This shows that job satisfaction although affect the other independent variables but its
impact on Job Performance, dependent variable is much greater. This also means that if
employee is more satisfied with their jobs they will be more committed with the
organization ultimately their chance of leaving the organization will be low. If the
employee is not leaving the organization and also he is committed with the organization,
he will produce high quality material will increase the job performance of employees.
Job satisfaction is also positively correlated with the Job Analysis 1 (0.217), Job Design
(0.479), Job Evaluation (0.429), Job Security (0.513), Job Succession Planning (0.652)
and job retention (0.340). This result indicates that these practices can improve their
productivity and will improve their performance.
Job Security also has a significant effect on Job satisfaction as proved by the literature
review that if employees are more satisfied with their job in the organization , Job in
129
context of Working environment, work load, relation with the peers, subordinate, clients
and mostly job itself, their performance will be improved.
130
Table 4.4 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson Correlation Coefficient in all organizations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 JA1 1.00
2 JA2 0.063 1.00
3 JD 0.142(**) -0.052 1.00
4 JE 0.100(*) 0.159(**) 0.193(**) 1.00
5 JS 0.125(**) -0.052 0.455(**) 0.353(**) 1.00
6 JSP 0.128(**) 0.135(**) 0.467(**) 0.407(**) 0.612(**) 1.00
7 Rec 0.218(**) -0.078 0.247(**) 0.031 0.232(**) 0.144(**) 1.00
8 JP 0.193(**) 0.054 0.528(**) 0.319(**) 0.455(**) 0.557(**) 0.466(**) 1.00
9 JStn 0.217(**) 0.088(*) 0.479(**) 0.429(**) 0.513(**) 0.652(**) 0.195(**) 0.518(**) 1.00
10 Rtn -0.043 -0.069 0.329(**) 0.280(**) 0.408(**) 0.366(**) 0.084(*) 0.230(**) 0.340(**) 1.00
Note ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
JA1 Importance of Job analysis

JA 2 Practice of Job analysis
JD Job Design
JE Job Evaluation
JS Job Security
JSP Job Succession Planning
Rec Recruitment
JP Job Performance
JStn Job Satisfaction
Rtn Job Retention
131
In nutshell coefficient of Job Performance , dependent variable with Job Analysis 1
(0.19), JA 2 ( .05), Job Design ( 0.53 ) Job Evaluation is (0.32), Job Security ( 0.45), job
Succession Planning ( 0.56), Recruitment KSA ( 0.47), Job Satisfaction (0.52). and job
retention is (.23) are positively correlated and these results showed that by
implementing these practices collectively will increase job performance of an employee,
However, individual practice has its own impact on the job performance. Impact of job
analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, recruitment, job
satisfaction and job retention on job performance remained positively correlated.
The correlation between the Job Evaluation, Job Performance (0.32) reflects the
psychology of the Pakistani organizations, that the performance of the employees is
measured on the basis of quantifiable results, the Job Evaluation system in these
organizations can be grown and development oriented, if the employees of the
organizations are provided with the performance based feedback and counselling, than
the employees will have more faith on the performance appraisal system, and the
appraisal system will have a strong influence on the individual and team behaviour.
The mean of the Job Analysis 1 within organization is (2.83) and Job Analysis 2 is (2.19)
and the Standard Deviation is (1.00) and (2.14) respectively. The impact of Job Analysis
on the Job Performance although it is not very high but still it is important indicating that
Pakistani organizations are moving steadily towards job analysis approach. It indicates
that among individual HRM practices, the Job Analysis is also a very important factor,
which leads the organizations to a relatively high performance and ultimately to the
132
higher market share. It also indicates that the employees in the organizations are allowed
to make decisions related to the cost and quality matters, they are asked by their
immediate bosses to participate in operations related decisions, they are provided
opportunity to suggest improvements in the way things are done and the individual and
the organizations growth needs are matched in the organizations commonly. Impact of
job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, recruitment,
job satisfaction and job retention on job performance, however, remained positive
correlated in the study.
133
4.9 COMPARISON AMONGST REGULATORY AUTHORITIES.
The same correlation was run separately on the data collected from NEPRA, OGRA,
PTA, PEMRA, SBP & SECP, the regulatory authorities dealing with power, oil & gas,
telecommunications, electronic media, banking, capital and corporate sectors. The results
are shown in Table 4.5 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10.
4.9.1 Correlation analysis for NEPRA (National Electric power

In NEPRA the negative correlations of job analysis 1 with job analysis 2 r= -0.41
(p<=0.05), job evaluation r= -0.061 was found and highly significantly positive correlated
with job design r=0.84 (p<=0.01), job security r=0.60 (p<=0.01) , job succession planning
r=0.40 (p<=0.05), recruitment r=0.67 (p<=0.01), job performance r=0.57 (p<=0.01) , job
satisfaction r=0.38 (p<=0.05) and job retention (0.54 ) were reported.
The negative correlations of job analysis 2 with job design r= -0.20, job evaluation
r= -0.04, job security (-0.17), recruitment= -0.37(p<=0.05), job satisfaction r= -0.02, job
retention (-0.18) was found, all were showing within small and medium effect size. A
positive correlation was however, found with job succession planning r=0.11 and job
performance r=0.15
134
This indicates that in NEPRA although 38.2 % respondent rated job analysis as extremely
important and 23.2% very important and 32.4 % important but 67.6 % respondent
reported that job analysis was not conducted only 32.4% reported that job analysis was
conducted only when it was felt essential. There is a need to improve the frequency of job
analysis in NEPRA to achieve the better results.
The positive correlations of job design was found with job evaluation r=0.08, within low
effect size, job security r=0.82 (p<=0.01), job succession planning r=0.74 (p<=0.01)
recruitment r=0.79 (p<=0.01), job performance r=0.83 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.68
(p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.78 (p<=0.01) within a large effect size. There was no
job succession planning r=0.20, job performance r=0.13, job satisfaction r=0.26 and job
retention r=0.16 within medium effect size. There was negative correlation with
recruitment r= -0.413. The positive correlations of job security was found with job
succession planning r=0.78 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.56 (p<=0.01), job performance
r=0.79 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.78 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.51 (p<=0.01)
within large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
The positive correlations of job succession planning was found with recruitment r=0.61
(p<=0.01), job performance r=0.91 (p<=0.01) job satisfaction r=0.97 (p<=0.01) and job
retention r=0.53 (p<=0.01) within large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
135
The positive correlations of recruitment was found with job performance r=0.63
(p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.57 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.61 (p<=0.01) within
large effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive correlations of job
performance was found with job satisfaction r=0.84 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.50
(p<=0.01) within large effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive
correlations of job satisfaction was found with job retention r=0.46 (p<=0.01) within
medium effect size.
Most of the hypothesized correlations correlated higher than r=0.10. Some unexpected
was found for job satisfaction and job succession planning (r=0.97), job performance and
job succession planning (r=0.91), job performance and job satisfaction (r=0.84), job
design and job performance (r=0.83), job design and job security (r=0.82)
Correlation between job analysis 1 r=0.57 (p<=0.01) and job analysis 2 r=0.15 with job
performance was found statistically significant Correlation between job design and job
performance was r=0.83 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation
between job evaluation and job performance was r=0.14 which was moderate statistically
significant. Correlation between job security and job performance was r=0.79 (p<=0.01)
which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job succession planning
and job performance was r=0.91 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant.
Correlation between recruitment and job performance was r=0.63 (p<=0.01) which was
highly statistically significant. Correlation between job satisfaction and job performance
136
was r=0.84 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job
retention and job performance was r=0.50 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically
significant. Correlation between job satisfaction and job retention was r=0.46 (p<=0.01)
which was highly statistically significant.
In NEPRA there was a positive highly statistically significant correlation between most of
the variables but some negative correlations were also noticed. Impact of job analysis, job
and job retention on job performance however, remained high.
4.9.2 Correlation analysis for OGRA (Oil and Gas Regulatory
Authority)
In OGRA (Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority) the negative correlations of job analysis 1
with job analysis 2 r= -0.35 (p<=0.05) and job performance r= -0.01 and significantly
positive correlated with job design r=0.14, job security r=0.53 (p<=0.01), job succession
planning r=0.28, recruitment r=0.30, job satisfaction r=0.14 and job retention (0.19) were
reported.
The negative correlations of job analysis 2 with job design r= -0.27, job security r= -0.17,
job succession planning r= -0.05, job performance r= -0.02 and job satisfaction r= -0.02
was found; all were showing within small effect size. A positive correlation was however,
found with job evaluation r=0.03, recruitment r=0.24 and job retention r=0.43
137
This indicates that in OGRA although 6.3 % respondent rated job analysis as extremely
important and 75% very important and 15.6 % important but 40.0 % respondent reported
that job analysis was not conducted only 43.8% reported that job analysis was conducted
only when it was felt essential. There is a need to improve the frequency of job analysis
in OGRA to improve the efficiency.
The negative correlations of job design was found with job evaluation r=-0.022, within
low effect size and positive correlation with job security r=0.37 (p<=0.05), job succession
planning r=0.67 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.25, job performance r=0.52 (p<=0.01), job
satisfaction r=0.31 and job retention r=0.05 within a medium to large effect size.
job succession planning r=0.03, job performance r=0.30, job satisfaction r=0.12 and job
retention r=0.10 within medium effect size. There was negative correlation with
recruitment r= -0.25. The positive correlations of job security was found with job
succession planning r=0.58 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=.00, job performance r=0.62
(p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.46 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.10 (p<=0.01) within
medium to large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
The positive correlations of job succession planning was found with recruitment r=0.07,
job performance r=0.56 (p<=0.01) job satisfaction r=0.59 (p<=0.01) and job retention
r=0.11 within large effect size. There was no negative correlation. The negative
correlations of recruitment was found with job performance r= -0.09, job satisfaction
138
r= -0.03 and job retention r=0.19 was positively correlated. The positive correlations of
job performance was found with job satisfaction r=0.66 (p<=0.01) and negative with job
retention r= -0.04. The negative correlations of job satisfaction was found with job
retention r= -0.02 in OGRA
was found for job design and job succession planning (r=0.69), job performance and job
satisfaction (r=0.66), job performance and job security (r=0.62),
Correlation between job analysis 1 r= -0.01 and job analysis 2 r= -0.02 with job
performance was not found statistically significant. Correlation between job design and
job performance was r=0.52 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant.
Correlation between job evaluation and job performance was r=0.30 which was moderate
statistically significant. Correlation between job security and job performance was r=0.62
(p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job succession
planning and job performance was r=0.56 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically
significant. Correlation between recruitment and job performance was r= -0.07 which was
not statistically significant. Correlation between job satisfaction and job performance was
r=0.66 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job
retention and job performance was r= -0.04 which was not statistically significant.
Correlation between job satisfaction and job retention was r= -0.02 which was also not
statistically significant.
139
In OGRA there was a positive highly statistically significant correlation between most of
the variables but some negative correlations were also noticed. Impact of job design, job
evaluation, job security, job succession planning on job performance remained high but
job analysis, recruitment and job retention on job performance however, remained
negative.
4.9.3 Correlation analysis for PTA (Pakistan Telecommunication Authority)
In PTA (Pakistan Telecommunication Authority) the positive correlations of job analysis
1 with job analysis 2 r=0.19 (p<=0.01), job design r=0.09, job evaluation r=0.14, job
security r=0.03 (p<=0.01), job succession planning r=0.11, recruitment r=0.19, job
performance r=0.13 job satisfaction r=0.14(p<=0.05) and job retention r=0.06 were found.
There was no negative correlation.
The negative correlations of job analysis 2 with job evaluation r=-0.06, recruitment r= -12,
job performance r= -0.02, job satisfaction r= -0.03and job retention r= -0.17 were found,
whereas, correlation with job design r= 0.03, job security r=.00, job succession planning
r= 0.04 were found positive.
This indicates that in PTA although 15.1 % respondent rated job analysis as extremely
important and 39.1.% very important and 33.5 % important but 17.3 % respondent
reported that job analysis was not conducted only 38.0% reported that job analysis was to
be conducted only when it was felt essential. However, 33.5 % reported that job analysis
140
was to be conducted annually. There is a need to improve the frequency of job analysis in
PTA to improve the efficiency.
job security r=0.58 (p<=0.01), job succession planning r=0.59 (p<=0.01), recruitment
r=0.18 (p<=0.05), job performance r=0.54 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.58 (p<=0.01)
and job retention r=0.37 with a large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
job succession planning r=0.56 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.18 (p<=0.05), job performance
r=0.41 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.52 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=.34 (p<=0.01),
within high effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive correlations of job
security was found with job succession planning r=0.65 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.01, job
performance r=0.44 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.63 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.41
(p<=0.01) within large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
r=0.43 within large effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive
correlations of recruitment was found with job performance r=0.35 (p<=0.01), job
satisfaction r=0.12 and job retention r=0.12. The positive correlations of job performance
was found with job satisfaction r=0.50 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.40. There was no
141
was found for job satisfaction and job succession planning (r=0.71), job security and job
succession planning (r=.65), job satisfaction and job security (r=0.63),
Correlation between job analysis 1 r=.13 remained significant but job analysis 2 r= -0.02
shown a negative correlation with job performance was not found statistically significant.
Correlation between job design and job performance was r=0.56 (p<=0.01) which was
highly statistically significant. Correlation between job evaluation and job performance
was r=0.41(p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job
security and job performance was r=0.44 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically
significant. Correlation between job succession planning and job performance was r=0.59
job performance was r=0.35 which was statistically significant. Correlation between job
satisfaction and job performance was r=0.50 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically
significant. Correlation between job retention and job performance was r=0.40 which was
statistically significant. Correlation between job satisfaction and job retention was r=0.53
which was also statistically significant.
In PTA there was a positive highly statistically significant correlation between most of the
variables but some negative correlations were also noticed. Impact of job analysis 1, job
and job retention on job performance remained high but job analysis 2 on job performance
however, remained negative.
142
4.9.4 Correlation analysis for PEMRA (Pakistan Electronic Media
In PEMRA (Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority) the positive correlations of
job analysis 1 with job analysis 2 r=0.34 (p<=0.05) , job design r=0.41 (p<=0.01), job
evaluation r=0.22 (p<=0.01), job security r=0.12 (p<=0.01) , job succession planning
r=0.04, recruitment r=0.12, job performance r=0.21, job satisfaction r=0.35(p<=0.05) and
job retention r=0.01 were found. There was no negative correlation.
The negative correlations of job analysis 2 with job security r=-0.12, recruitment r=-12,
job performance r= -0.03 was found whereas job design r=.01, job evaluation
r=0.50(p<=0.01), job succession planning r= 0.29 (p<=0.05), job satisfaction r=0.09 and
job retention r=0.26 were found positive.
This indicates that in PEMRA although 43.8 % respondent rated job analysis as
extremely important and 31.3 % very important and 16.7 % important but 45.8%
respondent reported that job analysis was not conducted only 37.5% reported that job
analysis was to be conducted only when it was felt essential. However, 14.6 % reported
that job analysis was to be conducted annually. There is a need to improve the frequency
of job analysis in PEMRRA to improve the efficiency.
The positive correlations of job design was found with job evaluation r=0.06, job security
r=0.30 (p<=0.05), job succession planning r=0.31 (p<=0.05), recruitment r=0.20, job
with a large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
143
job succession planning r=0.28 (p<=0.05), recruitment r=0.46 (p<=0.01), job performance
r=0.20, job satisfaction r=0.63 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.46 (p<=0.01), within high
effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive correlations of job security
was found with job succession planning r=0.39 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.64, job
within medium to large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
job performance r=0.64 (p<=0.01) job satisfaction r=0.24 and job retention r=0.53
(p<=0.01) within large effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive
satisfaction r=0.39 (p<=0.01 and job retention r=0.17 The positive correlations of job
(p<=0.05). The positive correlations of job satisfaction was found with job retention
r=0.40 (p<=0.01) .There was no negative correlation.
was found for job security and recruitment (r=0.64), job performance and job succession
planning (r=.64), job satisfaction and job evaluation (r=0.63),
144
Correlation between job analysis 1 r=0.21 was positive with job performance but job
analysis 2 r= -0.03 shown a negative correlation with job performance which was found
statistically not significant. Correlation between job design and job performance was
r=0.61 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job
evaluation and job performance was r=0.20 (p<=0.01) which was statistically significant.
Correlation between security and job performance was r=0.55 (p<=0.01) which was
highly statistically significant. Correlation between job succession planning and job
between recruitment and job performance was r=0.40 (p<=0.01) which was statistically
significant. Correlation between job satisfaction and job performance was r=0.46
(p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job retention and
job performance was r=0.31 which was statistically significant. Correlation between job
satisfaction and job retention was r=0.40 which was also statistically significant.
In PEMRA there was a positive highly statistically significant correlation between most of
the variables but some negative correlations were also noticed. Impact of job analysis 1,
job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, recruitment, job
satisfaction and job retention on job performance remained high but job analysis 2 on job
performance however, remained negative.
145
4.9.5 Correlation analysis for State Bank of Pakistan.
In State Bank the positive correlations of job analysis 1 with job analysis 2 r=0.01, job
design r=0.09, job evaluation r=0.04 (p<=0.01), job security r=0.14 (p<=0.05), job
succession planning r=0.09, recruitment r=0.20 (p<=0.01), job performance r=0.19
(p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.15 (p<=0.05) were found. There was a negative correlation
with job retention r= -0.10
The negative correlations of job analysis 2 with job design r= -0.06, job security r= -0.07
recruitment r= -0.03, job retention r= -0.09 was found whereas job evaluation r=0.21
(p<=0.01), job succession planning r= 0.20 (p<=0.01), job performance r=0.09, job
satisfaction r=0.19 (p<=0.01) were found positively correlated.
This indicates that in SBP although 18.7 % respondent rated job analysis as extremely
important and 40.2 % very important and 25.3 % important but 27.4 % respondent
reported that job analysis was not conducted only 30.3% reported that job analysis was to
be conducted only when it was felt essential. However, 34.0 % reported that job analysis
was to be conducted annually. There is a need to improve the frequency of job analysis in
SBP to improve the efficiency.
job security r=0.38 (p<=0.01), job succession planning r=0.40 (p<=0.01), recruitment
r=.28 (p<=0.01), job performance r=.50 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=.48 (p<=0.01) and
146
job retention r=0.30 (p<=0.01) with a large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
job succession planning r=0.43 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.07, job performance r=0.34
(p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.43 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.32 (p<=0.01), within
high effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive correlations of job
security was found with job succession planning r=0.61 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.19
(p<=0.01), job performance r=0.39 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.43 (p<=0.01) and job
retention r=0.45 (p<=0.01) within large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
r=0.34 (p<=0.01) within large effect size. There was no negative correlation. The positive
satisfaction r=0.19 (p<=0.01) and job retention r=0.05. The positive correlations of job
(p<=0.05). The positive correlations of job satisfaction was found with job retention
r=0.32 (p<=0.01). There was no negative correlation.
was found for job succession planning and job satisfaction (r=0.63), job security and job
succession planning (r=.61), recruitment and job performance (r=0.59),
147
Correlation between job analysis 1 r=.19 (p<=0.01) and job analysis 2 r=0.09 was positive
with job performance which were found statistically significant. Correlation between job
design and job performance was r=0.49 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically
significant. Correlation between job evaluation and job performance was r=0.34(p<=0.01)
which was statistically significant. Correlation between job security and job performance
was r=0.39 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job
succession planning and job performance was r=0.48 (p<=0.01) which was highly
statistically significant. Correlation between recruitment and job performance was r= 0.59
(p<=0.01) which was statistically significant. Correlation between job satisfaction and job
between job retention and job performance was r=0.16 which was statistically significant.
Correlation between job satisfaction and job retention was r=0.32 (p<=0.01) which was
also statistically significant.
In SBP there was a positive highly statistically significant correlation between most of the
variables but some negative correlations were also noticed. Impact of job analysis 1, job
analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, recruitment,
job satisfaction and job retention on job performance remained high.
148
4.9.6 Correlation analysis for SECP (Security Exchange Commission of
Pakistan)
In SECP (Security Exchange Commission of Pakistan) the positive correlations of job
analysis 1 with job analysis 2 r=0.13, job evaluation r=0.45 (p<=0.01), job succession
planning r=0.32, job performance r=0.01 job satisfaction r=0.42 (p<=0.05) were found.
There was a negative correlation with job design r= -0.20, job security r= -0.21
recruitment r= -0.02 and job retention r= -0.46 (p<=0.01)
The negative correlations of job analysis 2 with job design r= -0.22, recruitment r= -0.21,
job performance r= -0.04 and job retention r= -0.50(p<=0.01) was found, whereas, job
evaluation r= 0.25, job security r=0.03, job succession planning r=0.05, job satisfaction
r=0.25 were found positively correlated.
This indicates that in SBP although 23.5 % respondent rated job analysis as extremely
important and 35.3% very important and 20.6% important but 44.1% respondent reported
that job analysis was not conducted only 14.7% reported that job analysis was to be
conducted only when it was felt essential. However, 35.3% reported that job analysis was
to be conducted annually. There is a need to improve the frequency of job analysis in
SECP to improve the efficiency.
The positive correlations of job design was found with job evaluation r=0.03, job security
r=0.46 (p<=0.01), job succession planning r=0.09, recruitment r=0.49 (p<=0.01), job
performance r=0.48 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.04 and job retention r=0.44 (p<=0.01)
with a large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
149
The positive correlations of job evaluation was found with job security r=0.05, job
succession planning r=0.71 (p<=0.01), recruitment r=0.05, job performance
r=0.32(p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.68 (p<=0.01) within high effect size. There was
only negative correlation with job retention r= -0.32. The positive correlations of job
security was found with job succession planning r=0.38 (p<=0.05), recruitment r=0.60
(p<=0.01), job performance r=0.47 (p<=0.01), job satisfaction r=0.21 and job retention
r=0.45 (p<=0.01) within large effect size. There was no negative correlation.
job performance r=0.50 (p<=0.01) and job satisfaction r=0.70 (p<=0.01) within large
effect size. There was only negative correlation with job retention r=-0.13. The positive
correlations of recruitment was found with job performance r=0.33 and job retention
r=0.19 whereas job satisfaction r= -0.04 was negatively correlated with recruitment. The
positive correlations of job performance was found with job satisfaction r=0.33 (p<=0.01)
and job retention r=0.02. The negative correlations of job satisfaction was found with job
retention r= -0.27.
was found for job succession planning and job evaluation (r=0.71), job satisfaction and job
succession planning (r=.70), job evaluation and job satisfaction (r=0.68)
150
Correlation between job analysis 1 r=.00 was positive with job performance which was
found statistically significant but job analysis 2 r= -0.04was found negatively correlated
with job performance. Correlation between job design and job performance was r=0.48
(p<=0.01) which was highly statistically significant. Correlation between job evaluation
and job performance was r=0.32 which was statistically significant. Correlation between
job security and job performance was r=0.47 (p<=0.01) which was highly statistically
significant. Correlation between job succession planning and job performance was r=0.50
job performance was r= 0.33 which was statistically significant. Correlation between job
satisfaction and job performance was r=0.33 which was statistically significant.
Correlation between job retention and job performance was r=0.02 which was statistically
significant. Correlation between job satisfaction and job retention was r= -0.27which was
not statistically significant.
In SECP there was a positive highly statistically significant correlation between most of
the variables but some negative correlations were also noticed. Impact of job analysis 1,
job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, recruitment, job
satisfaction and job retention on job performance remained high. However, impact of job
analysis 2 on job performance remained negative in SECP.
151
Table 4.5 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson Correlation Coefficient in NEPRA ( National Electric
Power Regulatory Authority ) N= 34
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 JA1 1.00
2 JA2 -0.412(*) 1.00
3 JD 0.843(**) -0.197 1.00
4 JE -0.061 -0.037 0.083 1.00
5 JS 0.597(**) -0.167 0.816(**) 0.344(*) 1.00
6 JSP 0.404(*) 0.11 0.742(**) 0.199 0.777(**) 1.00
7 Recmt 0.675(**) -0.375(*) 0.788(**) -0.413(*) 0.555(**) 0.608(**) 1.00
8 JP 0.569(**) 0.154 0.830(**) 0.137 0.789(**) 0.906(**) 0.634(**) 1.00
9 JStn 0.385(*) -0.019 0.678(**) 0.263 0.777(**) 0.972(**) 0.575(**) .844(**) 1.00
10 Rtn 0.537(**) -0.179 0.785(**) 0.157 0.506(**) 0.533(**) 0.612(**) .497(**) .461(**) 1.00
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
152
Table 4.6 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson Correlation Coefficient in OGRA
( Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority ) N= 32
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 JA1 1.00
2 JA2 -0.350(*) 1.00
3 JD 0.14 -0.271 1.00
4 JE 0.036 0.03 -0.221 1.00
5 JS 0.534(**) -0.173 0.366(*) 0.403(*) 1.00
6 JSP 0.284 -0.051 0.668(**) 0.032 0.581(**) 1.00
7 Recmt 0.304 0.245 0.25 -0.25 0.003 0.068 1.00
8 JP -0.011 -0.019 0.524(**) 0.299 0.616(**) 0.563(**) -0.097 1.00
9 JStn 0.136 -0.02 0.309 0.125 0.458(**) 0.591(**) -0.027 0.663(**) 1.00
1
Rtn 0.188 0.431(*) 0.052 0.101 0.1 0.11 0.198 -0.038 -0.018 1.00
0
153
Table 4.7 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson Correlation Coefficient in PTA ( Pakistan
Telecommunication Authority ) N= 179
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 JA1 1.00
2 JA2 0.193(**) 1.00
3 JD 0.093 0.033 1.00
4 JE 0.137 -0.064 0.324(**) 1.00
5 JS 0.027 0.002 0.577(**) 0.502(**) 1.00
6 JSP 0.107 0.041 0.594(**) 0.565(**) 0.647(**) 1.00
7 Recmt 0.188(*) -0.123 0.182(*) 0.182(*) 0.132 0.134 1.00
8 JP 0.126 -0.017 0.547(**) 0.409(**) 0.443(**) 0.586(**) 0.354(**) 1.00
9 JStn 0.161(*) -0.033 0.576(**) 0.525(**) 0.635(**) 0.706(**) 0.117 0.499(**) 1.00
10 Rtn 0.062 -0.175(*) 0.374(**) 0.347(**) 0.408(**) 0.429(**) 0.122 0.396(**) 0.534(**) 1.00

154
Table 4.8 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson Correlation Coefficient in PEMRA
( Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority ) N= 48
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 JA1 1.00
2 JA2 0.340(*) 1.00
3 JD 0.414(**) 0.015 1.00
4 JE 0.224 0.504(**) 0.064 1.00
5 JS 0.117 -0.12 0.301(*) 0.301(*) 1.00
6 JSP 0.036 0.289(*) 0.315(*) 0.285(*) 0.391(**) 1.00
7 Recmt 0.146 0.032 0.207 0.459(**) 0.642(**) 0.23 1.00
8 JP 0.212 -0.032 0.606(**) 0.201 0.553(**) 0.640(**) 0.401(**) 1.00
9 JStn 0.352(*) 0.088 0.383(**) 0.633(**) 0.411(**) 0.246 0.391(**) 0.461(**) 1.00
10 Rtn 0.012 0.261 0.148 0.461(**) 0.206 0.535(**) 0.174 0.315(*) 0.398(**) 1.00

155
Table 4.9 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson Correlation Coefficient in STATE BANK N=241
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 JA1 1.00
2 JA2 0.011 1.00
3 JD 0.095 -0.064 1.00
4 JE 0.041 0.213(**) 0.191(**) 1.00
5 JS 0.142(*) -0.066 0.381(**) 0.363(**) 1.00
6 JSP 0.087 0.203(**) 0.402(**) 0.438(**) 0.614(**) 1.00
7 Recmt 0.203(**) -0.033 0.286(**) 0.065 0.195(**) 0.077 1.00
8 JP 0.188(**) 0.099 0.496(**) 0.336(**) 0.388(**) 0.485(**) 0.595(**) 1.00
9 JStn 0.150(*) 0.193(**) 0.481(**) 0.432(**) 0.431(**) 0.632(**) 0.189(**) 0.476(**) 1.00
10 Rtn -0.1 -0.087 0.297(**) 0.320(**) 0.449(**) 0.345(**) 0.056 0.156(*) 0.321(**) 1.00

156
Table 4.10 Association between distinct variables by using Pearson Correlation Coefficient in SECP ( Security and
Exchange Commission Of Pakistan ) N= 34
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 JA1 1.00
2 JA2 0.127 1.00
3 JD -0.202 -0.217 1.00
4 JE 0.449(**) 0.253 0.03 1.00
5 JS -0.207 0.028 0.457(**) 0.049 1.00
6 JSP 0.32 0.055 0.091 0.713(**) 0.378(*) 1.00
7 Recmt -0.021 -0.208 0.486(**) 0.05 0.601(**) 0.224 1.00
8 JP 0.006 -0.042 0.480(**) 0.318 0.473(**) 0.503(**) 0.33 1.00
9 JStn 0.424(*) 0.249 0.04 0.685(**) 0.21 0.705(**) -0.037 0.332 1.00
10 Rtn -0.460(**) -0.497(**) 0.441(**) -0.316 0.448(**) -0.135 0.188 0.02 -0.27 1.00

157
The relationship between Job Analysis and Job performance in six regulatory authorities
was found as under:-
Table 4.11 Job analysis-job performance link amongst the regulatory authorities
REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
NEPRA OGRA PTA PEMRA STATE SECP
BANK
JA1 JA2 JA1 JA2 JA1 JA2 JA1 JA2 JA1 JA2 JA1 JA2
1.00 -0.41 1.00 -0.35 1.00 0.193 1.00 0.34 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.13
JP 0.57 0.15 -0.01 -0.02 0.13 -.02 0.21 -0.03 0.19 0.09 0.01 -0.04
JA 1: Job analysis 1 (Importance of job analysis)
JA 2: Job analysis 2 (Practice of job analysis)
JP: Job performance.
This result shows that Job analysis 1 has a positive relationship with job performance in
all regulatory authorities except in OGRA where it has a negative relationship. Job
analysis 2 has shown, however, negative relationship with the job performance in OGRA,
PTA, PEMRA and SECP, whereas, NEPRA and STATE BANK have shown a positive
relationship.
Table 4.12: Job performance-job satisfaction link amongst the regulatory
authorities
STATE
NEPRA OGRA PTA PEMRA SECP
BANK
JStn. JStn. JStn. JStn. JStn. JStn.
JP 0.84 0.66 0.50 0.46 0.48 0.33
JStn: Job satisfaction JP: Job performance.
158
In relation with the association of Job performance with job satisfaction there is a high
positive correlation amongst the authorities which proves that organization where
employees are satisfied their performance is also enhanced.
Table 4.13 Job retention-job satisfaction link amongst the regulatory authorities
STATE
BANK
JStn. JStn. JStn. JStn. JStn. JStn.
JRtn 0.46 -0.02 0.53 0.40 0.32 -0.27
JStn: Job satisfaction
JRtn: Job retention.
Table 4.14 Highest correlation coefficients amongst the regulatory authorities
STATE
BANK
JStn
JD JStn. JS. JStn. JE
JSP 0.97 0.67 0.71 0.63 0.71
Recmt. 0.64
JStn: Job satisfaction

JD: Job design.
JSP: Job succession planning
JS: Job security.
JE: Job evaluation.
Recmt: Recruitment
159
The association of job satisfaction and Job succession planning remained highly
significant in NEPRA, PTA and SBP which shows that employees having career paths in
their respective organizations are satisfied which ultimately improve their job
performance. Association between Job design and Job succession planning was shown
highly significant in OGRA. The relationship between Job evaluation and Job succession
planning was found highly significant in SECP.
Another association rather an important association form the selected variables is
relationship between job security and recruitment which was reflected in PEMRA.
Employees prefer permanent jobs rather contractual jobs.
After finding and measuring the correlation between these variables efforts have been
made to measure the contribution of independent variables in variation. Regression
analysis was used to identify the exact nature of the relationship.
160
4.10 RESULTS FOR REGRESSION ANALYSES.
Linear regression analyses were used to investigate the relationship between the dependent
and independent variables. The guidelines suggested by Cohen (1988) in interpreting the
correlations were followed. In terms of these suggestions, correlations of r=0.10 show a
small effect size. Correlations of r=0.30 show a medium effect size whilst those of r=0.50
indicate a large effect size. These guidelines assist in quantifying and reporting on the
effect sizes of the correlations.
4.10.1. Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job analysis

1 and Job analysis 2 with the dependent variable Job
performance.
It was hypothesized that job analysis effects positively with Job performance. As
presented in Table 4.15, the overall p-value < 0.001 shows that JA 1, importance of job
analysis has an impact on job performance. When studied in detail it was observed that the
regression coefficient for JA 1 0.191 has a p-value < 0.001 does have a significant impact
on job performance whereas JA 2, occurrence of job analysis, with regression coefficient
0.042 and p-value 0.301is not effecting job performance. As far effect is concerned the job
analysis 1 cause an average increase of 0.191 in job performance with unit increase in job
analysis 1. Hence hypothesis 1 to the extent of importance of job analysis is proved.
161
TABLE 4.15 Regression summaries for dependent variable: job
performance relating to job analysis.
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Correlation ( R ) 0.198
R- squared 0.039
Adjusted R- squared 0.036
Standard Error of Estimates 0.643
F ( 11.501 ) p = .000
STD.
BETA B t p-VALUE
ERROR
Intercept 3.302 0.085 39.062 0.000
Job Analysis 1 ( JA 1 ) 0.191 0.125 0.027 4.614 0.000
Job Analysis 2 ( JA 2 ) 0.042 0.013 0.013 1.017 0.309
Model 1: JP =A +β1 X1+ β2 X2 +U

JP= 0.191 JA 1+ 0.042 JA 2
4.10.2 Regression analysis for independent variables: Job Design with

dependent variable Job performance.
It was hypothesized that Job design effects positively with Job performance. As presented
in Table 4.16, adjusted R- squared was found 0.968 which is a strong effect size. It
explained 96.8 percent of the total variance. The overall p-value of model is <0.001 which
shows that job design has highly significant effect on job performance. The regression
coefficient of job design 0.984 with p-value of < 0.001. It shows that a unit change in job
design causes almost a unit change on average in job performance. Hence hypothesis 2 is
proved
162
TABLE 4.16 Regression summary for dependent variable: job
performance relating to job design
R- squared 0.968
F ( 17406.547 ) p = .000
BETA B STD. t p-VALUE
ERROR
Intercept
Job design ( JD ) 0.984 0.996 0.008 131.93 0.000
Model 2: JP=A+ β3 X3 +U
JP= 0.984 JD
4.10.3 Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job Evaluation

It was hypothesized that Job evaluation effects positively with Job performance. As
presented in Table 4.17, adjusted R- squared was found 0.941 which is a strong effect size.
It explained 94.1 percent of the total variance. The overall p-value of model is <0.001
which shows that job evaluation has highly significant effect on job performance. The
regression coefficient of job evaluation 0.970 with p-value of < 0.001. It shows that a unit
change in job design causes almost a unit change on average in job performance. Hence
hypothesis 3 is proved
163
performance relating to job evaluation
R- squared 0.941
F ( 9045.019 ) p = .000
ERROR
Intercept
Job evaluation ( JE ) 0.970 0.992 0.010 95.105 0.000
JP= 0.970 JE
4.10.4 Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job Security with

the dependent variable Job performance.
It was hypothesized that Job security effects positively with Job performance. As
It explained 97 percent of the total variance. The overall p-value of model is <0.001 which
shows that job security has highly significant effect on job performance. The regression
coefficient of job evaluation 0.985 with p-value of < 0.001. It shows that a unit change in
job security causes almost a unit change on average in job performance. Hence hypothesis
4 is proved
164
performance relating to job security
R- squared 0.970
F ( 18178.212 ) p = .000
ERROR
Intercept
Job security ( JS ) 0.985 0.992 0.007 134.82 0.000
JP= 0.985 JS
4.10.5 Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job Succession

Planning with the dependent variable Job performance.
It was hypothesized that Job succession planning effects positively with Job performance.
As presented in Table 4.19, adjusted R- squared was found 0.972 which is a strong effect
size. It explained 97.2 percent of the total variance. The overall p-value of model is <0.001
which shows that job succession planning has highly significant effect on job
performance. The regression coefficient of job succession planning 0.986 with p-value of
< 0.001. It shows that a unit change in job succession planning causes almost a unit
change on average in job performance. Hence hypothesis 5 is proved.
165
performance relating to job succession planning
R- squared 0.972
F ( 19581.179 ) p = .000
ERROR
Intercept
Job succession planning ( JSP ) 0.986 1.015 0.007 139.93 0.000
JP= 0.986 JSP
4.10.6 Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job

Satisfaction with the dependent variable Job performance.
It was hypothesized that Job satisfaction effects positively with Job performance. As
which shows that job satisfaction has highly significant effect on job performance. The
regression coefficient of job satisfaction 0.987 with p-value of < 0.001. It shows that a unit
change in job satisfaction causes almost a unit change on average in job performance.
Hence hypothesis 7 is proved
166
performance relating to job satisfaction.
R- squared 0.974
F ( 21220.972 ) p = .000
ERROR
Intercept
Job satisfaction ( JStn ) 0.987 0.985 0.007 145.67 0.000
JP= 0.987 JStn
4.10.7 Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job Retention

It was hypothesized that Job retention effects positively with Job performance. As
which shows that job retention has highly significant effect on job performance. The
regression coefficient of job retention 0.975 with p-value of < 0.001. It shows that a unit
change in job retention causes almost a unit change on average in job performance. Hence
hypothesis 8 is proved.
167
performance relating to job retention
R- squared 0.951
F ( 10912.766 ) p = .000
ERROR
Intercept
Job retention ( J Rtn ) 0.975 1.132 0.011 104.46 0.000
JP= 0.975 JRtn
4.10.8 Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job analysis 1

and Job analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, job satisfaction and job retention with the
It was hypothesized that Job analysis 1 and Job analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job
security, job succession planning, job satisfaction and job retention effects positively with
Job performance. As presented in Table 4.22 when regression analyses performed for all
variables together on job performance, it was again observed that the p-value < 0.001 and
R- adjusted 0.426 shows that the variables together have significant impact on job
performance. Hence hypothesis 9 is proved.
Regression coefficients of JA 1 ( 0.067 ), JD ( 0.301), JE ( 0.078 ), JSP ( 0.261 ) and
Jstn ( 0.135 ) were having significant and positive impact on job performance with p-value
0.043, < 0.001, 0.034, < 0.001 and 0.003 respectively while JA 2, JS and JRtn does not
have significant impact on job performance as per research model.
168
Table 4.22 Regression summary for dependent variable: job
performance relating to job analysis 1, job analysis 2, job
design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, job satisfaction and job retention.
R- squared 0.434
F ( 53.633 ) p = .000
STD.
BETA B t p-VALUE
ERROR
Intercept 0.728 0.169 4.297 0.000
Job Analysis 1 0.067 0.044 0.002 2.032 0.043
Job Analysis 2 0.006 0.002 0.010 0.172 0.864
Job design 0.301 0.279 0.036 7.763 0.000
Job evaluation 0.078 0.060 0.028 2.128 0.034
Job security 0.078 0.087 0.048 1.799 0.073
Job succession planning 0.261 0.258 0.047 5.440 0.000
Job satisfaction 0.135 0.155 0.052 2.967 0.003
Job retention -0.061 -0.006 0.040 -1.663 0.097
Model 8: JP =A +β1 X1+ β2 X2+ β3 X3+ β4 X4+ β5 X5+ β6 X6+ β7 X7+U
JP= 0.067 JA1+ 0.006 JA2 +0.301 JD + 0.078 JE + 0.078 JS + 0.261 JSP +
0.135 JStn- 0.061 JRtn
169
4.10.9 Regression Analysis for independent variables: Job analysis
1, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, job satisfaction and job retention with the
As presented in Table 4.23 when regression analyses performed for all variables together
except Job analysis 2 on job performance, it was observed that the p-value < 0.001 and R-
adjusted 0.427 shows that the variables together excluding JA 2 have also significant
impact on job performance.
Regression coefficients of JA 1 ( 0.044 ), JD ( 0.278), JE ( 0.060 ), JSP ( 0.259 ) and
Jstn ( 0.156 ) were having significant and positive impact on job performance with p-value
0.042, < 0.001, 0.030, < 0.001 and 0.003 respectively while JS and JRtn again have not a
significant impact on job performance as per research model. By excluding JA 2 there was
no significant change in the results.
170
Table 4.23 Regression summary for dependent variable: job
performance relating to job analysis 1, job design, job
evaluation, job security, job succession planning, job
satisfaction and job retention.
R- squared 0.434
F ( 61.397 ) p = .000
STD.
BETA B t p-VALUE
ERROR
Intercept 0.731 0.168 4.356 0.000
Job Analysis 1 .044 .022 .067 2.043 .042
Job design .278 .036 .300 7.782 .000
Job evaluation .060 .028 .079 2.177 .030
Job security .086 .048 .077 1.795 .073
Job succession planning .259 .047 .263 5.557 .000
Job satisfaction .156 .052 .136 2.975 .003
Job retention -.067 .040 -.061 -1.687 .092
Model 9: JP =A +β1 X1+ β3 X3+ β4 X4+ β5 X5+ β6 X6+ β7 X7+ β8 X8+U
JP= 0.044 JA1 +0.278 JD + 0.060 JE + 0.086 JS + 0.259 JSP + 0.156 JStn-
0.067 JRtn
171
4.11 TESTS FOR INTERVENING EFFECT OF RECRUITMENT
In order to explore the extent to which Recruitment KSA( knowledge, skills and abilities)
moderated the job analysis1, job analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, job satisfaction, job retention and job performance relationship,
multiple regression analysis was conducted. An intervening effect may be observed if the
multiplicative interaction term is found statistically significant. Using hierarchical
regression analysis (SPSS 12), the importance of job analysis Job Analysis 1 and Practice
of Job Analysis JA 2 were entered in step one, and the Recruitment KSA moderator in
step two. Similarly, each independent variable was entered in step one by on and the
recruitment KSA in step 2. Table 4.9 presents B, SE B β, R2 and R2 change. R2 change
gives changes in the values of R2 between the models. As we can see R2 change value in
JA 1 and JA 2 step 2 is .19. This indicates that inclusion of recruitment KSA helps in
explaining the additional 19% variance in the job performance. Before inclusion of
recruitment, JA 1 and JA 2 accounted for 0.039 or 4% variance (R2 value) in job
performance.
R2 change value in job design step 2 is 0.120. This indicates that inclusion of recruitment
KSA helps in explaining the additional 12% variance in the job performance. Before
inclusion of recruitment, job design accounted for 0.279 or 28% variance (R2 value) in
job performance.
172
In step 2 R2 change value of job evaluation is 0.209 which indicates that inclusion of
recruitment KSA helps in explaining the additional 20.9% variance in the job
performance. Before inclusion of recruitment, job evaluation accounted for 0.102 or
10.2% variance (R2 value) in job performance.
R2 change value in job security step 2 is 0.138. This indicates that inclusion of
performance. Before inclusion of recruitment, job security accounted for 0.207 or 20.7%
variance (R2 value) in job performance.
In step 2 R2 change value in job succession planning is 0.152. This indicates that
inclusion of recruitment KSA helps in explaining the additional 15.2% variance in the job
performance. Before inclusion of recruitment, job succession planning accounted for
0.310 or 31% variance (R2 value) in job performance.
R2 change value in job satisfaction step 2 is 0.139. This indicates that inclusion of
performance. Before inclusion of recruitment, job satisfaction accounted for 0.268 or
26.8% variance (R2 value) in job performance.
Job retention R2 change value in step 2 is 0.201. This indicates that inclusion of
recruitment KSA helps in explaining the additional 20% variance in the job performance.
173
Before inclusion of recruitment, job retention accounted for 0.053 or 5.3% variance (R2
value) in job performance.
On examining the complete model R2 change value in Job Analysis 1, Job Analysis 2,
Job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, job satisfaction and job
retention step 2 is 0.101. This indicates that inclusion of recruitment KSA helps in
explaining the additional 10.1% variance in the job performance. Before inclusion of
recruitment, Job Analysis 1, Job Analysis 2, Job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, job satisfaction and job retention accounted for 0.434 or 43.4%
variance (R2 value) in job performance. The p-value for testing significance of
correspond F change is 0.000 this means that inclusion of recruitment KSA significantly
improves model to predict job performance.
It may be noted that, coefficients of both the multiplicative interaction and the moderator
variables are statistically significant, hence moderator, recruitment KSA, would be
observed as quasi-moderators rather than pure moderators. It is also noteworthy from R2
change that job analysis, job evaluation, and job retention with the intervening variable
Recruitment KSA explained a much larger proportion of the total variance on dependent
variable. Hence, hypothesis 6 is proved. The relatively stable standardized beta
coefficients generated by JA1, JA2, Job design, job evaluation, job security, job
succession planning, job satisfaction and job retention with recruitment, indicating its
unique impact, independent of moderators, support the central argument of this study that
a job analysis is an important HR strategy to achieve superior job performance results.
174
Table 4.24 Test for interveing effect of Recruitment KSA
B SE B β R2 ∆ R2
JA 1 and JA 2 with Recruitment
Step 1
Constant 3.302 0.085
Job analysis 1 0.125 0.027 0.191
Job analysis 2 0.013 0.013 0.042
0.039
Step 2
Job analysis 1 0.058 0.025 0.089
Job analysis 2 0.026 0.011 0.084
Recruitment 0.57 0.048 0.453
0.194
Job design with Recruitment
Step 1
Job Design 0.489 0.033 0.528
0.279
Step 2
Job Design 0.408 0.031 0.439
Recruitment 0.450 0.042 0.358
0.120
Job evaluation with Recruitment
Step 1
Job evaluation 0.242 0.030 0.319
0.102
Step 2
Recruitment 0.574 0.044 0.457
0.209
Job security with Recruitment
Step 1
Job security 0.506 0.042 0.455
175
B SE B β R2 ∆ R2
0.207
B SE B β R2 ∆ R2
Step 2
Job security 0.408 0.039 0.367
Recruitment 0.479 0.044 0.381
0.138
Job Succession planning with Recruitment
Step 1
Job Succession planning 0.550 0.034 0.557
0.310
Step 2
Constant -0.090 0.181
Job Succession planning 0.493 0.031 0.500
Recruitment 0.495 0.039 0.394
0.152
Job satisfaction with Recruitment
Step 1
Job satisfaction 0.594 0.041 0.518
0.268
Step 2
Constant -0.140 0.198
Recruitment 0.478 0.042 0.380
0.139
Job retention with Recruitment
Step 1
Job retention 0.252 0.045 0.230
0.053
Step 2
Constant
Job retention 0.278 0.035 0.24
Recruitment 0.688 0.027 0.753
0.201
176
B SE B β R2 ∆ R2
All variables with Recruitment
Step 1
Job Analysis 1 0.044 0.022 0.067
Job Analysis 2 0.002 0.01 0.006
Job design 0.279 0.036 0.301
Job security 0.087 0.048 0.078
Job succession planning 0.258 0.047 0.261
Job retention -0.066 0.04 -0.061
0.434
Step 2
Constant -0.548 0.192
Job Analysis 1 0.005 0.02 0.007
Job Analysis 2 0.008 0.009 0.027
Job design 0.231 0.033 0.249
Job security 0.025 0.044 0.023
Job succession planning 0.277 0.043 0.281
Job retention -0.061 0.036 -0.056
Recruitment 0.427 0.039 0.340
0.101
177
The core aim of the research was to figure out the relationship among job analysis, job
design, job evaluation, job security, job succession plan and job performance with respect
to the recruitment process, job satisfaction and employee retention and also what
difference they create while practicing in six different regulatory authorities of Pakistan.
For this purpose research has been originated from primary level, describing
demographic representation of the respondents, constructs have been developed and
Cronbach’s alpha value of each construct was measured. Several statistical analyses were
undertaken to ensure the reliability and validity of the data. The scatter diagrams were
developed so that intuitive and qualitative conclusions could be drawn between two
variables. Descriptive statistics have been calculated for the sample, the predictors and
criteria were reported.
In order to determine the relationship between variables a number of correlation
coefficients were calculated in line with the objectives of the research. The same
correlation was run separately on the data collected from regulatory authorities NEPRA,
OGRA, PTA, PEMRA, STATE BANK and SECP. Linear regression analyses were used
to investigate the relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
Regression summary for dependent variable, job performance relating to each independent
variable has been specified. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to explore the
extent to which Recruitment KSA( knowledge, skills and abilities) moderated the
independent and dependent variables. This chapter described the important findings with
comprehensive explanation.
178
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will discuss major findings in detail which includes implications of the
findings for research model, contributions of the current study and finally limitations of the
study will also be discussed for further research directions.
5.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
This research discusses the relationship of Human Resource Management (HR) practices
with job performance by examining the impact of important human resource practices like
job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning ( bundle HR
practices ) on job performance. Role of recruitment as moderator in this Human Resource-
Performance link has also been tested. A hypothesized model in this connection has been
presented under figure 2.1 (p.71). Most of the significant human resource practices under
considerations have been integrated to test their linkage. The results of this study have been
taken from the regulatory authorities of Pakistan and organizations working under the
umbrella of these authorities. This makes the conclusion more sectors oriented. Amongst
these human resource practices; job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security and job
succession planning has shown a direct impact on job performance and its outcome, viz., job
satisfaction and job retention. Results were found consistence with the earlier studies held by
Pfeffer, (1994; 1998) and Huselid, (1995).
179
The specific aim of this research study was to observe the impact of job analysis on
employee job performance with relation to recruitment process in public sector regulatory
authorities of Pakistan. In 1976, McCormick, discussed job analysis as a foundation for
human resource management further it was studied by Sanchez & Levine in 2000 and role of
job analysis in human resource planning was found imperative. Human Resource practices,
such as recruitment process, performance appraisal, compensation and training &
development based on inaccurate job analysis might affect other human resource activities
based on it. Job Analysis as a management technique was developed around 1900 in the west
and it became one of the tools by which managers understood and focussed organizations.
This important human resource practice, however, could not be kept in practice in Pakistan
till 2000 (one hundred years gap).
In the field of Human Resource Management the importance of Job Analysis cannot be
denied, as all decisions in the employment process rest upon Job Analysis. Later, Brannick
and Levine described in 2002 Job Analysis as a systematic process whereby one can discover
the nature of a job. Job was divided into smaller units and one or more results were recorded.
Some researchers Cascio, 1998; Bowin and Harvey, 2000 have discussed the significance of
job analysis in the field of human resource management but they found job analysis as a
strategic human resource ( HR ) management practice having a prospective contribution in
the organizational performance but in this study, practice of Job Analysis has been taken into
the account with regards to the job performance of an employee. In fact, the impact of Job
Analysis is examined at micro level, whereas, organization performance may be seen at
macro level. Individual Job Performance, ultimately, will lead to Organizational
180
Performance. Anthony et al., 2002 & Dessler, 2003 further studied and recommended that
with the growing acknowledgment of the Human Resource-Performance linkage,
organizations practicing job analysis as a human resource planning tool were found to gain
upon the organization which don’t employ job analysis.
In spite of a pivotal role of job analysis in all human resource activities, there was a small
empirical research which predominantly linked job analysis with job performance. Towers
1992; Pfeffer, 1998, Greer, 2001 and Drucker 2002 discussed about the success of
organizations in the current competitive environment and fast pace depending on the
competence of their human resources and practices in vogue. In Pakistan, no such empirical
research was available which linked Job Analysis with Job Performance. Sufficient evidences
were available in the existing Human Resource- Performance literature to expect a positive
relationship of Job Analysis on employee’s Job Performance.
Several organizations have benefited from Job Analysis due to the significant relationship
between Job Analysis and Job Performance in the western countries. Sherman et. al., (1998)
studied that the definitive rationale of the Job Analysis was to enhance employee
performance and productivity, which is low particularly in the public sector organizations in
Pakistan. The practice of Job Analysis can create a significant contribution with job
performance both directly and actively with other key human resource practices. Frequency
or occurrence of job analysis practice would help an organization in creating a proper
environment by defining the job or tasks to be performed and deadlines to perform them.
181
Regular job analysis contributes not only to the employees but also to the organizational
performance by improving job attitudes and working conditions. Job Analysis may also be
applied to determine the factors which delineate employee’s motivation and job satisfaction.
Accurate and timely information about job responsibilities and key performance indicators
were essential to achieve results.
Several Job Analysis instruments were available to use and to deal with the different
organizational requirements. Belcourt et al in 1996 and Anthony et al in 2002 studied that
such instruments were meant for a special purpose questionnaires to ascertain the
standardised quantitative methods, like positional analysis questionnaires (PAQ), Functional
job analysis, and Semi-structured qualitative methods etc; For this particular study Job
Analysis was measured through a questionnaire with two aspects, importance of job analysis
and practice / frequency of job analysis.
It has been recognized that human resources were the innermost organizational resource and
a mean to achieve the given tasks to attain the targets and goals of an organization.
Generally, results obtained through this study were found consistent with the results obtained
in the studies of Becker & Huselid, in 1998 regarding the link of Human resource –
performance conducted in the west.
As per guideline suggested by Cohen (1988) in interpreting the correlations results in terms
of writings, correlations of r = 0.10 , r = 0.30 and r = 0.50 shown a small, medium and large
182
effect size respectively. These guidelines assisted in quantifying and reporting on the effect
sizes of the findings.
Small effect size correlations were found of job analysis 1 (importance of job analysis) with
job performance r=0.19, whereas, correlation with other variables remained within small
effect as with job analysis 2 (practice or frequency of job analysis) r=0.06, job design r=0.14,
job evaluation r=0.10, job security r=0.12, job succession planning r=0.13, recruitment r=0.22
and job satisfaction r=0.22. There was a negative correlation (-0.043) with job retention only.
These results indicates positive relationship of job analysis not only with the job performance,
dependent variable but also with other human resource practices except job retention which
clearly indicates that importune of job analysis has nothing to do with employee job retention
hence other practices would have to explore. Correlation of importance of job analysis, JA 1
was found weak with job analysis 2 (practice or frequency of job analysis).
This indicates that job analysis 2 (practice or frequency of job analysis) may be used as
moderator between JA 1 and job performance to ascertain the frequency of the job analysis.
Job analysis 2 has also a weak relationship with job performance r=0.05. Other correlations
are within small effect size, job evaluation r=0.16 job succession planning r=0.13, job
satisfaction r=0.08 showing negative correlation (-0.052) with job design, (-0.052) job
security and (-0.043) job retention. These results on the part of JA 2 are not so good. One of
the avenues for future research may be the moderator role of the JA2 between JA 1 and Job
performance with or without existing moderator recruitment.
183
Further analysis of data through regression results shows that job analysis 1 and job analysis 2
correlates positively with Job performance. R-squared value was found 0.039 which explained
3.9 percent of the total variance for dependent variable job performance relating to job
analysis, adjusted R-squared was 0.036. The adjusted R2 has given an idea of how well
hypothesized model generalizes and ideally its value should be the same or very close to the
value of R2. So, in this study value of adjusted R2 is close to the value of R2. B value for job
analysis 1 was 0.125 and 0.013 for job analysis 2 with standard error of 0.027 and 0.013
respectively. p-level of job analysis 1 is 0.000 and t value is 4.614 and p-level of job analysis
2 is 0.309 and t value is 1.017
In multiple regressions the model takes the form of an equation that contains a coefficient (b)
for each predictor and these b values indicated the contribution of each independent variable
in the model. b values also explained about the link between dependent variable and each
independent variable. Each of b values has a standard error value indicating to what extent
these values would vary across different samples and these standard errors were used to
determine whether or not the ‘b’ value differ significantly from zero. In this study all the
values were positive t-test linked with a ‘b’ value was significant hence job analysis was
making a significant contribution in the model.
The smaller the value of Significance 0.000 and the larger the value of t = 4.614 was showing
the greater contribution of JA1. In JA 2 value of significance was 0.309 and the value of
t=1.017 which was not reflecting the greater contribution.Beta value for job analysis 1 was
0.191, whereas, job analysis 2 has shown a value of 0.042. The standardized beta values (β)
184
were measured in standard deviation units which were directly comparable, therefore, it
provided a better insight into the importance of an independent variable in the model.
It is to mention here that regression analysis was carried out by taking in account the value of
intercept. Although hypothesis 1 is proved but again poor results have been reflected by the
job analysis 2 which reflects that in public sector job analysis is not being carried out
regularly. No doubt Job analysis has a vital role in an effective human resource planning to
achieve organizational performance outcomes like administrative efficiency, better working
conditions and enhanced productivity. Thompson & Strickland, 2001 and Dessler, 2003
viewed job analysis tool as a foundation of an aggressive gain. In fact, public sector
organizations particularly regulatory authorities gave the impression to be more compatible
with recent human resources practices.
Towers, 1992 and Greer, 2001 discussed the importance of human resource practices as an
independent variable consistent with a view that human resource planning was required for
the successful job performance. If human resource planning was guided through real
information on employee’s attributes, it was more likely to achieve better results. The results
of this study as mentioned above clearly illustrated the value of human resource practice like
job analysis as discussed in a large amount of the current human resource literature.
Cliford, 1994 and Monday et al., 2002 studied that new technological advancements with
increasing competitive pressures were making several jobs outmoded, while need for new
and multi-skills and competencies were required to enhance the performance and
productivity. Thus, organizations must constantly review the skills, knowledge and abilities
185
of their employees and recruitment strategies to achieve an effective match between job
requirements and employee skills. Intervening role of recruitment KSA ( knowledge, skills
and abilities ) in line with the studies of Clifford, 1994 and Mondy et al., 2002 has been
tested.
A realistic approach of Job Analysis ensures maximum congruency between job content and
job context that is supportive of the recruitment process. The flaws in public sector’s
recruitment system occur when they independently deal with job content and job context.
The preference is given to job content as it is taken as a benchmark for organization during
recruitment and selection while human resource management based recruitment requires
interdependent criteria both for job content and context. The job content and context together
determine the functions and functionality of a job. They are best understood as intermingled
evolving process rather than a linear progression of steps. Many organizations therefore carry
a job re-design as a component of the ongoing process of Job Analysis. An effective Job
analysis can be conducted after the job has been designed, the employees have been trained
and the work has been performed.
It has been observed that in public sector, if job is analysed after the job is assigned and
continues with certain practices for a long period of time while HR best practices gives an
extensive picture of different extensions of Job Analysis. Cherrington (1995) identified three
occasions when Job Analysis is normally carried out: (1) when the organization commences,
(2) when a new job is created, and (3) when a job is changed significantly as a result of new
methods new procedures and new technology. If third point is particularly considered, it
186
needs recruitment on the basis of constantly changing knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA)
needs as new procedures or technology requires potential employees to handle them
effectively. The results of the current study supported the role of Job analysis for both
enhancing employee’s job performance through job satisfaction and turnover. Employees
having higher levels of knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA) were found better job
performers. Extensive job analysis must be conducted on each job to identify the key tasks
that comprise the position. Jobs will have also be needed to analyse defining the nature of job
to be performed.
Most of the research on job design was based on the Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
presented by Hackman & Oldham in 1976 and 1980 which focused on five ( 5 ) core job
characteristics (task identity, tasks significance , skill variety, autonomy and job feedback)
which contributed to job stimulation and in turn affected motivation, job performance and job
satisfaction. More than two decades research and practice on job design were dominated by
these theoretical frameworks. Kopelman 1985, Fried & Ferris 1987, Fried 1991, Oldham
1996 and Parker et al., 2001 discussed diverse results of the link between stimulating job
characteristics and job performance and outcome like job retention. Fried & Ferris, 1987;
Fried, 1991, Johns, Xie & Fang, 1992; Parker et al., 2001 have supported the hypothesized
relations between stimulating job characteristics and job performance outcome such as job
satisfaction.
Current study have shown high effect size between job design and job performance r=0.53,
job design with job satisfaction r=0.48 and moderate with job design and job retention r=0.33
187
which is similar to the previous research. Relationship between job design and job succession
planning is significantly correlated r=0.47 which indicates that a step would be taken toward
explaining how employee’s respond to job design may be different. Employees may avoid
the jobs which provide low stimulation, if they perceive their current jobs active with relation
to the job succession planning, they may get promotion in the near future level of their
performance would be better. Wall & Jackson (1995) have shown their concerned on job
design theories in the current environments. As per their view, job design theory has been
failed to keep pace with some jobs which were dominated by (IT) information technology
and latest management practices like ( TQM ) total quality management and (JIT) just-in-
time.
Avital, 2000; George & Jones, 2000; Pettigrew et al., 2001 and Fried & Slowik, 2004 have
discussed the limitation of job design and motivation theories as they tend to be relatively
static, failed to integrate with the important framework of time. In the era of greater than
before globalization and vibrant changes linked with the constant generation and application
of new skills and knowledge, in employee’s hanging careers, the failure to incorporate the
context of time might affect seriously the validity and explanatory influence of these theories.
In this study, an attempt has been made to express how systematic incorporation of the
context of time into theories of job design, in case of individual job succession planning, can
improve in understanding of the employee’s reactions.
188
Regression results show that job design correlates positively with Job performance.
R-squared value was found 0.968 which explained 96.8 percent of the total variance for
dependent variable job performance relating to job design; adjusted R-squared was 0.968
which is same as the value of R2. B value for job design was 0.996 with standard error of
0.008. p-level of job design was 0.000 and t value 131.93. All the values were positive ‘t’
value with a ‘b’ value was significant hence predictor job design was making a highly
significant contribution to the model.
The smaller the value of Significance 0.000 and the larger the value of t=131.93 was also
showing the greater contribution of job design. Beta value for job design was 0.984 which
provided a better insight into the importance of a job design in the model. The
abovementioned discussion recommended that in future during the job design research data
on the employee’s career dynamics, job levels and their expectations should be gathered and
analysed. Change process in job descriptions ( JDs ) and employee reactions over the time
period would definitely require longitudinal design across the organizations.
Werther & Davis 1993 studied that Job evaluation was used to determine the relative worth
of jobs by establishing a relationship between salary and worth of the job. The role of job
evaluation has been grown up and several organizations are implementing the comparable
worth policies. Although the salary structure seems to be a major expense in the regulatory
authorities, but practices on compensation have a negative impact on the operating cost. Beer
et al., 1984 discussed that all human resource practices should be cost effective. It revealed
that a well planned compensation system may reduce the operating costs. Salary surveys are
189
being carried out to reduce the turnover particularly in regulatory authorities.
There are several job evaluation methods through which jobs are rated on a set of factors, this
is the most popular and perhaps most easily understandable method. Milkovich & Newman,
(1990) defined Job evaluation as an organized procedure to formalize and establish the pay
structures of all jobs in an organization. These pay structures were proposed to precisely
reflect both organization's specific compensation objectives and external labour market
factors. In this study job evaluation has been measured on two items on salary and meeting
the financial needs. Alpha was measured as (0.62) for job evaluation which is in accordance
with the previous research which have shown the issue of reliability and validity. Collins &
Muchinsky 1993, Chen et al. 1999, Rutt & Doverspike 1999, Olson et al. 2000, Welbourne
& Trevor 2000, Arnault et al. 2001, Morgeson et al. 2001, Rotundo & Sackett 2004 studied
the validity and effects of job evaluation system on wages.
Formal job evaluation involves the organization specifying job structures and career-paths,
thereby suggesting to employees clear development paths and promotion opportunities. In
this study positive correlation between job successions planning ( JSP ) and job evaluation
was found 0.41, which reflects an important element in generating the employees
commitment on which their job performance depends.
Job evaluation and job design are the outcomes of job analysis being used for the different
purposes. Milkovich & Newman, (1990) studied that while conducting job analysis and
determining tasks or job requirements, job descriptions prepared, were recommended as a
190
preliminary step to carry out the job evaluation. Researchers of Schwab, 1980 and Milkovich
& Newman, 1990 suggested the viewpoint of job design measurement instruments as a
method of analysis to be included in preparing for a job evaluation.
Empirically, several studies have established a relationship between job evaluation and job
design. Other empirical studies conducted by Rousseau in 1982; Schneider, Reichers, &
Mitchell in 1982 and Gerhart in 1988 provided indirect evidences by testing correlations with
the job skills requirements. In all such cases, positive correlations were found between
motivational factors and corresponding compensation and skill requirements. There was no
negative correlation observed with any relationships. Using correlations, this study replicated
these findings and found a positive correlation of 0.19 between job evaluation and job design
and then demonstrated that other relations to job evaluation as positive correlations with job
security r=0.35, job succession planning r=0.40 within medium effect size, recruitment r=0.03
and job performance r=0.32 within medium effect size, job satisfaction r=0.43 and job
retention r=0.28 within medium effect size. There was no negative correlation.
Regression results also show that job evaluation correlates positively with Job performance.
R-squared value was found 0.941 which explained 94.1 percent of the total variance for
dependent variable job performance relating to job evaluation; adjusted R- squared was 0.941
which is same as the value of R2. B value for job evaluation was 0.992 with standard error of
.010. p-level of job evaluation was 0.000 and t value 95.105. All the values were positive ‘t’
value with a ‘b’ value was significant hence independent variable job evaluation was
showing a highly significant contribution in the model. The lesser the value of significance
191
0.000 and the larger the value of t=95.105 was also reflecting the larger contribution of job
evaluation. Beta value for job evaluation was 0.970 which also provided a better close to the
significance of job evaluation in the model.
Job security was an imperative research topic for the researchers and social scientists as it has
an impact on human dignity and social justice. Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984; Greenhalgh
& Sutton, 1991, Jacobson, 1991 and Borg & Elizur, 1992 studied that the Job security was
related with the opportunity concerning steadiness in a job position. It depended upon various
job features like lack of succession planning, working conditions and enduring career
opportunities. Job security has gained a great consideration in the recent years due to
downsizings, rightsizing and surplus staff. Ashford et al. (1989) have discussed the
frequency of organizational restructuring and merging, while Bennett (1990) noticed the
growing concern over employees obsolescence and technological replacement. Davy,
Kinicki, Kilroy & Scheck studied in 1988 that during the changes like downsizing and
mergers, the most threatened set of employee expectations was the job security. Brockner,
DeWitt, Grover & Reed, 1990 and Davy et al., 1991 further studied the significant role of
job security which was greater than before due to the employee’s reactions to major
organizational changes.
Over the past decade, Ashfoord, Lee & Bobkoo, 1989; Roskies & Louis-Guerin, 1990
Greenhalgh & Rosan; Greenhalgh & Sutton, 1991; Jacobson, 1991 and Borg & Elizur, 1992
have shown their interest focused on the association between job security and employee work
attitudes and behaviours. In continuation to this relationship of job security in the present
192
study a positive correlations of job security was found with job succession planning r=0.61
within high effect size which was in conformity of the findings of Borg & Elizur, 1992;
Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984; Greenhalgh & Sutton, 1991; Jacobson, 1991. The
relationship of job security with recruitment was r=0.23 and with job performance r=0.45
within medium effect size.
In case of temporary or contractual employee, it was believed that such employees were
hired due to inconsistent demand of the organization. Pfeffer & Baron, 1988; Davis-Blake &
Uzzi, 1993 and Matusik & Hill, 1998 studied that such employees were hired during peak
times and they were released when demand was over. In such cases, employees were bound
to fulfil the organization demands which was benefited not only to themselves but also to the
organizations.
On the other hand, permanent employees ascribed the utilization of temporary employees
with the management intention to modify the inner structure. Davis-Blake & Uzzi, 1993
studied that regular employees observed the utilization of temporary employees for a specific
organizational function which might be outsourced. Bauer & Truxillo discussed the view of
regular employees in 2000 as a mean to recognize candidates which were qualified for the
regular jobs to be created in future.
Interests in the effects of job security and insecurity have led to a preponderance of empirical
research focused on the link between job security and its outcomes. Particularly, Arnold &
Feldman, 1982; Oldham, Julik, Ambrose, Stepina and Brand, 1986 found that job security
193
was positively correlated with job satisfaction. In this empirical study, job security and job
satisfaction were found positively highly significant r=0.51 which clearly indicates that secure
employees are satisfied with their jobs. In public sector organizations most of the employees
are satisfied once they feel secure in their jobs irrespective of high pay or other facilities.
Arnold & Feldman, 1982 and Ashford et al., 1989 found a negative correlation between the
job security and intention to quit but present study have shown a positive relationship
between job security and Job retention which was found r=0.41 within medium effect size
which reveals turnover is low in the secure jobs.
Ashford et. al. found that variance between perceived job insecurity and trust in the
organization was 26%. R-squared value found in present study was 0.970 which explained
97% of the variance for dependent variable job performance relating to job security, Adjusted
R- squared was 0.970 which is same as the value of R2. B value for job security was 0.992
with standard error of 0.007. p-level of job security was .000 and t value 134.82. All the
values are positive t value with a ‘b’ value is significant hence predictor job security is
making a highly significant contribution to the model. The smaller the value of Significance
0.000 and the larger the value of t=134.82 is also showing the greater contribution of job
security. Beta value for job security was 0.985 which provided a better insight into the
importance of a job security in the model. Thus, job security provides evidence of a relation
with job performance.
194
According to Rothwell, 2005 Job Succession planning dealt with the preparation of talented
employees available within the organization and human resource planning for the recruitment
of talent from outside. Job Succession planning was an important human resource practice
for private as well as public sector organizations. Frauenheim studied in 2006 that Job
Succession planning was becoming more common in the public sector organizations. It was a
way of conducting potential evaluations. Organizations having an enduring relationship
with their employees got rewards in financial terms by improved productivity and
progressing empathy of the employee with the organization. It was observed that expenses
incurred on employees were not an overhead, but it was a continuing investment for greater
return on investments. Heneman & Judge discussed in 2006 that Human resource
management professionals planned internal advancement activities and they were very
successful.
Succession plans must be communicated to the employee, otherwise organization would be at
the risk of a mismatch between the employee’s career plans and its plans for the employee.
Byham, Nelson & Paese, 2000 studied that several organizations have taken an initiative to
identify and develop talented staff internally by using criteria which was linked with the
future organizational needs. Further studied by Rothwell in 2000 it was observed that
succession planning approaches were being utilized to facilitate effective organizational
development to ensure that right persons were available at the right time, within the
organization.
195
According to Leibowitz, et al. 1988, Job succession planning must be one time activity but it
should be a continuing system associated with the organization’s human resource (HR)
planning. Accordingly in this study correlation of job succession planning with other human
resource practices supported the findings of Leibowitz, et al. The positive correlations of job
succession planning was found with job security r=0.61 within high effect size, recruitment
r=0.23, job performance r=0.45 within medium effect size.
The current study examined the linkage between job succession planning (JSP) and job
performance. As job succession planning was positively correlated with job performance, it
was important for human resource professionals to carry out JSP for employees frequently, as
Job Succession Planning alongwith job security which was highly correlated would likely
function as a source of competitive advantage in the attraction and retention of quality
workforce. Job succession planning and job satisfaction relationship r=0.51 within high effect
size indicates that as per study of Lee in 2000, organizations that invest in job succession
planning were more likely to increase employee’s job satisfaction.
Regression results have shown that job succession planning (JSP) correlates positively with
Job performance. R-squared value was found 0.972 which explained 97.2 percent of the total
variance for dependent variable job performance relating to job succession planning,
Adjusted R-squared was 0.972 which is same as the value of R2. B value for job succession
planning was 1.015 with standard error of .007. p-level of job succession planning was 0.000
and t value 139.93 All the values were positive t value with a ‘b’ value is significant hence
predictor job succession planning is making a highly significant contribution to the model.
196
The smaller the value of Significance .000 and the larger the value of t = 139.93 is also
showing the greater contribution of job succession planning. Beta value for job succession
planning was 0.986 which provided a better insight into the importance of a job succession
planning in the model.
Chen, Chang & Yeh (2004) studied the job succession planning in view of career
requirements at different stages and its relationship with the job satisfaction. Chen, Chang &
Yeh found that job succession planning ( JSP ) positively correlated with the job satisfaction.
Researchers, having diverse views of job satisfaction also appreciated this finding. Flexible
career paths should be designed to promote employees within the organization. In this
regards, promotion quota is recommended to increase for the employees in various positions.
Igbaria & Greenhaus (1992) discussed that job succession planning reflected the interest of
organizations regarding career growth of their employees, which influenced directly on their
commitment with the organization and positively affected employee retention and job
performance. This was in consistency with the findings of Correlation between job
succession planning and Job retention in this study which reflected r=0.41 within medium
effect size showing low turnout rate of the organizations having their job succession plans for
their employees. Since most of the professionals in the public sector organizations were
under 30 years of age, they looked for career growth. More than pay, prime value was given
to career growth opportunities. Becker, 1960; Mowday et al., 1979 and Allen & Meyer, 1996
studied the influence of organizational commitment on job retention and productivity which
was consistence with the results of this study hence the ultimate purpose of job succession
197
planning was to prepare an organization for risks attached with the premeditated hammering
of the knowledge which was crucial for the success of organization.
Study of Taylor & Collins in 2000 recognized recruitment as one of the most crucial human
resource management activities for the success of an organization. Barber, 1998; Chapman,
Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin, & Jones, 2005 conducted an extensive research in the area of
employee’s attraction and recruitment. Recruitment process was found more closely associated
with the organization’s strategic human resource planning. Harrington, 2004 and Carless,
2007 studied that there was a trend to outsource recruitment and selection in Australia. Lepak
& Snell, 1998 and Kwiatkowski, 2003 have also observed the outsourcing of human resource
functions globally , expected to expand in the near future. Surveys reports of Cook in 1999
indicated that outsourcing rate remained 93% of some human resource tasks and functions
which was projected to boost. In Pakistan trend to outsource human resource tasks and
functions is also emerging particularly in the area of recruitment and selection and in training
and development.
According to Phillips, 1998 and Meglino, Ravlin & De Nisi, 2000 precise and pragmatic job
information during the recruitment and selection process was related with the positive job
performance outcomes like job satisfaction and job retention. Results of this study also
supported the results for job performance but job satisfaction and job retention were not fully
supported. Employees who perceived a fit between their competencies, knowledge, skills and
abilities and the job requirements were likely to remain in the selection process and accepted
a job offer. In the current study, positive correlations of recruitment was found with job
198
performance r=0.47 but low relations were reported with the job retention r=0.08 Correlation
between recruitment and job satisfaction was also found low r=0.19
Powell, 1984 and Taylor & Bergmann, 1987 studied that recruitment has an affect on the
applicant’s perception about the organization and their intentions to apply. For example,
applicant perceptions of organizational attributes, such as compensation and other perks and
job succession planning were consistent with their expectations there was a positive effect on
applicant attraction to the organization. Results of this study have shown correlations of
recruitment with job evaluation r=0.03, job succession planning r=0.14 although results are
positive but both have a low effect.
Rigorous recruitment and selection process by conducting written tests can help the HR
professionals to short-list and identify candidates who fulfil the given criteria in terms of age,
qualifications and relevant experience. Aim was to ensure that only competent candidates get
into the organization. Brooks, 1987 and Wynekoop & Walz, 2000 found that competence of
employees can guide better services and improved job performance. Competent employees
were more productive and they have enhanced the image of the organization and generated
extra revenues.
Moderator role of recruitment was tested in the model in between human resource practices
and job performance. R2 change value in job analysis 1(JA 1) and job analysis 2 (JA 2) in
step 2 was 0.19, job design 0.12, job evaluation 0.21, job security 0.14, job succession
planning 0.15, job satisfaction 0.14 and Job retention 0.20 which indicates that inclusion of
199
recruitment helps in explanation of the additional 19% variance in the job performance.
Before inclusion of recruitment, JA 1 and JA 2 accounted for .039 or 4%, job design
accounted for 0.279 or 28 % variance, job evaluation accounted for 0.102 or 10.2 % variance,
job security accounted for 0.207 or 20.7%, job succession planning accounted for 0.310 or
31%, job satisfaction accounted for 0.268 or 26.8 % and job retention accounted for 0.053 or
5.3 % variance (R2 value) in job performance.
Organizations having well developed and reviewed, recruitment and selection process,
pursued job analysis as a human resource practice, had gained a level of superiority as
compared to the organizations which were lacking such resources and practices. On
examining the complete model R2 change value in Job Analysis 1, Job Analysis 2, Job
design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, job satisfaction and job
retention step 2 is 0.101 This indicates that inclusion of recruitment KSA helped in
explaining the additional 10.1 % variance in the job performance. The p- value for testing
significance of correspond F change is 0.000 this means that inclusion of recruitment KSA
significantly improves model to predict job performance.
McConnell defined job performance in 2003 as an accomplishment that can be observed and
measured. Wright & Bonett in 2002 observed age as a variables influence job performance,
Cronin & Becherer, 1999 and Fort & Voltero, 2004 found non-financial rewards like
recognition of achievement and McConnell, 2003; Tzeng, 2004 found job satisfaction
influenced job performance. All these variables should have a positiv influence on employee
job performance. In the present study job performance was found highly significant
200
correlated with the job satisfaction (r=0.52) which supported the wok of McConnell, 2003
and Tzeng, 2004.
Visser et al. 1997 discussed core competencies which were typically derived using various
job analysis methods within the organizational psychology literature, Job analysis methods
were systematic procedures widely used within organizations to identify the critical aspects
of a job and what knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics were required to
perform the job successfully. The positive correlations of job analysis 1 (importance of job
analysis) with job performance r=0.19 was found showing within small effect size, whereas,
correlations of job analysis 2 (practice of job analysis) with job performance was r=0.05
showing low effect size. This indicates organizations although recognize the importance of
job analysis but practice of job analysis is not a regular activity; productivity of such
organizations may be low.
The human resource literature is currently dedicated to measure and reporting upon the
measurable link between an organization’s human resource management (HRM) practices
and its performance (P) – referred as the HRM-P link. Kingsmill, 2003 studied that
government was also interested in this link . The model presented in this study was based on
HRM-P link where performance (P) is related with the employee job performance. Wright et
al., discussed in 1999 the question about the linkage of human resource policies and practices
with the organizational performance. However, linking HRM practices to employee job
performance was unexplored and required a great attention particularly in the context of
public sector organizations. Some researchers like Cascio, 1998 and Bowin & Harvey, 2001
201
moved a step forward by stressing upon the importance of job analysis as a strategic human
resource management practice with potential contribution to organizational performance.
Anthony et al., 2002 and Dessler, 2003 studied that with the increasing recognition of the
HR–performance linkage, it has been observed that organizations that actively pursue job
analysis as a Human Resource Planning (HRP) strategy were likely to gain competitive
advantage.
Beer et al. presented a conceptual model in 1984 identifying competence ( knowledge, skills
and abilities KSA), organizational commitment and cost effectiveness as mediator variables.
Becker et al., in 1997 and Becker & Huselid in 1998 proposed that intervening variables such
as employee skills, employee motivation, job design and work structure linked job
performance, which in turn influenced profits and market value. Boudreau (1998) discussed
capability, opportunity and motivation as intermediary variables for individual performance,
which resulted in the organizational success.
An analysis of earlier research had identified some instantaneous effects of human resource
management practices, known as human resource management outcomes. Beer et al., 1985;
Schuler, 1989; Barney, 1991; Pfeffer, 1994; Lado & Wilson, 1994; Becker et al., 1997;
Lengnick-Hall 1999 and Sandberg, 2000 discussed such human resource management
outcomes like knowledge, skill and abilities or competence. Gaining lead from the concept of
the self insight which is competence and job insight, human resource practices like job
analysis, tasks and responsibilities conceptual models and immediate HRM outcomes
identified by prior researchers, it was possible to develop an integrated HR practice - job
202
performance model. Taking a lead from these models, model of present study proposed that
intervening variable such as recruitment (KSA) knowledge, skills and abilities links
employee’s job performance with human resource practices, job analysis, job design, job
evaluation, job security, job succession planning which in turn influences job satisfaction and
job retention.
Correlations were found between job design and job performance r=0.53 highly statistically
significant, job evaluation and job performance r=0.32 moderate statistically significant, job
security and job performance r=0.45 moderate statistically significant, job succession planning
and job performance r=0.56 highly statistically significant, recruitment and job performance
r=0.47 moderate statistically significant, job satisfaction and job performance r=0.52 highly
statistically significant, job retention and job performance r=0.23 which was moderate
statistically significant. Small effect size correlations were found between job analysis 1 and
job performance r=0.19, job analysis 2 and job performance r=0.05 which was, however,
positively statistically significant.
Based on previous human resource research, it was hypothesized that nine critical human
resource practices job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession
planning, recruitment as a moderator, job satisfaction and job retention would be positively
related to job performance. Findings revealed that importance placed on each of these nine
human resource issues were all areas in which job performance was based. These findings
suggest that these human resource activities do in fact have a positive impact on job
performance.
203
Based on the literature and some models discussed above, regression results for the
hypothesized model for this study have shown a positive correlations of the variables job
analysis 1, job analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning
and job satisfaction with Job performance. Job retention has shown a negative correlation in
the model only. R-squared value was found 0.434 which explained 43.4 percent of the total
variance for dependent variable job performance relating to job analysis 1, job analysis 2,
job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning , job satisfaction and job
retention.
Adjusted R-squared was 0.426 which is near the value of R2. B value for job analysis 1;
(0.044) job analysis 2, (0.002) job design, (0.279) job evaluation, (0.060) job security,
(0.087) job succession planning, (0.258) job satisfaction (0.155) and job retention (-0.006)
with standard error of 0.002, 0.010, 0.036, 0.028, 0.048, 0.047, 0.052 and 0.040. p-level of
job analysis 1; (0.043) job analysis 2, (0.864) job design, (0.000) job evaluation, (0.034) job
security, (0.073) job succession planning, (0.000) job satisfaction (0.003) and job retention
(0.097) with t value of 2.032, 0.172, 7.763, 2.128, 1.799, 5.440, 2.967, and -1.663.
All the values were positive t value except job retention with ‘b’ value hence predictor job
analysis 1, job analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning,
job satisfaction are making a significant contribution to the model. The smaller the value of
Significance 0.000 and the larger the value of t in the results is also showing the greater
contribution of job design and job succession planning.
204
Beta value for job analysis 1; (0.067) job analysis 2, (0.006) job design, (0.301) job
evaluation, (.078) job security, (.078) job succession planning, (.261) job satisfaction (.135)
and job retention (-0.061) which provided a better insight into the importance of job analysis
1, job analysis 2, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning and job
satisfaction in the model.
Human Resource professionals and researchers through a source of empirical studies,
conducted over the last decade, claimed that there was a measurable link between an
organization’s HRM practices and its performance and that empirical evidence proved it.
However, there was a problem with this approach of empirical research on the HRM
practice-individual job performance link because it was under-theorized.
This current study has examined the viability of using job analysis as a human resource
practice alongwith other related human resource practices to test their impact on job
performance of public sector regulatory authorities. An important finding of the study was
that adaptations of job analysis method can be used with non-professionals as well as
professionals to develop job performance measures. Furthermore, these job performance
measures were adopted to face validity and to be easy to complete. All six performance
measures demonstrated adequate internal reliability and test reliability. There were some core
competencies identified across the six job performance measures, such as reliability,
flexibility and honesty.
205
Currently employee performance is being judged through performance appraisal system in
public sector regulatory authorities which influences the competence of employees. Their
technical skill was evaluated in the appraisal process through the results attained on job.
Latham and Wexley, 1981 discussed that performance appraisal was linked to the rewards
and other benefits which motivated the employee to modernize their knowledge and skills.
The appraisal system that balances the improved interests of both, the employees and
organization, can result in high productivity to achieve organizational goals and targets.
Here in this study the job performance was measured by means of on the job enhancement of
performance, achievement of organizational objectives and consistency with the goals of
organization, financial and non-financial rewards and objectivity of the performance
evaluation system. It was an open secret that in Pakistan no empirical work has been done so
far in the area of human resource management particularly in this area of research, therefore,
this was an important and distinctive feature of this study.
Fried & Ferris, 1987; Parisi & Weiner, 1999; Weiner, 2000 discussed the major job
satisfaction areas which included satisfaction with the nature of the job itself, including job
challenge, autonomy, skill variety and scope, overall job satisfaction, as well as other
important outcomes like employee retention. Two variables which were included in the said
literature were job design and job retention. Correlation between job design and job
satisfaction was r=0.48 which was positively statistically significant whereas correlation
between job satisfaction and job retention was r=0.34 which was also statistically significant.
206
Hence these finding supported the work of Fried & Ferris, 1987; Parisi & Weiner, 1999;
Weiner, 2000
Some researchers have evaluated the job satisfaction with different facets of jobs such as
supervision, pay, promotion opportunities and peers. Judge & Church, 2000; Jurgensen, 1978
studied that nature of the job itself generally emerged as the most important job facet. In the
present study these aspects have been examined by the relationship of job satisfaction with
job evaluation and job succession planning covering pay and promotion opportunities.
Correlation between job evaluation and job satisfaction was r=0.43 which was positively
statistically significant and correlation between job satisfaction and job succession planning
was r=0.65 which was highly statistically significant.
Higher salary package was seem to be a major cost in the public sector regulatory authorities,
good compensation packages have a direct positive impact on job satisfaction and job
retention for highly qualified and trained manpower to enhance the productivity of the
organization. Beer et al., 1984 studied that all HRM practices should lead to cost
effectiveness. This reflects that a well-designed compensation system can reduce operating
costs of an organization. Higher pay might not always increase operating costs if it was used
to enhance overall productivity of the organization. Many previous studies of Steers, 1977;
Mowday et al., 1982; Angle, 1983; Mottaz, 1988 found that compensation and rewards were
the major factor deciding the organizational commitment of employees. Although
compensation might be a major criterion for choosing an organization, but, once they were
207
part of the organization, employees looked for vertical and horizontal growth in the
organization.
This was not to assume that high salaries were inconsequential, rather, it was to be done more
to influence job satisfaction by ensuring job succession planning. On the other hand, there
has been an increasing interest among human resource management (HRM) academics and
practitioners in the degree to which employees were satisfied with their jobs. A number of
recent studies by Marks, 2006 have reported a positive link between employee’s productivity
and well being. Results of present study also support the findings of Marks.
In order to find out the relationship between HRM practices and job satisfaction, there has
been widespread debate in the literature over the effects of HRM practices on job
satisfaction. Guest, 2002 identified job satisfaction as a key variable mediating any positive
relationship between HRM practices and organizational performance. Present study has
shown a positive relationship between HRM practices of job analysis 1, job analysis 2, job
design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning, job satisfaction and job
retention in the model. Correlations of job satisfaction with these HRM practices range from
0.09 to 0.65 but job satisfaction is not mediating the relationship.
The study of the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance has a
controversial history. Most of the earlier reviews of the literature suggested a weak and
somewhat inconsistent relationship between job satisfaction and performance. A review of
the literature in 1985 by Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985 suggested that the statistical
208
correlation between job satisfaction and performance was about 0.17 but correlation between
job satisfaction and job performance in this study was found 0.52 which does not support to
the previous findings. In addition, in a comprehensive review of 301 studies, Judge,
Thoresen, Bono, and Patton (2001) found that when the correlations are appropriately
corrected the average correlation between job satisfaction and job performance was higher
than 0.30. This finding was supportive of current study sampling and measurement as results
of job satisfaction and job performance (0.52) is a higher than 0.30 Thus, contrary to earlier
reviews, it does appear that job satisfaction is, in fact, predictive of job performance and the
relationship is stronger.
Regression results have also shown that job satisfaction correlates positively with Job
performance. R-squared value was found 0.974 which explained 97.4 percent of the total
variance for dependent variable job performance relating to job satisfaction, adjusted
R-squared was 0.974 which is same as the value of R2. B value for job satisfaction was 0.985
with standard error of 0.007. p-level of job satisfaction was 0.000 and t value 145.67. All the
values were positive t value with a ‘b’ value is significant; hence, predictor job satisfaction is
making a highly significant contribution to the model. The smaller the value of significance
0.000 and the larger the value of t = 145.67 is also showing the greater contribution of job
satisfaction. Beta value for job satisfaction was 0.987 which provided a better insight into the
importance of job satisfaction in the model. The results have shown that job satisfaction has
a significant correlation with job performance.
209
Campion, 1991 discussed turnover as a dependent variable and focused on factors that
predict turnover. Nevertheless, it was important to think about turnover as an independent
variable, this was such a topic that was rarely studied. An important issue was the outcome of
turnover on employee’s job performance in an organization. Staw, studied in 1980 another
important issue which was to find what moderates the turnover-performance relationship.
The positive correlations of job retention was found with job performance r=0.23 in this study.
Beadles et al. (2000) explored positive correlation between job retention and organizational
performance. Earlier Campion, in 1991 discussed that inevitable turnover was typically
viewed as unfavourable to an organization. Research supported the perception that turnover
decreases organizational performance.
Mobley (1982) suggested that turnover might interrupt job performance when an employee
who planned to quit become inefficient. Shaw, Gupta, & Delery, 2002 discussed that
experimental research has shown that voluntary turnover was linked with lower
organizational performance. Other research suggested that turnover might improve
performance. Price, 1989 studied that introverted potential advantage of turnover was the
abolition of under -performing employees. Additionally, Staw studied in 1980 that turnover
can enhance the performance if most of the turnover was by employees with very long or
very short tenure.
Regression results have also shown that job retention correlates positively with Job
performance. R-squared value was found 0.951 which explained 95.1 percent of the total
variance for dependent variable job performance relating to job retention, adjusted R-
210
squared was 0.951 which is same as the value of R2. B value for job retention was 1.132 with
standard error of 0.011. p-level of job retention was 0.000 and t value 104.46. All the values
were positive t value with a ‘b’ value is significant hence predictor job retention is making a
highly significant contribution to the model. The smaller the value of significance 0.000 and
the larger the value of t=104.46 is also showing the greater contribution of job retention. Beta
value for job retention was 0.975 which provided a better insight into the importance of job
retention in the model.
Cohen 1993; Hom & Griffeth 1995 and Allen, Shore & Griffeth 2003 explored that turnover
intentions have represented a reliable indicator of actual turnover and were heavily
influenced by job satisfaction. Hom and Griffeth (1995) maintained that employees decided
to leave their organization when they become dissatisfied with their Jobs. Likewise, Meyer &
Herschovitch argued in 2001 that when employees were dissatisfied with their jobs, their
desire to remain in their organization started to erode. In fact, initial consequences of these
negative affects, in the form of low job satisfaction were turnover cognitions. Research by
Allen & Griffeth (2001), Allen et al. (2003), and Chiu & Francesco (2003) have shown that
job satisfaction was a strong predictor of turnover intentions. The present study has shown a
positive significant correlation between job retention and job satisfaction r=0.34 This reflect
that due to satisfaction with the current job is an indicators to predict employee turnover in
the organizations may be low in finding another job due to a positive experience with their
organization’s policies.
211
The empirical data has suggested that the most significant retention predictors were
associated with job succession planning and job security rather than compensations and other
monetary rewards. Correlations between job retention and job succession planning was found
r=0.37 and job retention with job security was r=41 whereas correlation between job
retention and job evaluation was r=0.28 which is relatively low as compare to job succession
planning and job security. These results were consistent across the board among all age
groups, gender, educational level and job status, as no statistically significant differences
were found.
This study has explored six relationships showing large effect size correlations between job
satisfaction and job succession planning (r=0.65), job security and job succession planning
(r=0.61), job succession planning and job performance (r=0.56), job design and job
performance (r=0.53), job performance and job satisfaction (r=0.52) and job security and job
satisfaction (r=0.51). These highly positive significant relationships are an addition to the
literature on Human Resource Management particularly in the context of Pakistan a non-
western country.
To sum up, the model, originating from HR practices job analysis to job satisfaction and job
retention every HR practice influenced job performance through recruitment KSA,
intervening variable. This might be seen an integrated approach to linking HRM practices
with job performance. Meagre centre of attention on direct HR–performance linkage may not
divulge the system through which human resource management operates. It provides a wider
212
visualization to perceive the big picture and the interdependence and interrelationship among
human resource management practices, intervening variable and dependant variable.
After finding and measuring the correlation between these variables, effort was made to
measure the involvement of independent variables in variation. Regression analysis through
SPSS 12 was used to identify the exact nature of the relationship. Regression equations for
each independent variable were developed and tested with regression analysis showing Y as
a given dependent variable, job performance, and X1 to X8 correspond to eight predictor or
independent variables, including the importance of job analysis and frequency of job analysis
and two outcome of job performance (job satisfaction and job retention).
Each equation included the entire set of predictors (independent variables and moderator)
which were all entered into the regression equation simultaneously. The results presented
above indicated that the overall model was significant. As predicted in hypothesis 1, the
variable of job analysis practice produced significant regression coefficients with job
performance. Organizations that conducted job analysis on a regular basis (once every year
or every two years) showed better results on the measures of job performance. Eighty eight
per cent 88 % of the respondents have shown the importance of the job analysis and seventy
percent 70 % percent organizations in the public sector adhere to job analysis practice.
Organizations with high involvement of human resource practices, derived strong support
from the regression results. It was noteworthy from R2 change that job analysis alongwith the
intervening variable, recruitment KSA, together explained a larger proportion of the total
213
variance in each independent variable. However, the moderately steady consistent beta
coefficients generated by job analysis with each independent variable and dependent variable
job performance, measured indicating its unique impact supported the central argument of
this study that job analysis practice and other practices like job design, job evaluation, job
security and job succession planning are an important HR strategy to achieve better
performance results.
The study also shows a relationship between the variables mentioned above amongst the
selected regulatory authorities (NEPRA, OGRA, PTA, PEMRA, SBP & SECP). This
result indicated that Job analysis 1 (importance of job analysis) has a positive relationship
with job performance in all regulatory authorities except in OGRA where it has a negative
relationship. Job analysis 2 (practice / frequency of job analysis) has shown, however,
negative relationship with the job performance in OGRA, PTA, PEMRA and SECP, whereas,
NEPRA and SBP have shown a positive relationship. Negative relationship was due to non-
conduction of the job analysis in these authorities.
The association of job satisfaction and Job succession planning remained highly significant
in NEPRA, PTA and SBP which shows that employees having career paths in their
respective organizations were satisfied which ultimately improve their job performance
which was in accordance with the literature in the area of human resource management.
Association between Job design and Job succession planning was shown highly significant in
OGRA. The relationship between Job evaluation and Job succession planning was found
highly significant in SECP. Another association rather an important association form the
214
selected variables is relationship between job security and recruitment which was reflected in
PEMRA. Employees prefer permanent jobs rather contractual jobs.
5.3 Validity and Reliability of the Model
One of the most unique aspects of the frame work developed for the research work has been
its introduction and application by the Human Resources Department at Pakistan Electronic
Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA). Before hiring new personnel for the different wings
at PEMRA proper job analysis was carried out at different tiers for the respective wings. This
activity was carried out for the first time as the data from the survey carried out indicated that
there was no such practice in the past. This application of the frame work thus provided for
the development of a proto type that if successful could be applied to other organizations.
The analysis with respects to the incumbents job design as manifest in their Job descriptions
allowed for identifying gaps as well as overlapping, which understandably were contributing
to low motivation and resultant low job satisfaction. The analysis of the existing job
portfolios and relating it with the job descriptions allowed for gauging their contribution
towards achieving departmental objectives. It also facilitated in justifying the creation of new
posts where applicable and /or abolition of certain jobs in case of identified redundancies.
This HR audit in the shape of Job analysis resulted in the identification and creation of ninety
positions. Before going through the formal process of advertising the position proper job
design was carried out. It was during the job designing process that the Knowledge, Skills
and Abilities required to perform the tasks designated for the different positions were
215
identified. Job designing included the identification of the KPAs i.e., Key Performance
Areas for the selected jobs. The listing down of the KPAs following the frame work allowed
for catering for the requisite job performance as it laid down the minimal performance
indicators. These minimal indicators being intrinsically linked with the requisite KSAs not
only allowed for a linear cohesion between the KSAs and the KPAs but promised the desired
performance as the whole process became quantifiable.
Even as a stand alone process it was observed that the objectivity of the system allowed for
lesser personal and judgmental biases and influences while the performance of an employee
was carried out. This one aspect alone was a great booster to the motivation level of the
existing employees with the resultant outcome of making the organization a desirable one to
work for and eventually contributing to retention.
Once the KSAs and KPAs were developed for the different jobs their respective job
descriptions were developed. Sample job descriptions of various managerial level positions
are placed under Appendix-F. These job descriptions were not vague and provided a clear
understanding of what tasks were to be performed allowing for the prioritizing of the
significant tasks from the rest as per the job design. It greatly facilitated the recruitment team
as they knew what to expect from the potential candidates in very concrete terms. This made
the selection process very objective and removed the chances of personal favourites getting
favours also. The credibility of the system having got established it was easier for the HR
department to fill a big number of 272 posts in all.
216
The most significant aspect of the application of the frame work has been that some very
senior positions were also filled out. Four General Managers were selected and are since
performing to the great satisfaction of the superiors and contributing towards achieving the
organizational goals. Similarly, nine Deputy General Managers and thirty six Assistant
General Managers were selected.
The reliability of the frame work was further proven by the creation of certain positions
through job succession. This part determined the career path for all and therefore jobs were
no more to be seen as jobs but as parts of a long term career. This alone came as a significant
motivator to the existing employees besides sending the right message to the newly inducted
ones. The job succession plan resulted in the promotion of 02 GMs, 6 DGMs besides other
low category staff.
The frame work has been in practice for almost a year now and there are no reported
instances of absenteeism or other indicators indicating a high level of job satisfaction. Most
significantly, there has been again no instance of employees leaving their jobs. The marked
absence of having no turn over may not be totally attributable to only the factors taken as
variables; it however renders tremendous support to the validity of the frame work.
217
5.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THE CURRENT STUDY
This study added on to the efforts of the researchers to understand the association amongst
job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning and employee
job performance with reference to recruitment process KSA. Job satisfaction and job
retention, the outcome of job performance within regulatory authorities of Pakistan and
organizations attached with these regulatory authorities. This study would contribute new
avenues in the research of human resource management particularly in a developing and non-
western country like Pakistan by opening a discussion on the impact of job analysis, job
design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning on job performance. The
findings of statistically significant correlations and regression results have reflected that all
the variables job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning
were contributing towards the job performance.
This research study also opens a new horizon in the field of Human Resource in public and
private sector organizations and human resource researchers to work on the dependability of
different human resource practices on each other and also how they can influence each other
as well as the employee’s job performance both in the market and within the organization.
218
5.5 IMPLICATION FOR MANAGEMENT
Empirical evidence appears to support the view that HRM practices like job analysis,
recruitment and selection can influence the job performance and growth. Organizations
interested in the growth and in high performance should involve their employees in decision
making process for creating high level of employees’ job satisfaction and enhancing their
productivity, reducing turnover and increasing job security. Those organizations, which make
effective use of HRM practices on a wider scale, can generate higher returns. Sometimes, it
happens when managements don’t know something what employees know. It is always true
that employers cannot implement all human resource planning techniques immediately. It
never works. Organizations should implement them one by one so employees could trust the
management.
The research provides proofs for the organizations that whenever the employee is not
satisfied with his job, productivity is always low. When an employee quit the organization,
there are numerous sound effects. The first is the loss of that employee's competence and
skills, knowledge and abilities; second low productivity of the organization , third is the
financial impact of replacing that individual and fourth is the impact on employee’s morale,
depending on the reasons owing to which employee quit the organization.
In the findings, study provides evidence that fair selection for an organization produces better
results. Employees’ high commitment and productivity, developing desired knowledge based
219
skills, attitudes and other behaviours does result in higher Job Satisfaction and Job
Performance.
The results of this study also advocate that job retention is a three-fold issue. First,
organizations must hire plausible employees then they should be incorporated into the
organizational culture in which they are required to discharge their duties. Once employees
are hired, management should frequently revitalize them, otherwise, it would change into
something else and all of the initial orientation and job training will be lost. Secondly,
current employees must feel as a part of the growing system. Their KSAs both technical as
well as personal should be frequently sharpened and improved. New employees should
believe that they will not be disregarded after their indoctrination into the corporate culture.
Thirdly, the working environment should be a pleasing place to work. The employee needs to
enjoy his work or should have no alternate employment in order to stay at a position.
220
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The present study may be seen as a preliminary effort to generate the importance of job
analysis as a human resource practice in the public sector regulatory authorities of Pakistan.
Its findings should be assessed by keeping some limitations in mind. These limitations need
to be considered in interpreting the research results. The limitations of the literature and
empirical study have also been discussed in Sections 5.5.1 and 5.5.2.
This study tested a selected number of independent, dependent and intervening variables
which reflects that hypothetical formulation of the procedure by which job analysis has an
impact on job performance was away from being comprehensive. Relatively a small sample
was used in this study. This sample size was not sufficient enough to reflect the factual image
of the organizations functioning in Pakistan in context with measuring the link among job
analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security, job succession planning and job
performance.
5.6.1 Limitations of the literature review
Limitations in the literature review relate largely to the absence of published journal articles
dealing particularly with the criterion and predictors of the research published in Pakistan.
Most of the literature source dealt with the human resource practices and organizational
performance in general. Reliability and validity studies reported for human resource practices
are from an international context. This poses a potential limitation to the research that the
properties of the instrument within the local context have not been reported. The reliability
221
and validity of the measures of the additional variables have not been confirmed and presents
a limitation further.
One of the limitations of the current study involves the construct validity of the independent,
dependent variables and moderator used in the current study. These measures were
developed for this particular sample, and thus, may not be representative of other
commercially available measures. Further, the low reliability of the job evaluation and job
retention placed a ceiling on the relationships that were found between the scale and various
performance criteria. Another limitation stems from the fact that supervisory ratings of
performance were not used as criteria. Landy & Farr, 1980; Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt,
1996 studied that prior research in the performance appraisal literature suggested that
supervisory ratings might be biased and unreliable.
222
5.6.2 Limitations of the empirical study
In terms of the empirical study only job analysis importance and frequency was utilized in
determining the job performance. This presents a potential limitation in those certain aspects
of the job analysis which may have been overlooked. Due to time constraints and practical
considerations a concurrent validity study was conducted as opposed to a predictive validity
study. A concurrent validity study by design presents a number of disadvantages (Anastasi,
1988; Byars & Rue, 2006). The research data may present some contamination in that some
employees may already have been transferred or left their services as a result of the human
resource processes.
Cronbach, 1970 discussed that restriction of range was a further potential factor that can
impact the research findings and results in misleading correlation coefficients. When a
homogeneous group was dealt with, tests were generally poor at predicting individual
differences as validity coefficients tend to be small. As a result of dealing with a pre-selected
group, correlation coefficients might be lower. Therefore, correlation results need to be
interpreted with care.
The data collection period of two months was not ideal but the timeliness had to be negotiated
with the organizations in a way which did not severely impact the employee’s normal day-to-
day job requirements. This could have influenced the frame of reference from which ratings
were done. The researcher and the HR staff followed up with the relevant employees
requesting them to complete their questionnaires as well as highlighting the benefits of the
research so as to aid completion rates and maintain commitment and motivation.
223
Generalization of the research findings was effected in a number of ways. In terms of the data
processing, regression weightings can vary depending on the sample. Anastasi, 1988
discussed that this can impact the generalization of the findings to other samples. Therefore,
cross validation of the results to a new sample was required.
Thus the findings of the present study may be seen as preliminary in nature, intended to
encourage further research interest in the human resource practices – job performance
relationship as job analysis- job performance was conceptualized, as this study was restricted
within public sector regulatory authorities. Further, the method used to collect the data was
very common as Questionnaire Method for this research study was used. Other methods
could also be used for this research study like group discussions / discussion forum etc.
224
5.7 DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Despite the strengths and limitations of current study, the study was capable of providing a
well-designed direction for future research. One prospect for future research would be to
broaden the current model with these human resources practices and their impact on
organizational performance in stead of employee job performance. Empirical results of the
interface sound effects of such human resources practices, in meticulous, would help further
convoluted of the process by which job analysis contributes to job performance. Another
boulevard for future research would be to develop and examine the research hypothesis with
longitudinal designs. The present study may serve as a drive for human resource
professionals and practitioners alike to undertake such studies.
Future research directions may include:
• Longitudinal testing to establish the causative correlation amongst the variables.
• To improve peripheral strength, future research efforts should get hold of a
representative sample from more organizations.
• Impact of Job Analysis on Job Performance with the intervening role of training.
• Impact of Job Analysis on Job Performance with the intervening role of human
resource information system.
• Future research should seek out further job performance outcomes from larger
samples with enlarged statistical power.
• Future research should look for developing entire measures of employee job
performance tapping numerous proportions of their job quality.
225
Bowen & Ostroff discussed in 2000 that future research should observe the strength of the
human resource practices of job quality and their endurance. McDuffie, (1995) stressed that
high performance human resource practices like recruitment and selection processes, job
analysis and performance evaluation systems were theorized to impact job performance.
Debatably, it was the usefulness of such human resource practices in conveying the
organization's goals and the value which places in the employees. Bowen & Ostroff further
discussed in 2000 that the communal assurance should be stronger when the human resource
process was clear and practices successfully communicated the significance of employees to
the organization. Thus, future research should observe the outcome of thriving execution of
human resource practices and the survival of assured practices on employee's job excellence
and reliability.
Contribution of this study was in designing a conceptual model, graphically depicting the
association with job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security and job succession
planning with job performance. The results reflected that quite a lot of variables that
significantly have an effect on job satisfaction and job retention were in a small sample of
participants and suggested that other might be significant in earlier studies. Future studies by
the researchers having keen interest in the association of these constructs can use this model
to prepare new research or increase the generalizeability of this study in diverse sectors.
226
5.8 CONCLUSION
This study reveals a diverse aspect of a practical operation of human resource management in
Pakistan. It shows that human resource planning, the most critical element of personnel
function is emerging. The task of acquiring sound and credible employees belongs to the
Human Resources Management (HRM). Since, HRM is a known field under the concept of
management, it is expected that several theories, models and tools have been developed to
promote its manifestations. Among these theories one is Job Analysis, which is an organized
study of a job to categorize its major components. The job analysis process normally observe
the job which is being carried out, asking employees and supervisors questions about the job,
tasks, working conditions and KSA (Knowledge, Skills and Abilities).
In an increasingly competitive and turbulent market, organizations are largely dependent on
their employees for success. The challenge of identifying the right man for the right job,
individuals to fill public sector positions is to be met. A large number of potential workforce
is available in the employment market but the challenge for organizations is to identify and
select those candidates who could perform effectively and efficiently. The research
highlighted that the starting point in any recruitment process is an accurate analysis of the job.
This important aspect of human resource management was being ignored particularly in
public sector jobs. Job analysis paves way for unassailable recruitment process, instead of
using traditional methods; the public sector has to consider the possibility of employing job
analysis as the primary recruitment tool.
Selection and the assessments chosen for the selection process should be done on the basis of
the requirements of the job. Knowledge is essential on part of the organization in terms of
227
what constitutes good job performance; what kind of knowledge, skills and abilities are
required and what measures would be effective in assessing these.
Despite of the limitations mentioned above, the results of this study move about the field of
human resource management forward by empirically viewing a link between HR practices
like job analysis, job design, job evaluation, job security , job succession planning and job
performance. Impact of job analysis on job performance reflects that job analysis is in reality
a foundation of human resource practices and an imperative management practice to develop
competitive advantage. The implications of the distinctive consequence of the job analysis
and other human resource practices on job performance measures were found remarkable. An
intervening role of recruitment process was also found statistically significant. Altogether
this research makes an effort signifying a substantial positive contribution by Job analysis to
job performance.
Generally, the findings of this study were found reliable with the studies conducted in
western countries on the contribution of human resource practices related to the job
performance. Consequently, the worth of present study lies in the reality that it offers a
requisite rationale of theoretical models built on the basis of studies conducted in the western
organizations. The present study illustrates the efforts looking for establishing a Human
Resource-Performance linkage by developing a specific conceptual framework to
demonstrate the progression by which the practice of job analysis and job performance might
be correlated and by testing it with empirical data from a non-western country. It should be
emphasized that the likelihood of Job Analysis- job Performance relationship has not been
expansively explored in the South-Asia or even in the western context.
228
REFERENCES
Abbasi, S. M., & Hollman, K. W. (2000). Turnover: The Real Bottom Line. Public
Personnel Management, 29, 333–342.
Abbott, Geoffrey N., Fiona A. White & Margaret A. Charles (2005). Linking Values and
Organizational Commitment: A Correlational and Experimental Investigation in Two
Organizations, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78 (4), 531-551.
Ahmed N.U. (1989). An Analytic Technique to Develop Factor Weights in Job Evaluation.
The Mid-Atlantic Journal of Business, 25(5), 1–6.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple Regressions: Testing and Interpreting
Interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
A.K.Paul; & R.N. Anantharaman ( 2003 ). Impact of people management practices on

organizational performance: analysis of a causal model. Journal of Human Resource
Management, 14 ( 7 ), 1246-1266.
A.K.Paul; & R.N. Anantharaman ( 2004 ). Influence of HRM practices on organizational

commitment: A study among software professionals in India. Human Resource
Development Quarterly, 15 ( 1 ), 77-88.
Allen, David G. & Rodger W. Griffeth (2001). Test of a Mediated Performance-Turnover

Relationship Highlighting the Moderating Roles of Visibility and Reward Contingency,
Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (5), 1014-1021.
Allen, David G., Lynn M. Shore, & Rodger W. Griffeth (2003). The Role of Perceived
Organizational Support and Supportive Human Resource Practices in the Turnover
Process, Journal of Management, 29 (1), 99-118.
Allen, N.J. & Meyer, J.P. (1996). Affective, Continuance and Normative Commitment and
Turnover, Academy of Management Journal, 37, 670–87.
Amabile, T. M., Barsade, S. G., Mueller, J. S., & Staw, B. M. (2005). Affect and Creativity
at Work. Administrative Science Quarterly, 50, 367–403.
Amah, O. E. (2008). Feedback Management Strategies in Perceived Good and Poor

Performance: The Role of Source Attributes and Recipient’s Personality Disposition,
Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 16(1), 39-59.
Amos, T., Ristow, A. & Ristow, L. (2004). Human Resource Management (2nd Ed.).
Lansdowne: Juta.
229
Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological Testing (6th Ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Problem Solving and Learning. American Psychologist, 48(1), 35– 44.
Anderson, N. (2001). Towards a Theory of Socialization Impact: Selection as Pre-Entry

Socialization. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 84–91.
Anderson, N. (2003). Applicant and Recruiter Reactions to New Technology in Selection: A

Critical Review and Agenda for Future Research. International Journal of Selection and
Assessment, 12, 121–136.
Andreou, A. N., & Boone, L. W. (2002). The Impact of Information Technology and Cultural
Differences on Organizational Behaviour in the Financial Service Industry. Journal of
Intellectual Capital, 3, 248–262.
Angle, H. (1983). Organizational Commitment: Individual and Organizational Influences,

Sociology of Work and Occupations, 10, 123–46.
Anthony, W.P., Kacmar, K.M. & Perrewe, P.L. (2002). Human Resource Management: A
Strategic Approach, (4th Ed.) New York: South-Western.
Appelbaum, E. (2002). The Impact of New Forms of Work Organization on Workers’, in

Applied Psychology, 56, 347–368.
Appelbaum, S.H., Ayre H., & Shapiro, B.T. (2002). Career Management in Information
Technology: a Case Study. Career Development International, 7(3), 142-158.
Arnault E.J., Gordon L., Joines D.H. & Phillips G.M. (2001). An Experimental Study of Job
Evaluation and Comparable Worth. Industrial & Labour Relations Review, 54(4), 806–
815.
Arnold, H. & Feldman, D. (1982). A Multivariate Analysis of the Determinants of Job

Turnover', Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 350-360.
Arthur, J.B. (1994). Effects of Human Resource Systems on Manufacturing Performance and
Turnover, Academy of Management Journal, 37(3), 670–87.
Arthur, M. B., Khapova, S. N., & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005). Career Success in a Boundary-
less Career World. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 26, 177–203.
Arvey, R. D., Davis, G. A., McGowen, S. L., & Dipboye, R. L. (1982). Potential Sources of
Bias in Job Analytic Processes. Academy of Management Journal, 25(3), 618–629.
Arvey, R. D., Bouchard, T. J., Segal, N. L., & Abraham, L. M. (1989). Job Satisfaction:
Environmental and Genetic Components. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 187–192.
230
Ash, R. A., & Levine, E. L. (1980). A Framework for Evaluating Job Analysis Methods.
Personnel, 57, 53-59.
Ash, R. A., Levine, E. L., Higbee, R. H., & Sistrunk, F. (1982). Comparison of Task Ratings
from Subject Matter Experts vs. Job Incumbents. Paper Presented at the Annual
Meeting of the South-eastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, LA.
Ash, R. A., Levine, E. L., & Sistrunk, F. (1983). The Role of Job-Based Methods in Personnel
and Human Resources Management. In K. M. Rowland & G. D. Ferris (Eds.), Research in
Personnel and Human Resources Management, l (1), 45-84. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Ash, R. A. (1988). Job Analysis in the World of Work. In S. Gael (Ed.) & E. T. Cornelius 111, E.
Levine, & G. Salvendy (Assoc. Eds.), The Job Analysis Handbook for Business,
Industry, and Government, l(1), 3-13. New York: John Wiley.
Ashford, S. J., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1989). Content, Causes, and Consequences of Job
Insecurity: A Theory-Based Measure and Substantive Test. Academy of Management
Journal, 32, 803–829.
Astrand PO, Rodahl K. (1977). Text Book Work Physiology: Physiological Bases Exercise
(2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill at the Expatriate Career Concept and the Perceived
Implications of an International Assignment’. Journal of World Business, 37, 216–227
Avital, M. (2000). Dealing with time in Social Inquiry: A Tension Between Method and
Lived Experience. Organization Science, 11, 665–673.
Avolio B J, Waldman D A (1989). Ratings of Managerial Skill Requirements: Comparison of

Age and Job Related Factors. Psychology & Aging, 14(4), 464–470
Bagozzi, Richard P. (1978). Sales Force Performance and Satisfaction as a Function of

Individual Difference, Interpersonal and Situational Factors, Journal of Marketing
Research, 15 November, 517–31.
Bailey, K.D. (1987). Methods of Social Research (3 Ed.). New York: The Free Press
Bailyn, L. (1981). The slow burn path to the top. In C. B. Derr (Ed.), Work, Family and the
Career, 94–105. New York: Praeger.
Bames RM. (1980). Motion and Time Study: Design and Measurement of Work (7th Ed.).
New York: Wiley.
Barbara G. Tabachnick and Linda S. Fidell (2001). Using Multivariate Statistics, Fourth
Edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Barber, A. E., & Roehling, M. V. (1993). Job Posting and the Decision to Interview: A
Verbal Protocol Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 845-856.
231
Barber, A. E. (1998). Recruiting Employees: Individual and Organizational Perspectives.
Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Barnett, W. P., & Miner, A. S. (1992). Standing on the Shoulders of Others: Career
Interdependence in Job Mobility. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 262–281
Barney, J. (1991). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of

Management, 17, 99–120.
Barney, J.B. & Wright, P.M. (1997). On Becoming A Strategic Partner: The Role of Human
Resources in Gaining Competitive Advantage’, Working Paper.
Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Judge, T. A. (2001). Personality and Performance.
Barrick, M.R. & Zimmerman, R.D. (2005). Reducing Voluntary Avoidable Turnover through
Selection. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 159–166.
Baruch, Y. (2001). Integrated Career Systems for the 2000s’ International Journal of
Manpower, 20(7), 432-457.
Bauer, T. N., & Truxillo, D. M. (2000). Temp-to-Permanent Employees: A Longitudinal

Study of Stress and Selection Success. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5,
337–346.
Baum, T., Terry Lo & Zhang, H. (2001). An Investigation of Employees' Job Satisfaction:
The Case of Hotels in Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 22(2), 157-165.
Baumann, M.A. (2000). Timeshare Resort Management: Training the Top Tool in Battle to
Keep Workers. Hotel and Motels Management, 215 (7), 20.
Beadles, N. A. II, Lowery, C. M., Petty, M. M., & Ezell, H. (2000). An Examination of the
Relationships between Turnover Functionality, Turnover Frequency, and Organizational
Performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 15, 331–387.
Becker, B.E & Gerhart, B. (1996). The Impact of Human Resource Management on
Organizational Performance: Progress and Prospects, Academy of Management Journal,
39, 779–801.
Becker, B.E., Huselid, M.A., Pickus, P.S. & Spratt, M.F. (1997). HR as a Source of
Shareholder Value: Research and Recommendations’, Human Resource Management,
36, 39–47.
Becker, B.E. & Huselid, M.A. (1998). High Performance Work Systems and Firm
Performance: A Synthesis of Research and Managerial Implications. Research in
Personnel and Human Resources Management, 16, 53–101.
232
Becker, H.S. (1960). Notes on the Concept of Commitment, American Journal of Sociology,
66, 32–42.
Beer, K., Spector, B., Lawrence, P., Mills, D. & Walton, R. (1984). Managing Human
Assets. New York: Macmillan.
Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P., Mills, D. & Walton, R. (1985). Human Resources
Management: A General Manager’s Perspective. New York: The Free Press
Behrman, Douglas N. & William D. Perreault (1984). A Role Stress Model of the
Performance and Satisfaction of Industrial Salespersons, Journal of Marketing, 48 (Fall),
9–21.
Belcourt, M., Sherman, A.W., Bohlander, G.W. & Snell, S.C. (1996). Managing Human
Resources, Canadian edn. Toronto, ON: Nelson Canada.
Bemis, S.E., Belenky, A.H., & Sodner, D.A. (1983). Job Analysis: An Effective Management
Tool Washington, DC: BNA Books.
Benkhoff, B. (1997). ‘A Test of the HRM Model: Good for Employers and Employees’,
Human Resources Management Journal, 7(4), 44–60.
Bennett, A. (1990, September 11). ‘A White-Collar Guide to Job Security’; The Wall Street
Journal, B1-B12.
Benson, G.S., Finegold, D. & Mohrman, S.A. (2004). ‘You Paid for the Skills, Now Keep
Them: Tuition-Reimbursement and Voluntary Turnover’. Academy of Management
Journal, 47(3), 315–331.
Bergmann, T., & Taylor, M. S. (1984). College Recruitment: What attracts students to
organizations? Personnel, May–June, 34–46.
Bernardin, H. J., & Beatty, R. W. (1984). Performance Appraisal: Assessing Human

Behaviour at Work. Boston: Kent.
Bernthal, P., Rioux, S. & Wellins, R. (1999). ‘The Leadership Forecast: A Benchmarking
Study’, Pittsburg: Development Dimensions International.
Bjorkman, I. & Xiucheng, F. (2002). Human Resource Management and the Performance of
Western Firms in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13,
853–864.
Bjorkman, I. & Stahl, G. (2006). International Human Resource Management Research: An

Introduction to the Field’, in G. Stahl and I. Björkman (Eds), Handbook of Research in
International Human Resource Management, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
233
Blanchflower, D. & Oswald, A. (1999). Well-Being, Insecurity and the Decline of American
Job Satisfaction, NBER Working Paper
Blau, G. & Boal, K. (1987). Conceptualizing How Job Involvement and Organizational
Commitment Affect Turnover and Absenteeism’. Academy of Management Review,
12(2), 288–300.
Blau, G. (1999). Early-Career Job Factors Influencing the Professional Commitment of

Medical Technologies. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 687–695.
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bluedorn, A. (1982). ‘A Unified Model of Turnover from Organizations’. Human Relations,

35(2), 135–153.
Boles, J.S., Lawrence E. R., & Johnson, J.T. (1995). Reducing Employee Turnover through
the Use of Pre-Employment Application Demographics. Hospitality Research Journal,
19(2), 19-30.
Borg, I. & Elizur, D. (1992). `Job Insecurity: Correlates, Moderators and Measurement',
International Journal of Manpower, 13(2), 13-26.
Borman W.C. & Motowidlo S.J. (1993). Expanding the Criterion Domain to include
Elements of Contextual Performance. In Personnel Selection in Organizations Schmitt N.
& Borman W.C., Eds, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Borman, W.C., Hanson, M.A. & Hedge, J.W. (1997). Personnel Selection. Annual Review of
Psychology, 48, 299-337.
Boselie, P., Hesselink, M., Paauwe, J., & Van der Wiele, T. (2000) Employee Perception on
Commitment Oriented Work Systems: Effects on Trust and Perceived Job Security. Paper
Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
Boselie, P., Dietz, G. & Boon, C. (2005). Commonalities and Contradictions in HRM and
Performance Research, Human Resource Management Journal, 15(3), 67–94.
Boudreau, J. W., & Rynes, S. L. (1985). Role of Recruitment in Staffing Utility Analysis.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 354-366.
Boudreau, J.W. (1998). Strategic Human Resource Management Measures: Key Linkages
and the People Vantage Model’, Working Paper, 28, Center for Advanced Human
Resource Studies, Cornell University.
234
Bowen, B. & Schneider, D. (1999). ‘Understanding Customer Delight and Outrage’. Sloan
Management Review, 41(1), 35–45.
Bowen, D., Ledford, G. & Nathan, B. (1991). Hiring for the Organization, not the Job.
Academy of Management Executive, 4, 35–51.
Bowen, D. & Ostroff, C. (2004). Understanding HRM–Firm Performance Linkages: The

Role of the “Strength” of the HRM System, Academy of Management Review, 29(2) 203–
21.
Bowin, R.B. & Harvey, D. (2001). Human Resource Management: An Experiential

Approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bowman, T.S. (1999). Performance Appraisal: Verisimilitude Trumps Veracity. Public

Personnel Management, 28 (4), 559-594.
Bozeman, D. & Perrewe, P. (2002). The effect of Item Content Overlap on Organizational
Commitment Questionnaire–Turnover Cognitions Relationships. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 86(1), 161–173.
Bracken, B. A. (Ed.). (1996). Handbook of self-concept: Development, social and clinical

considerations. New York: Wiley.
Brannick, M. T. & Levine, E. L. (2002). Job analysis: Methods, research, and applications
for human resource management in the new millennium, Sage Publications, London
Brayfield, A. H., & Rothe, H. F. (1951). An Index of Job Satisfaction. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 35, 307–311.
Breaugh, J. A. (1992). Recruitment: Science and Practice. Boston: PWS-Kent.
Breaugh, J. A., & Starke, M. (2000). Research on Employee Recruitment: So Many Studies,
So Many Remaining Questions. Journal of Management, 26, 405–434.
Brockner, J., DeWitt, R., Grover, S. & Reed, T. (1990). `When it is Especially Important to
Explain Why: Factors Acting the Relationship between Managers' Explanations of a
Layo and survivors' reactions to the layoff, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
26, 389-407.
Brooks, F.P. Jr (1987). ‘No Silver Bullet: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering’,
IEEE Computer, 20, 10–19.
Brown, Steven P. and Robert A. Peterson (1993). Antecedents and Consequences of

Salesperson Job Satisfaction: Meta-Analysis and Assessment of Causal Effects, Journal
of Marketing Research, 30 (February), 63–77
235
Brown S A (1996). Meta-Analysis of Job Involvement and its Correlates. Psychological
Bulletin, 34, 345–356
Brown, A., Charlwood, A., Forde, C. & Spencer, D. (2007). ‘Job quality and the Economics
of New Labour: a Critical Appraisal using Subjective Survey Data’. Cambridge Journal
of Economics, 31(6), 941–971.
Bryman, A. (1995). Research Methods and Organization Studies. London: Routledge.
Buckingham, M., & Coffman, C. (1999). First break all the rules. New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Butler, S. A., Sanders, D. E., & Whitecotton, S. M. (2000). Student and Recruiter Insights on
the Importance of Job Attributes. Journal of Managerial Issues, 12(3), 337–351.
Butler, S. K., & Harvey, R. J. (1988). A Comparison of Holistic versus Decomposed Rating
of Position Analysis Questionnaire Work Dimensions. Personnel Psychology, 41,761–
771.
Byars, L.L. & Rue, L.W. (2006). Human Resource Management (8 Ed.). New York: The
McGraw-Hill.
Byham, W. C., Nelson, G. & Paese, M. (2000). Cultivating Leaders with an acceleration
Pool, Health Forum Journal, http://wvrw.healthforum.com
Byham, W., Smith, G. & Paese, M. (2001). Grow your own leaders, Pittsburgh: Development
Dimensions International.
Clegg, B. (2000). The invisible customer: Strategies for successful customer service down the
wire. London: Kogan
C.M. Siddique (2004). Job analysis: a strategic human resource management practice.
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15(1), 219-244.
Cable, D. M., & Judge, T. A. (1996). Person-Organization Fit, Job Choice Decisions and
Organizational Entry. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 67,
294-311.
Cable, D. & Judge, T. (1997). Interviewers’ Perceptions of Person Organization Fit and
Organizational Selection Decision. Journal of Applied Psychology, 824, 546–561.
Cable, D. & DeRue, D.S. (2002). The Convergent and Discriminate Validity of Subjective
Fit Perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 875, 875–884.
236
Cameron, K., Sutton, R. & Whetten, D. (1988). `Issues in Organizational Decline'. In:
Cameron, K., Sutton, R. and Whetten, D. (Eds.) Organizational Decline: Frameworks,
Research, and Prescriptions, Ballinger, Boston.
Campion MA. (1988). Interdisciplinary Approaches to job Design: A Constructive

Replication with Extensions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 467-481.
Campion, M. A. (1991). Meaning and Measurement of Turnover: Comparison of Alternative

Measures and Recommendations for Research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 199–
212
Campion M.A. & Maertz C.P. (2001). Understanding Pay Satisfaction: The Limits of a
Compensation System Implementation. Journal of Business and Psychology, 16(1), 133–
149.
Campion, M. A., Papper, E. M., & Medsker, G. J. (1996). Relation between Work Team
Characteristics and Effectiveness: A replication and extension. Personnel Psychology, 49,
429–452.
Cappelli, P. (2000). A Market-Driven Approach to Retaining Talent. Harvard Business

Review, 78, 103–111.
Cappelli, P. (2004). Why Do Employers Pay for College? Journal of Econometrics, 121(1),
213–241.
Cardy, R. & Dobbins, G. (1992). ‘Job Analysis in a Dynamic Environment’, News

(Academy of Management, Human Resources Division), 16, 4–6.
Carless, S.A. (2007). Graduate Recruitment and Selection in Australia. International Journal
of Selection and Assessment, 15,153–166.
Carlson, K., Connerley, M., & Mecham, R. (2002). Recruitment evaluation: The Case for
Assessing the Quality of Applicants Attracted. Personnel Psychology, 55, 461–489.
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking Time Seriously: A
Theory of Socio Emotional Selectivity. American Psychologist, 54, 165–181.
Cartwright, S. & Holmes, N. (2006). The Meaning of Work: the Challenge of Regaining
Employee Engagement and Reducing Cynicism’. Human Resource Management Review,
16(2), 199–208.
Cascio, W.F. (1982). Applied Psychology in Personnel Management (2nd Ed.). Virginia:
Reston.
Cascio, W. F. (1986). Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life,

profits. New York: McGraw-Hill.
237
Cascio, W.F. (1995). Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life,
Profits (4th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.Inc
Cascio, W.F. (1998). Managing Human Resources. Boston, MA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Cherrington, D. (1995).The Management of Human Resources, 4th Ed., New Jersy: Prentice
Hall.
Caudron, S. (1997). The Search for Meaning at Work. Training and Development, 51(9), 24–
27.
Cavanaugh, M. A., & Noe, R. A. (1999). Antecedents and Consequences of Relational

Components of the New Psychological Contract. Journal of Organizational Behaviour,
20, 323–340.
Chapman, D. S., Uggerslev, K. L., Carroll, S. A., Piasentin, K. A., & Jones, D. A. (2005).
Applicant Attraction to Organizations and Job Choice: A Meta-Analytic Review of the
Correlates of Recruiting Outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 928-944.
Charnes A., Cooper W.W. & Ferguson R.O. (1955). Optimal Estimation of Executive
Compensation by Linear Programming. Management Science, 1(1), 138–151.
Chatman, J.A. (1989). Improving Interactional Organizational Research: A Model of Person-

Organization Fit. Academy of Management Review, 14, 333–349.
Chay, H.L., & Bruvold, N.T. (2003). Creating Value for Employees: Investment in Employee
Development. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(6), 981-1000.
Chemers, M. M., Oskamp, S., & Costanzo, M. A. (Eds.). (1995). Diversity in Organizations:
New Perspectives for a Changing Workplace. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Chems A. (1976). The Principles of Socio-economic Design. Human Relations, 29,193-198
Chen S.N., Orazem P.F., Mattila J.P. & Greig J.J. (1999). Measurement Error in Job
Evaluation and the Gender Wage Gap. Economic Inquiry, 37(2), 181–194.
Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., & Yeh, C.W. (2004). An Investigation of Career Development
Programs, Job Satisfaction, Professional Development and Productivity: The Case of
Taiwan. Human Resource Development International, 7(4), 441-463.
Chiu, Randy K. and Anne Marie Francesco (2003), Dispositional Traits and Turnover
Intention: Examining the Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction and Affective Commitment,
International Journal of Manpower, 24 (3), 284-299.
238
Christal RE, (1974). The United States Air Force Occupational Research Project. Fri Edman
and Harvey, 789
CIPD (2003). HR Survey: Where We Are, Where We’re Heading, London: CIPD.
CIPD (2006). Reflections on Employee Engagement, London: CIPD.
Clark, Andrew E. (1997). Job Satisfaction and Gender: Why Are Women So Happy At
Work? Labour Economics, 4 (4), and Andrew J. Oswald (1996),
Clifford, J. (1994). Job Analysis: Why Do It and How Should It Be Done? Public Personnel
Comrey, A.L., & Lee H.B. (1992). A first Course in Factor Analysis (2nd edition) Hills dale
N.J Lawrence Erlfaum Associate.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences (2 Ed.). Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cohen, A. & Hudecek, N. (1993). Organizational Commitment–Turnover Relationship

across Occupational Groups. Group and Organization Management, 18(2), 188–214.
Cohen, Aaron (1993), Organizational Commitment and Turnover: A Meta-Analysis,”

Academy of Management Journal, 36 (5), 1140-1157.
Coleman V.I. & Borman W.C. (2000). Investigating the Underlying Structure of the
Citizenship Performance Domain. Human Resource Management Review 10, 25–44.
Collins J.M. & Muchinsky P.M. (1993). An Assessment of the Construct Validity of Three
Job Evaluation Methods: A Field Experiment. Academy of Management Journal, 36(4),
895–904. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Conley, P. R., & Sackett, P R (1987). Effects of Using High- Versus Low-Performing Job
Incumbents as Sources of Job Analysis Information. Journal of Applied Psychology,
72,434-437.
Conte J M, Dean M A, Ringenbach K L (2005). The Relationship between Work Attitudes

and Job Analysis Ratings: Do Rating Scale Type and Task Discretion Matter? Human
Performance, 18(1), 1–21
Cook, M.F. (1999). Outsourcing Human Resource Functions. New York: American
Management Association.
Cornelius,E.T.& Lynes, K.S.(1980).A Comparison of Holistic and Decomposed Judgment

Strategies in Job Analyses by Job Incumbents. Journal of Applied Psychology,65,155-163.
239
Cornelius, E. T., III, DeNisi, A. S., & Blencoe, A. G. (1984). Expert and Naive Raters Using the
PAQ: Does It Matter? Personnel Psychology, 37,453-464.
Cornelius III, E. Levine, & G. Salvendy (1988.), The Job Analysis Hand Book for Business,
Industry and Government, 1353-368. New York: John Wiley.
Cornelius, E., Carron, T. & Collins, M. (1979). Job Analysis Models and Job Classifications,
Personnel Psychology, (22), 693–708.
Craig, E., Kimberly, J. & Bouchikhi, H. (2002). ‘Can loyalty be leased?’ Harvard Business
Review, 80, 3. Employee Development, Commitment and Intention to Turnover.
Cronbach L.J. (1951). Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests. Psychometrika
16, 297–334.
Cronbach, J.L. (1970). Essentials of Psychological Testing (3 Ed.). New York: Harper &
Row.
Cronin, S. N., & Becherer, D. (1999). Recognition of Staff Nurse Job Performance and
Achievements: Staff and Manager Perceptions. Journal of Nursing Administration, 29(1),
26–31.
Cummings, T. (1978). Self-Regulating Work Groups: A Socio-Technical Synthesis.

Academy of Management Review, 3, 625–634.
Cunningham JW, Boese RR, Neeb RW, Pass JJ. (1983). Systematically Derived Work
Dimensions: Factor Analysis of the Occupation Analysis Inventory. Journal of Applied
Curtis, B., Hefley, W.E. & Miller, S. (1995). People Capability Maturity Model.
Pennsylvania: Pittsburgh Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University.
Dalton, D. R., Tudor, W. D., & Krackhardt, D. M. (1982). Turnover overstated: The
functional taxonomy. Academy of Management Review, 7, 117–123.
Das B. & Garcia-Diaz A. (2001). Factor selection guidelines for job evaluation: a
computerized statistical procedure. Computers and Industrial Engineering, 40, 259–272.
David Morrison, John Cordery, Roy Payne (2005). Job Design, opportunities for skill
utilization and intrinsic job satisfaction, European Journal of Work and organizational
psychology, 59-79
Davis D.D (1995). Form, Functions and Strategy in Boundaryless Organizations, in a

Howard (Ed), The Changing Nature of Work, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
240
Davis-Blake, A., & Pfeffer, J. (1989). Just a mirage: The Search for Dispositional Effects in
Organizational Research. Academy of Management Review, 14, 385–400.
Davis-Blake, A., & Uzzi, B. (1993). Determinants of Employment Externalization: A Study

of Temporary Workers and Independent Contractors. Administrative Science Quarterly,
38, 195–223.
Davy, J., Kinicki, A., Kilroy, J. & Scheck, C. (1988). After the merger: Dealing with People's
Uncertainty, Training and Development Journal, 42(11), 56-61.
Davy, J., Kinicki, A. & Scheck, C. (1991). Developing and Testing a Model of Survivor
Responses to Layos, Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 38, 302-317.
Dawn S. Carlson., Nancy Upton., & Samuel Seaman ( 2006 ). The Impact of Human
Resource Practices and Compensation Design on Performance: An Analysis of Family-
Owned SMEs. Journal of small business management. 44(4),531-543
Dean R. Manna ( 2008 ). Strategic Aspects of the importance of Employee Management.

Journal of Diversity Management. 3(1),1-6
Deci, Edward L. (1971). Effects of Externally Mediated Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation,

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18 (1), 105–115.
Deery, M.A., & Shaw, R.N. (1999). An Investigation of the Relationship between Employee
Turnover and Organizational Culture. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research,
23(4), 387-400
Delaney, J. T., & M. A. Huselid (1996). The Impact of Human Resource Management
Practices on Perceptions of Organizational Performance, Academy of Management
Journal, 139 (4), 949-969.
Delery, J. E., & D. H. Doty (1996). "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource
Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurationally Performance
Predictions," Academy of Management Journal, 39, 802-835.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands
resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512
Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis. Cambridge: MIT Institute for Advanced
Engineering Study.
Den Hartog, D. & Verburg, R. (2004). High Performance Work Systems, Organizational
Culture and Firm Effectiveness, Human Resource Management Journal, 14(1), 55–79.
Den Hartog, D.N., Boselie, P. & Paauwe, J. (2004). Performance Management: A Model and
Research Agenda. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53 (4), 556-569.
241
DeNisi, A. S., Cafferty, T., & Meglino, B. (1984). A cognitive View of the Performance
Appraisal Process: A Model and Research Propositions. Organizational Behaviour and
Human Performance, 33, 360–396.
DeNisi, A. S., & Williams, K. J. (1988). Cognitive Approaches to Performance Appraisal. In

Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management (Vol. 6), edited by G. Ferris &
K. Rowland. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Department of Health (2004b) Job Profiles. Available at: http://

www.dh.gov.uk/PolicyAndGuidance/HumanResourcesAndTraining/
Dessler, G., Cole, N.D. & Sutherland, V.L. (1999). Human Resource Management in
Canada, Canadian 7th edn. Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall Canada.
Dessler, G. (2003). Human Resource Management, 9th Ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Dicken, P. (2007). Global Shift: Mapping the Changing Contours of the World Economy,
London: Sage.
Donkin, R. (2002). ‘Measuring the Worth of Human Capital’, Financial Times, 7 November.
Doornward, H. & Meihuizen, H. (2000). Strategic Performance Options in Professional

Service Organizations, Human Resource Management Journal, 9(3), 46–62.
Dunham, R. B. (1977). Relationships of Perceived Job Design Characteristics to Job Ability

Requirements and Job Value. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 760-763.
Dunnette, M.D. (1976). Aptitudes, Abilities and Skills. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of
Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally,
Drucker, P. F. (1987). Workers' Hands Bound by Tradition. Wall Street Journal, p. 18.
Drucker, P. (2002) They’re Not Employees, They’re People, Harvard Business Review, 80:
70–7.
Durrheim, K. (2002). Research Design. In Terre Blanche, M. & Durrheim, K. (Eds), Research
in Practice, 29-53. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.
Durrheim, K. (2002b). Quantitative Analysis. In Terre Blanche, M. & Durrheim, K. (Eds),

Research in practice, 96-122 Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.
Edwards, J. R. (1993). Problems with the use of Profile Similarity Indices in the study of
Congruence in Organizational Research. Personnel Psychology, 46, 641–665.
242
Edwards, P. & Wright, M. (2001) High Involvement Work Systems and Performance
Outcomes: The Strength of Variable, Contingent and Context Bound Relationships,
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(4), 568–85.
Edwin A.J Van Hooft (2004). Job Application Decisions, International Journal of Selection
and Assessment 15(3), 1-31
Elangovan, A. R. (2001) Causal Ordering of Stress, Satisfaction and Commitment, and

Intention to Quit: A Structural Equations Analysis, Leadership & Organization
Development Journal, 22 (4), 159-166.
Elias, J. & Scarbrough, H. (2004). Evaluating Human Capital: An Exploratory Study of

Management Practice, Human Resource Management Journal, 14(4), 21–40.
Els, L. & De Villiers, P. (2000). Call Centre Effectiveness. La Montagne: Amabhuku

Publications
Elsbach, K. D., & Hargadon, A. B. (2006). Enhancing Creativity through ‘‘Mindless’’ Work:
A Framework of Workday Design. Organization Science, 17, 470–483.
Emin Kahya.(2006). A revision of a job evaluation system. Journal of advance Nursing

56(3),314-324
Erez, M. (1994). Toward a Model of Cross-Cultural Industrial and Organizational

psychology. In H.C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of
industrial and organizational psychology, 4, 559–608. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Estienne, M. (1997). An Organizational Culture Compatible with Employability.

Commercial and Industrial Training, 29(6), 194–199.
Fagiano, D. (1993). ‘Training is the New Job Security’. Management Review, 82(8), 4.
Fedor, D. B., Buckley, M. R., & Davis, W. D. (1997). A Model of the Effects of Realistic Job
Previews. International Journal of Management, 14, 211–221.
Feldman, D. C., & Bolino, M. C. (1996). Career within Careers: Reconceptualising the
Nature of Career Anchors and their Consequences. Human Resource Management
Review, 6, 89–112.
Feldman, D. C., & Bolino, M. C. (2000). Skill Utilization of Overseas Interns: Antecedents
and consequences. Journal of International Management, 6, 29–47.
Fernandez & Araoz, C. (1999) Hiring without Firing. Harvard Business Review, July-
August. 109-120
243
Flanagan, J.C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327–358.
Fleetwood, S. & Hesketh, A. (2006). High Performance Work Systems, Organisational

Performance and (lack of) Predictive Power, Journal of Critical Realism.
Fleishman, E. A. & Hogan, J. C. (1978). A Taxonomic Method for assessing the Physical
Requirements of Jobs. The Physical Abilities Analysis Approach. Washington DC:
Fleishman, E. A. (1967). Performance Assessment Based on Empirically Derived Task
Taxonomy. Human Factors, 9, 349-366.
Fleishman, E. A. Hogan (1978). Relating Individual Differences to the Dimensions of

Human Factors. Ergonomics, 21(12), 1007-1019.
Fleishman, E. A. & Reilly, M. E. (1992). Administrator’s Guide F-JAS: Fleishman Job

Analysis Survey. Palo, Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Fort, A. L., & Voltero, L. (2004). Factors affecting the Performance of Maternal Health Care
Providers in Armenia. Human Resources Health, 2(1), 8.
Frauenheim E. (2006) Succession Progression. Workforce, 85, 31–34.
Fried, Y., & Ferris, G. R. (1987). The Validity of the Job Characteristics Model: A review
and Meta Analysis. Personnel Psychology, 40(2), 287–322.
Fried, Y. (1991). Meta-Analytic Comparison of the Job Diagnostic Survey and Job
Characteristics Inventory as Correlates of Work Satisfaction and Performance. Journal of
Fried, Y., Hollenbeck, J. R., Slowik, L. H., Tiegs, R. B., & Ben-David, H. A. (1999).
Changes in Job Decision Latitude: The Influence of Personality and Interpersonal
Satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 54, 233–243.
Fried, Y., & Slowik, L. H. (2004). Enriching Goal Setting Theory with Time: An Integrated
Approach. Academy of Management Review, 29, 404–422.
Furnham, A. (2000). Work in 2020: Prognostications about the World of Work 20 Years into
the Millennium. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15 (3), 242-254.
Gaertner, K. & Nollen, S. (1989). Career Experience, Perceptions of Employment Practices

and Psychological Commitment to the Organization. Human Relations, 42(11), 975–991
Galbraith, J. (1977). Organization Design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Galunic, D. and Anderson, E. (2000). From Security to Mobility: Generalized Investments in

Human Capital and Agent Commitment. Organizational Science, 11(1), 1–20.
244
Gamble, J. (2001). Localizing management in foreign owned enterprises in China:
Gatewood, R.D., Gowan, M. A., & Lautenschlager, G. J. (1993). Corporate Image,

Recruitment Image and Initial Job Choice Decisions. Academy of Management Journal,
36, 414-427.
Gatewood R.D, Field H. (1994). Human Resource Selection, 3rd Edition, Fort Worth
Harcourt Brace
Geary, J. F. (1992). Employment Flexibility and Human Resource Management: The Case of
Three American Electronics Plants'. Work Employment and Society
Gefen, D., Straub, D.W. & Boudreau, M. (2000). Structural Equation Modeling and
Regression: Guidelines for Research Practice, Communications of the Association for
Information Systems, 4: Article 7.
Gekoski, N. (1964). Psychological testing: Theory, interpretation and Practices Illinois:

Thomson Books.
Gelade, G., & M. Ivery (2003). The Impact of Human Resource Management and Work
Climate on Organizational Performance, Personnel Psychology, 56(2), 383-398.
George S. Benson (2006). Employee Development, Commitment and Intention to Turnover:

a test of ‘Employability’ Policies in Action, Human Resource Management Journal,
16(2), 173-192.
George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (2000). The role of Time in Theory and Theory Building.
Journal of Management, 26, 657–684.
Gerald A. Kesselman, Felix E. Lopez (1979). The Impact of Job Analysis on Employment
test validation for minority and non-minority accounting personnel, Personnel
Psychology, 91-108.
Gerhart B. (1988). Sources of Variance in Incumbent Perceptions of Job Complexity.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 73,154-162.
Gerhart, B., Wright, P., McMahan, G. & Snell, S. (2000). Measurement Error in Research on
Human Resources and Firm Performance: How Much Error is There and How Does it
Influence Size Estimates? Personnel Psychology, 53, 803–34.
Gilbreth FB. (1911). Motion study: A Method for Increasing the Efficiency of the Workman.
New York: Van Nostrand.
Godard, J. (2004). A Critical Assessment of the High-Performance Paradigm, British Journal

of Industrial Relations, 42(2), 349–78.
245
Goldberg, L.R. (1993). The Structure of Phenotypic Personality Traits. American
Psychologist, 48(1), 26–34.
Gomez-Mejia, L.R., Balkin, D.B., Cardy, R.L. & Dimick, D.E. (2000). Managing Human
Resources, Canadian 2nd edn. Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall Canada.
Goodstein, L.D. & Lanyon, R.I. (1999). Applications of Personality Assessment to the
Workplace: A Review. Journal of Business and Psychology, 13 (3), 291-322.
Gough, H. G. & Heilbrun, A. B. (1965). The Adjective Check List Manual. Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press.
Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. A. (1987). Toward a Psychology of Dyadic Organizing.

Research in Organizational Behaviour, 9, 175–208.
Grandjean E. (1980). Fitting the Task to the Man: An Ergonomic Approach. London: Thylor
& Francis.
Grant, A. M. (2007). Relational Job Design and the Motivation to Make a Pro-Social
Difference. Academy of Management Review, 32, 393–417.
Grant, A. M., Campbell, E. M., Chen, G., Cottone, K., Lapedis, D., & Lee, K. (2007). Impact
and the Art of Motivation Maintenance: The Effects of Contact with Beneficiaries on
Persistence Behaviour. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 103,
53–67.
Green, F. (2004). ‘Why has work effort become more intense? Industrial Relations, 43, 709–
741.
Green, F. & Tsitsianis, N. (2005). An investigation into national trends in job satisfaction in
Britain and Germany. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 43(3), 401–429.
Green, F. (2006). Demanding Work. The Paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Society,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Greenhalgh, L. & Jick, T. (1979). The Relationship between Job Insecurity and Turnover,
and its deferential effects on employee quality level. Presented at the National Academy
of Management Meetings, Atlanta.
Greenhalgh, L. & Rosenblatt, Z. (1984). Job Insecurity: Toward Conceptual Clarity,

Academy of Management Review, 9, 438-448.
Greenhalgh, L. (1985). Job Insecurity and Disinvolvement: Field Research on the Survivors
of the Layoff. Presented at the National Academy of Management Meetings, San Diego,
CA.
246
Greenhalgh, L. & Sutton, R. (1991). Job Insecurity and Organizational Electiveness. In:
Hartley, J., Jacobson, D., Klandermans, B. and van Vuren, T. (Eds.) Job Insecurity:
Coping with Jobs at Risk, Sage, London.
Greenhaus, J.G., Callanan, G.A., & Godshalk, V.M. (2000). Career Management. (3rd Ed.).
New York: The Dryden Press.
Greenwald S. (2001) Why succession planning can’t wait. Workforce, 80, 34–38.
Greer, C.R. (2001). Strategic Human Resource Management: A General Managerial

Approach, 2nd edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gregson, T. (1987). Factor Analysis of Multiple-Choice Format for Job Satisfaction.

Psychological Reports, 61(5), 747-750.
Griffeth, R., Hom, P. and Gaertner, K. (2000). A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and

Correlates of Employee Turnover: Update, Moderator Tests and Research Implications
for the Next Millennium. Journal of Management, 26(3), 463–488.
Grobler, P., Warnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. & Hatfield, R.D. (2006). Human
Resource Management in South Africa (3rd Ed.). London: Thomson. Rd
Guest, D. (1997). Human Resource Management and Performance: A Review and Research
Agenda, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), 263–76.
Guest, D. (1999). HRM and Performance: Seeking the Missing Link. A Progress Report.
Paper Presented at the BUIRA Conference, Cardiff.
Guest, D. (2001). Human Resource Management: When Research Confronts theory’,

International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(7), 1092–1106
.
Guest, D. (2002). Human Resource Management, Corporate Performance and Employee
Well-Being: Building the Worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44,335–
358.
Guest, D., Michie, J., Conway, N. & Sheehan, M. (2003). Human Resource Management and
Corporate Performance in the UK, British Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2), 291–
314.
Guest, D., Conway, N. & Dewe, P. (2004). Using Sequential Tree Analysis to Search for
“Bundles” of HR Practices, Human Resource Management Journal, 14(1), 79–97.
Guilford, R. (2000). Succession Planning getting little real attention,

BizJournals.com/Atlanta August 28.
247
Guion, R. M. (1976). Recruiting, Selection and Job Placement. In M. D. Dunnette (ed.).
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago: Rand-McNally
Gupta J.N.D. & Ahmed N.U. (1988). A Goal Programming Approach to Job Evaluation.
Computers and Engineering, 14, 147–152.
Gupta S. & Chakraborty M. (1998). Job Evaluation in Fuzzy Environment. Fuzzy Sets and
Systems, 100, 71–76.
Hacker, W. (2003). Action Regulation Theory: A Practical Tool for the Design of Modern
Work Processes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 12(2), 105–
131.
Hackett, R. D., & Guion, R. M. (1985). A Re-Evaluation of the Absenteeism-Job Satisfaction

Relationship. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 35, 340–381.
Hackman, J.R. & Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of Job Diagnostic Survey. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 60(2), 159 –170.
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the Design of Work: Test of a
Theory. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 16, 250–279.
Hackman J.R, & Oldham GR. (1980). Work redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Hall, D.T., & Associates (1986). Career Development in Organizations. (1st Ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Hall, D.T. & Mirvis, P.N. (1995). The New Career Contract: Developing the Whole Person at
Midlife and Beyond. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 47, 269-289.
Hall D. T. (Ed.). (1996). The Career is Dead – Long Live the Career: A Relational Approach
to Careers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hall, D. T., & Chandler, D. E. (2005). Psychological Success: When the Career is a calling.
Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 26, 155–176.
Hall H. (2006) Planning successful successions. The Chronicle of Philanthropy

URL:http://philanthropy.com/free/articles/v18/ i06/06000601.htm
Hamermesh, D. (2001). The Changing Distribution of Job Satisfaction. Journal of Human

Resources, 36(1), 1–30.
Hampton, M. (2000). Motivating and Retaining Employees. AAHOA Hospitality, 5(7), 69,
71, 73.
248
Harrington, K. (2004). The Australasian Graduate Recruitment Benchmarking Study. Talent
Zone Asia Pacific. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15, 4
Harris, M. H., & Fink, L. S. (1987). A Field Study of Applicant Reactions to Employment
Opportunities: Does the Recruiter Make a Difference? Personnel Psychology, 40, 765-
784.
Harvey R J, Lozada-Larsen S R (1988). Influence of Amount of Job Descriptive Information
on Job Analysis Rating Accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(3), 457–446
Harvey R J (1991). Job Analysis. In: Dunnette M D, Hough LM, eds. Handbook of Industrial
and Organizational Psychology. PaloAlto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 12, 71–
164
Harvey, E. L. (1995). Separating Employee Development from Salary Systems. The Human
Resource Professional, 8, 3–5.
Harvey, R.J. & Wilson, M.A. (2000). Yes Virginia, there is an Objective Reality in Job
Analysis. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 21, 829-854.
Hassard, J. (1996). Images of Time in Work and Organization. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, &
W. R. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of Organizational Studies, 581–598. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Hellman, C., (1997). Job Satisfaction and Intent to Leave. Journal of Social Psychology 137,
677–689.
Hendry, C., Woodward, S., Bradley, P. & Perkins, S. (2000). Performance and Rewards:
Cleaning Out the Stables, Human Resource Management Journal, 9(3), 46–62.
Heneman, R. L., & Skoglind, J. D. (1997). Temporary Employment: Can Organizations and
Employees both win? Academy of Management Executive, 11, 93–104.
Heneman, R. L., J. W. Tansky, & S. M. Camp (2000). "Human Resource Management

Practices in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: Unanswered Questions and Future
Research," Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 25, 1-11.
Heneman, H. G., & Judge, T. A. (2006). Staffing Organizations (5th Ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Herz, D. (1991). `Worker Displacement still Common in the late 1980's', Monthly Labour
Review, 114, 3-9.
Herzberg F (1966). Work and the Nature of Man. Cleveland: World.
249
Hesketh, A. & Fleetwood, S. (2006). ‘Beyond Measuring the Human Resources
Management-Organizational Performance Link: Applying Critical Realist Meta-Theory’.
Organization, 13(5), 677–699.
Hesketh, A. & Fleetwood, S. (2007). The Performance of Human Resources: Towards a

Meta Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heslin, P. A. (2005). Conceptualizing and evaluating career success. Journal of

Organizational Behaviour, 26, 113–137.
Highhouse, S. Beadle, D., Gallo, A., & Miller, L. (1998). Get 'em while they last! Effects of
Information Scarcity in Job Advertisements. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28,
779-795.
Highhouse, S. Stierwalt, S. L., Elder, A. E., & Fisher, G. (1999). Effects of Advertised
Human Resource Management Practices on Attraction of African American Applicants.
Personnel Psychology, 52, 425–442.
Highhouse, S., & Hoffman, J. R. (2001). Organizational Attraction and Job Choice.
International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 16, 37–64.
Hinton, P.R. (2004). Statistics explained (2 Ed.). London: Routledge.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related

values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (1985). The Interaction between National and Organizational Value Systems.
Journal of Management Studies, 22, 347–357.
Hogan, J. (1998). Performance Improvement Characteristics Job Analysis. Tulsa, OK: Hogan
Assessment System Holders. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 23, 71–92.
Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and

work environments. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Holman, D.J., Wall, T.D. (2002), "Work characteristics, learning-related outcomes and
strain: a test of competing direct effects, mediated and moderated models", Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 7 No.4, pp.283-301.
Hom, P., Caranikas-Walker, F., Prussia, G. & Griffeth, R. (1992). A Meta-Analytical

Structural Equations Analysis of a Model of Employee Turnover. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 77(6), 890–909.
Hom, Peter W. & Rodger W. Griffeth (1995). Employee Turnover. Cincinnati, OH:
Southwestern College Publishing.
250
Hom, P. W., Griffeth, R. G., Palich, L. E., & Bracker, J. S. (1998). An Exploratory
Investigation into Theoretical Mechanisms Underlying Realistic Job Previews. Personnel
Hom, P. & Kinicki, A. (2001). Toward a Greater Understanding of How Dissatisfaction

Drives Employee Turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 44(5), 975–987.
Hoobler, J.M. & Brown Johnston, N. (2005). ‘An Analysis of Current HRM Publications’,
Personnel Review, 33(6), 665–76.
Horngren, C.T., Foster, G. & Datar, S.M. (2000). Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis.
New Delhi: Prentice-Hall.
House, R. J. (1995). Leadership in the twenty-first century: A speculative inquiry. In A.

Howard (Ed.). The Changing Nature of Work. San Francisco:
Howell, D.C. (1997). Statistical methods for psychology (4 Ed.). Belmont: Duxburg Press.
Hui, C., Lam, S. K., & Law, K. S. (2000). Instrumental Values of Organizational Citizenship
Behaviour for Promotion: A Field Quasi-Experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85,
822–828.
Hurtz, G.M. & Donovan, J.J. (2000). Personality and Job Performance: The Big Five
Revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 (6), 869-879.
Huselid, M. & Day, N. (1991). ‘Organizational commitment, job involvement, and turnover:
a substantive and methodological analysis’. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(3), 381–
391
Huselid, M.A. (1994). Documenting HR’s Effect on Company Performance. HR Magazine,

39, 79–85.
Huselid, M. (1995). The Impact of Human Resource Management on Turnover, Productivity

and Corporate Financial Performance, Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 635–72.
Huselid, M. A., S. E. Jackson, & R. S. Schuler (1997). Technical and Strategic Human
Resource Management Effectiveness as Determinants of Firm Performance," Academy of
Management Journal, 40(1), 171-188.
I. Robertson (1989). International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology

281-328. New York: John Wiley.
Iaffaldano, M. R., & Muchinsky, P. M. (1985). Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A
Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251–273.
Ichniowski, C., & K. Shaw (1999). The Effects of Human Resource Management Systems on
251
Economic Performance: An International Comparison of U.S. and Japanese Plants,
Management Science 45(4), 704-721.
Igbaria, M. & Greenhaus, J.H. (1992). Determinants of MIS employees’ Turnover Intentions:
A Structural Equation Model’, Communication of the ACM, 35, 35–49.
Ilgen, D., &Hollenbeck, J. (1991). The Structure of Work: Job Design and Roles. In M. D.
Dunnette, & L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
(2), 165–208. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Ivancevich, J.M (1998). Human Resource Management, 7th edition, Boston, M.A McGraw-
Hill
J.Sparrow et al (1982). The Use of Job Component Analysis and Related Aptitudes in
Personnel Selection, Journal of Occupational Psychology, 157-164
Jackson, P. R., & Wall, T. D. (1991). How Does Operator Control Enhance Performance of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology? Ergonomics, 34, 1301– 311.
Jackson, S.E., Schuler, R. & Rivero, J.C. (1989). Organizational Characteristics as Predictors
of Personnel Practices’, Personnel Psychology, 42, 727–86.
Jackson, T. (2002). The Management of People across Cultures: Valuing People Differently.
Human Resource Management, 41, 455–475.
Jacobson, D. (1991). Toward a Theoretical Distinction between the Stress Components of the
Job Insecurity and Job Loss Experiences'. In: Bacharach, S. B. (Ed.) Research in the
Sociology of Organizations, Vol. 9, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1-19.
James A. Breaught, Mary Starke (2000). Research on Employee Recruitment: So many

Studies, So Many Remaining Questions, Journal of Management, 26(3), 405-434
Elsevier Science Inc.
James E.King (2000).White-collar reactions to job insecurity and the role of the
psychological contract: Implications for human resource management. Human Resource
Management. 39(1), 79-92
James W. Westerman, Linda A. Cyr (2004). An Integrative Analysis of Person-Organization

Fit theories, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12(3), 252-261.
Jan Selmer, & Charless R. Fenner, Jr ( 2008 ). Job factors and work outcomes of Public
Sector expatriates, Human Resource Management Journal. 19(1),75-90
Jaros, Stephen J., John M. Jermier, Jerry W. Koehler & Terry Sincich (1993). Effects of
Continuance, Affective and Moral Commitment on the Withdrawal Process: An
252
Evaluation of Eight Structural Equation Models, Academy of Management Journal, 36
(5), 951-995.
Jeanneret, P. R. & Mcphail, S. M. (1991). Position Analysis Questionnaire: The Standard for
Job Analysis. (Logan, Ulta: PAQ Services, Inc).
Jeanneret, P. R. (1992). Job Analysis Guide: Major Duties, Essential Functions and Job
Requirements. (Logan, Ulta: PAQ Services, Inc).
Job Satisfaction. Available at http://www.andrewoswald.com (accessed 16 August 2008).
Jodi Barnes Nelson (2002). The Boundryless Organization: Implications for Job Analysis,
Recruitment and Selection, Human Resource Planning, 39-49
Johns, G., Xie, J. L., & Fang, Y. (1992). Mediating and moderating effects in job design.
Journal of Management, 18, 657–676.
Johns, G. (2006). The Essential Impact of Context on Organizational Behaviour. Academy of

Management Review, 31, 386–408.
John W. Lounsbury et; (2004). An investigation of intelligence and personality in relation to

career satisfaction. Personality and individual differences. 37(1),181-189
Judge, & Timothy A. ( 2000 ). Job Satisfaction. Encyclopedia of psychology,4,399-403
Judge, T. A., & Bretz, R. D. (1992). Effects of Work Values on Job Choice Decisions.
Judge, T. A., & Hulin, C. L. (1993). Job Satisfaction as a Reflection of Disposition: A

Multiple-Source Causal Analysis. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision
Processes, 56, 388–421.
Judge, T. A. & Ferris, G. R. (1993). Social Context of Performance Evaluation Decisions.

Academy of Management Journal, 36, 80–105.
Judge, T. A., & Cable, D. M. (1997). Applicant Personality, Organizational Culture and
Organization Attraction. Personnel Psychology, 50, 359-394.
Judge, T. A., & Church, A. H. (2000). Job satisfaction: Research and practice. In C. L.
Cooper & E. A. Locke (Eds.), Industrial and organizational psychology: Linking theory
with practice, 166–198. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). Relationship of core Self-Evaluations Traits Self-Esteem,
Generalized Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control And Emotional Stability With Job
Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86,
80–92.
253
Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). The Job Satisfaction-Job
Performance Relationship: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Psychological
Bulletin, 127, 376–407.
Judge, T. A., Heller, D., & Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-Factor Model of Personality and Job
Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 530–541.
June Wei, Gavriel Salvendy (2004). The cognitive task analysis methods for job and task
design: review and reappraisal. Behaviour & Information technology, 23 (4), 273-299
Jurgensen, C. E. (1978). Job preferences (What Makes a Job Good or Bad?). Journal of
Kaak, S.R., Feild, H.S., Giles, W.F., & Norris, D.R. (1997). An Exploratory Analysis of
Turnover Culture in the Hotel Industry in Australia. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 16(4), 375-392.
Kapel, C., & Shepherd, C. (2004). Career Ladders Create Common Language for Defining
Jobs. Canadian HR Reporter, 14(12), 15-16.
Kaplan, R.M. & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2001). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications and
Issues (5th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth.
Kaye, B. (2005). Build a Culture of Development. Leadership Excellence, 22(3), 18.
Kelly, J. E. (1978). A Reappraisal of Socio-Technical Systems Theory. Human Relations, 31,

1069 –1099.
Kelly, J. (1992). Does Job Re-Design Theory Explain Job Re-Design Outcomes? Human
Relations, 45, 753–774.
Kesner, I. F., & Dalton, D. R. (1994). Top Management Turnover and CEO Succession: An
Investigation of the Effects of Turnover on Performance. Journal of Management
Studies, 31, 701–713.
Kimhi (1997). Retirement Planning and Succession Considerations of Maryland Farmers:

Evidence from a Household Survey, Paper Presented at 11th Annual Conference of the
European Society for Population Economics.
Kingsmill, D. (2003). Accounting for People, Report of the Task Force on Human Capital
Management. London: DTI.
254
Kohler, S. S., & Mathieu, J. E. (1993). An Examination of the Relationship between
Affective Reactions, Work Perceptions, Individual Resource Characteristics and Multiple
Absence Criteria. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 14, 515–530.
Kopelman, R. (1985). Job Redesign and Productivity: A Review of the Evidence. National
Productivity Review, 4, 237–255.
Koubek, R. J., Salvendy, G. & Noland, S. (1994). The use of Protocol Analysis for
Determining Ability Requirements for Personnel Selection on a Computer-Based Task.
Ergonomics, 37(11), 1787–1800.
Kovach, K. A. (1995). Employee motivation: Addressing a crucial factor in your

organization’s performance. Employment Relations Today, 22, 93–107.
Kristof, A. (1996). Person–organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations,

measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1–49.
Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of

Individuals’ Fit at Work: A Meta-Analysis of Person–Job, Person–Organization, Person–
Group, And Person–Supervisor Fit. Personnel Psychology, 58, 281–342.
Kulik, C. T. & Oldham, G. R. (1988). Job Diagnosis Survey. In S. Gael (Ed.), The Job
Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry and Government, Vol. II (New York: John
Wiley & Sons), 936 – 959.
Kwiatkowski, R. (2003). Trends in Organizations and Selection: An introduction. Journal of

Managerial Psychology, 18, 5, 382–394.
Lado, A.A. & Wilson, M.C. (1994). Human Resource Systems and Sustained Competitive
Advantage: A Competency-Based Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 19,
699–727.
Lahteenmaki, S., Storey, J. & Vanhala, S. (1998). ‘HRM and Company Performance: The
Use of Measurement and the Influence of Economic Cycles. Human Resource
Management Journal, 8(2), 51–65.
Lamprecht, J.C. (2002). Career Management Skills. In Maree, J.G. & Ebersom, L. (Eds),
Life Skills and Career Counselling, 139-149. Sandown: Heinemann.
Landy, F. J., & Farr, J. L. (1980). Performance Ratings. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 72–107.
Landy E J, Vasey J (1991). Job analysis: The Composition of SME Samples. Personnel
Psychology, 44: 27–50
Langdon, D.G. & Whiteside, K.S. (1996). Redefining Jobs and Work in Changing
Organizations, HR Magazine, May, 97–101.
255
Latham, G.P. & Wexley, K.N. (1981). Increasing Productivity through Performance
Appraisal. MA: Addison-Wesley.
Laurent, A. (1986). The Cross-Cultural Puzzle of International Human Resource

Management. Human Resource Management, 25, 91–103.
Laursen, K. (2002). The Importance of Sectoral Differences in the Application of

Complementary HRM Practices for Innovation Performance, International Journal of the
Economics of Business, 9(1), 139–56.
Lauver, K.J. & Kristof-Brown, A. (2001). Distinguishing between Employees’ Perceptions of

Person–Job and Person–Organization Fit. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 59, 454–470.
Lawler, Edward E. & Lyman W. Porter (1967). The Effect of Performance on Job
Satisfaction, Industrial Relations, 7, 20–28.
Lawler, E. E., III. (1992). The Ultimate Advantage: Creating the High Involvement
Organisation. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Lawler, E. E., III, & Finegold, D. (2000). Individualizing the Organization: Past, Present, and
Future. Organizational Dynamics, 29, 1–15.
Layard, R. (2005). Happiness: Lessons from a New Science, London: Penguin Books.
Marchington, M. and Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human Resource Management at Work:
People Management and Development, 3rd (Ed.), London: CIPD.
Lazarova, M.L. (2006). International Human Resource Management in Global Perspective,

in M.J. Morley, N. Heraty and D.G. Collings (Ed.)
Lee Friedman, Robert J. Harvey (1986). Can Raters with Reduced Job Descriptive
Information provide Accurate Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) Rating, Personnel
Psychology, 779-789.
Lee, T. & Mowday, R. (1987). Voluntarily Leaving an Organization: An Empirical

Investigation of Steer’s and Mowday’s Model of Turnover. Academy of Management
Journal, 30(4), 721–743.
Lee, H., & Liebenau, J. (1999). Time in Organizational Studies: Towards a New Research
Direction. Organizational Studies, 20, 1035–1058.
Lee, S.H. (2000). A Managerial Perspective of the Objectives of HRM Practices in

Singapore: an exploratory study. Singapore Management Review, 22(1), 65 - 82.
Lefkowitz, J. (2000). The Role of Interpersonal Affective Regard in Supervisory

Performance Ratings: A Literature Review and Proposed Causal Model. Journal of
Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 73(1), 67–85.
256
Leibman, M.Bruer, R.A. & Maki, B.R. (1996). Succession Management; The Next
Generation of Succession Planning. Human Resource Planning, 19(3), 17-28
Leibowitz, Z.B., Farren, C., & Kaye, B.L. (1988). Designing Career Development Systems.
(1st Ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Lengnick-Hall, M. & Lengnick-Hall, C.A. (1999). Expanding Customer Orientation in the

HR Function. Human Resource Management, 38, 201–14.
Lepak, D.P. & Snell, S.A. (1998). Virtual HR: Strategic Human Resource Management in the
21st Century. Human Resource Management Review, 8, 215–234.
Lester, S. W., Turnley, W. H., Bloodgood, J. M., & Bolino, M. C. (2002). Not Seeing Eye to
Eye: Differences in Supervisor and Subordinate Perceptions of and Attributions for
Psychological Contract Breach. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 23, 39–56.
Levine, E.L., Ash, R.A. & Bennett, N. (1980). Exploratory Comparative Study of Four Job
Analysis Methods, Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 524–35.
Levine, E.L., Ash, R.A., Hall, H. Sistrunk, F. (1983). Evaluation of Job Analysis Methods by
Experienced Job Analysts, Academy of Management Journal, 26, 339–48.
Levine, E. L., Sistrunk, F., McNutt, K. J., & Gael, S. (1988). Exemplary Job Analysis
Systems in Selected Organizations: A Description of Processes and Outcomes. Journal of
Business and Psychology, 3, 3–21.
Levin, G. (2001). Recruiting Strategies for Multimedia Call Centres. In Call Centre
Recruiting and new-hire training: The best of call center management review, 27-32.
Annapolis: Call Center Press.
Li Wendong, Shi Kan, Wu Hongyan (2006). The Effect of Job Incumbents’ Task
Performance on their Job Analysis Ratings: Evidence from Power Plant Designers and
Editors. Acta Psychological Sinica, 38(3), 428–435 (in Chinese)
Li Wendong., et; (2008). Effects of job satisfaction, affective commitment and job
involvement on job skill ratings. Frontiers of Business Research in China. 137-154
Li, S. & Scullion, H. (2006). Bridging the Distance: Managing Cross-Border Knowledge
Holders. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 23, 71–92.
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Sparrowe, R. T. (2000). The Examination of the Mediating
Role of Psychological Empowerment on the Relations between the Job, Interpersonal
Relationships, and Work Outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 407–416.
257
Liebman, M., Bruer, R. & Maki, B. (1996). Succession Management: The Next Generation
of Succession Planning, Human Resource Planning, 19(3), 16-29.
Llewellen R.W. (1964). Linear Programming. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.
Morgeson F.P.,
Locke, E. A. (1976). The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.),
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1297–1349. Chicago: Rand
McNally.
Locke, E. A., Feren, D. B., McCaleb, V. M., Shaw, K. N., & Denny, A. T. (1980). The
Relative Effectiveness of Four Methods of Motivating Employee Performance in K. D.
Loewenstein, M. & Spletzer, J. (1999). General and Specific Training: Evidence and
Implications. Journal of Human Resources, 34(4), 710–733.
Longenecker, C. O., Gioia, D. A., & Sims, H. P., Jr. (1987). Behind the Mask: The Politics of
Employee Appraisal. The Academy of Management Executive, 1,183–193.
Lowery, C.M., Beadles II, N.A. & Krilowicz, T.J. (2004). Using Personality and Cognitive
Ability to Predict Job Performance: An Empirical Study. International Journal of
Management, 21 (3), 300-306.
Lucero, M.A. & Allen, R.E. (1994). Employee Benefits: A Growing Source of Psychological
Contract Violations. Human Resource Management, 33(3), 425–446.
Lusch, Robert F. & Ray R. Serpkenci (1990). Personal Differences, Job Tension, Job
Outcomes, and Store Performance: A Study of Retail Store Managers, Journal of
Marketing, 54, 85–101.
Lynch, L. (1991). ‘The Role of off-the-Job vs. on-the-Job Training for the Mobility of
Women Workers’. American Economic Review, 81(2), 299–312.
MacDuffie, J. (1995) Human Resource Bundles and Manufacturing Performance:

Organizational Logic and Flexible Production Systems in the World Auto Industry,
Industry and Labour Relations Review, 48, 197–221.
MacHatton, M.T., Van Dyke, T., & Steiner, R. (1997). Selection and Retention of Managers
in the US Restaurant Sector. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 9(4), 155.
Mallamad, S. M., Levine, J. M. & Fleishman, E. A. (1980). Identifying Ability Requirements

by Decision Flow Diagrams. Human Factors, 22(1), 57-68.
258
Manoharan, T. R., Muralidharan, C., & Deshmukh, S. G. (2009). Employee Performance
Appraisal Using Data Envelopment Analysis: A Case Study, Research and Practice in
Human Resource Management, 17(1), 92-111.
Marchington, M. & Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human Resource Management at Work: People

Management and Development, 3rd Ed., London: CIPD.
Maria L Kraimer, Raymond T Sparrowe (2005). The Role of Job Security in Understanding
the Relationship between Employee’s Perceptions of Temporary Workers and
Employee’s Performance, Journal of Applied Psychology, 389-398.
Marks, N. (2006). ‘Merrily on High’. People Management, 28 December, p30.
Marquardt, L. D. (1972). The Rated Attribute Requirements of Job Elements in a Structured

Job Analysis Questionnaire - The Position Analysis Questionnaire. MSc. thesis, Purdue
University.
Matteson, M. & Ivancevich, J. (1982). Type A and Type B Behaviour Patterns and Health
Symptoms: Examining Individual and Organizational Fit. Journal of Occupational
Medicine, 24, 585–589.
Matusik, S. F., & Hill, C. W. L. (1998). The Utilization of Contingent Work, Knowledge
Creation and Competitive Advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23, 680–697.
May, K. E. (1998). Work in the 21st century: The changing role of human resources. The
Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 35(3), 28–31.
McConnell, C. R. (2003). The Manger’s Approach for Employee Performance Problems.

Health Care Manager, 22(1), 63–69.
Mccormick, E. J. (1959). Applications of Job Analysis to Indirect Validity. Personnel

Mccormick, E. J. (1967). Job and Task Analysis. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.). Handbook of

Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand-McNally.
Mccormick, E. J., Jeanneret, P. R. & Mecham, R. C. (1969). The Development and

Background of the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) (Prepared for the Office of
Naval Research under Contract Nonr-1100/28). Report No. 5. Occupational Research
Centre, Purdue University.
McCormick E J, Jeanneret P R, Mecham R C (1972). A Study of Job Characteristics and Job

Dimensions as based on the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ). Journal of Applied
259
Mccormick, E. J. (1974). The Application of Structured Job Analysis Information based on
PAQ. Report No. 9. Department of Sciences, Purdue University.
McCormick E J (1976). Job and Task Analysis. In: Dunnette M D, ed. Handbook of
Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 651–696
Mccormick, E. J., Denisi, A. S. & Shaw, J. B. (1979). Use of the Position Analysis
Questionnaire for Establishing the Job Component Validity of Tests. Journal of Applied
McDaniel, C. and Gates, R. (1996) Contemporary Marketing Research, 3rd Ed. St Paul, MN:
West Publishing.
McElroy, J.C., Morrow, P. C., & Rude, S. N. (2001). Turnover and Organizational
Performance: A Comparative Analysis of the Effects of Voluntary, Involuntary and
Reduction in- force Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1294–1299.
McGrath, J. E., & Rotchford, N. L. (1983). Time and Behaviour in Organizations. In B. M.

Staw, & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behaviour (Vol. 5, pp. 57–
101). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
McGrath, J. E., & Kelly, J. R. (1986). Time and human interaction: Toward a Social
Psychology of Time. New York: Guilford Press.
McGrath, J. E., & Tschan, F. (2004). Temporal Matters. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
McLean Parks, J. & Schmedemann, D.A. (1994). When Promises Become Contracts:
Implied Contracts and Handbook Provisions on Job Security. Human Resource
Management, 33(3), 402–423.
McNerney, D. J. (1995). Improved performance appraisals: Process of elimination. HR

Focus, 72, 1, 4–5.
Meglino, B.M., Ravlin, E.C. & DeNisi, A.S. (2000). A Meta-Analytic Examination of
Realistic Job Preview Effectiveness: A Test of Three Counterintuitive Propositions.
Human Resource Management Review, 10, 407–434.
Menday, J. (1996). Call Centre Management: A Practical Guide. Surrey: Callcraft.
Meyer, H. H., Kay, E., & French, J. R. P., Jr. (1965). Split roles in Performance Appraisal.
Harvard Business Review, 43, 123–129.
Meyer, J.L. & Donaho, M.W. (1979). Getting the Right Person for the Job Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall.
260
Meyer, John P. and Lynn Herschovitch (2001), Commitment in the Workplace: Toward a
General Model, Human Resource Management Review, 11 (3), 299-326.
Michael A. Campion, Chris J. Berger (1990). Conceptual Integration and Empirical Test of
Job Design and Compensation Relationships, Personnel Psychology, 525-553
Milkovich GT, Newman JM. (1990). Compensation (3rd Ed.). Piano, TX: Business
Publications
Mincer, J. (1988). ‘Job Training, Wage Growth, and Labour Turnover’, NBER Working
Paper 2690.
Mitchell, J. L. & Mccormick, E. J. (1990). Professional and Managerial Position

questionnaire (PMPQ). (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc).
Mitchell, T. R. (1997). Matching Motivational Strategies with Organizational Contexts.

Research in Organizational Behaviour, 19, 57–149.
Mitchell, T., Holton, B., Lee, T., Sablynski, C. & Erez, M. (2001). Why People Stay: Using
Job Embeddedness to Predict Voluntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal,
44(6), 1102–1122
Mobley, W., Horner, S. and Hollingsworth, S. (1978). An Evaluation of Precursors or

Hospital Employee Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(4), 408.
Mobley, W. H. (1982). Employee Turnover, Causes, Consequences and Control. Reading,

MA: Addison-Wesley.
Mondy, R.W., Noe, R.M. & Premeaux, S.R. (2002). Human Resource Management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Morgeson F P, Campion M A (1997). Social and Cognitive Sources of Potential Inaccuracy

in Job Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5), 627–655.
Morgeson F.P., Campion M.A. & Maertz C.P. (2001). Understanding Pay Satisfaction: The
Limits of a Compensation System Implementation. Journal of Business and Psychology,
16(1), 133–149.
Morgeson, F. P., & Campion, M. A. (2002). Minimizing Tradeoffs when Redesigning Work:
Evidence from a Longitudinal Quasi-Experiment. Personnel Psychology, 55, 589–612.
Morgeson, F. P., & Campion, M. A. (2003). Work Design. In W. Borman, R. Klimoski, & D.
Ilgen (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology, Volume Twelve: Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, 423–452, New York: John Wiley.
261
Morgeson F P, Delaney-Klinger K, Mayfield M S (2004). Self-Presentation Processes in Job
Analysis: A Field Experiment Investigating Inflation in Abilities, Tasks and
Competencies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(4), 674–686.
Morgeson, F. P., & Humphrey, S. E. (2006). The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ):
Developing and Validating a Comprehensive Measure for Assessing Job Design and the
Nature of Work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1321–1339.
Morris, D., Bakan, I. & Wood, G. (2006). ‘Employee Financial Participation: Evidence from
a Major UK Retailer’. Employee Relations, 28: 4, 326–341.
Morrison, E. W., & Robinson, S. L. (1997). When Employees Feel Betrayed: A Model of
How Psychological Contract Violation Develops. Academy of Management Review, 22,
226–256.
Morsh JE (1964). Job Analysis in the United States Air Force. Personnel Psychology, 17, 7-
17.
Mottaz, C.J. (1988). Determinants of Organizational Commitment’, Human Relations, 41,

467–82.
Mouton, J. & Marais, H.C. (1990). Basic Concepts in the Methodology of the Social
Sciences. Pretoria: HSRC.
Mowday, R.T., Steers, R. & Porter, C. (1979). The Measurement of Organizational

Commitment. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 14, 224–7.
Mowday, R.T. (1998). Reflections on the Study and Relevance of Organizational

Commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 4, 387–401.
Mullins W C, Kimbrough W. W. (1988). Group Composition as a Determinant of Job

Analysis Outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(4), 657–664
Murphy & F. Saal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Belasco, J. A., & Stayer, R. C. (1994).
Why Empowerment Doesn’t Empower: The Bankruptcy of Current Paradigms. Business
Horizons, 37, 29–41.
Murphy, K. R. & Cleveland, J. N. (1995). Understanding Performance Appraisal: Social,

Organizational, and Goal-Based Perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Murphy, T. & Zandvakili, S. (2000). Data and Metrics Driven Approach to Human Resource
Practices: Using Customers, Employees and Financial Metricsm. Human Resource
Management, 39(1), 91–105.
MW, Vail RG. (1984). Job Evaluation and Equal Employment Opportunity: A Tool for
Complaisance a Weapon for Defence. Employee Relations Law Journal, 1,535-546.
262
Neil Anderson, Flip Lievens (2004). Future Perspectives on Employee Selection: Key
Directions for Future Research and Practice, Applied Psychology: An International
Review, 487-501
Newton, R.M (1998) Teacher Reaction to School Council Member Job Description: The
Effect of Council Job Attributes, Principal Council Role and Teacher Job Assignment
Level (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Louisville, 1998)
Niebel BW (1988). Motion and Time Study (8th Ed.). Homewood, IL: Iiwin Occupational
Health Psychology, 7, 283–301.
Noe, R.A. (1996). Human Resource Management - Gaining a Competitive Advantage, (2nd
Ed.). New York: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
Nunnally, J.C. (1978) Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric Theory (3rd Ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
O’Hara, A. (2001). How to Develop a Retention-Oriented Agent Recruiting and Selection

Process. In Call Centre Recruiting and New-Hire Training: The Best of Call Centre
Management Review, 21-25.
Olian, J. D., & Rynes, S. L. (1991). Making Total Quality Work: Alignin Organizational
Processes, Performance Measures and Stakeholders. Human Resource Management,
30,303-333.
O’Reilly, C. and Chatman, J. (1986). ‘Organizational Commitment and Psychological

Attachment: the Effects of Compliance, Identification, and Internalization on Pro-Social
Behaviour’. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 492–499.
O’Reilly, C. A. III, Chatman, J., & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). People and Organizational
Culture: A Profile Comparison Approach to Assessing Person-Organization Fit. Academy
of Management Journal, 34, 487–516.
Offermann, L. R., & Gowing, M. K. (1990). Organizations of the Future: Changes and
Challenges. American Psychologist, 45(2), 95–108.
Oldham, G., Julik, C., Ambrose, M., Stepina, L. and Brand, J. (1986). `Relations between Job
Facet Comparisons and Employee Relations. Organizational Behaviour and Human
Decision Processes, 38, 28-47.
Oldham, G. R. (1996). Job Design. In C. L. Cooper, I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International

Review of industrial and Organizational Psychology, 33–60. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
263
Olson, H. C., Fine, S. A., Myers, D. C., & Jennings, M. C. (1981). The Use of Functional Job
Analysis in Establishing Performance Standards for Heavy Equipment Operators.
Personnel Psychology, 34(2), 351–364.
Olson C.A., Schwab D.P. & Rau B.L. (2000). The Effects of Local Market Conditions on
Two Pay-Setting Systems in the Federal Sector. Industrial & Labour Relations Review,
53(2), 272–289.
Opsahl RL, Dunnette MD. (1966). The role of Financial Compensation in Industrial
Motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 66, 94-118.
Organ, D. W. (1988). A Restatement of the Satisfaction- Performance Hypothesis. Journal of

Organ, D. W., & Ryan, K. (1995). A Meta-Analytic Review of Attitudinal and Dispositional
Predictors of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Personnel Psychology, 48, 775–802.
Outtz, J.L. (2002). The role of cognitive ability tests in employment selection. Human
Performance, 15, 161-171.
Pakistan Public Administration Research Center, Establishment Division, (2007) Annual

Statistical Bulletin of Federal Government Employees.
Pakistan Public Administration Research Center, Establishment Division, (2007) Annual

Statistical Bulletin of Autonomous Bodies Employees.
Pakistan Public Expenditure Management (PPEM) (2003) Strengthening the Civil Service,
World Bank
Parisi, A. G., & Weiner, S. P. (1999). Retention of Employees: Country-Specific Analyses in

a Multinational Organization. Poster at the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Society
for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA.
Parker, S. K., & Wall, T. D. (1998). Job and Work Design: Organizing Work to Promote
Well-Being and Effectiveness. San Francisco, CA: Sage.
Parker, S. K., Wall, T. D., & Cordery, J. (2001). Future Work Design Research and Practice:
Towards an Elaborated Model of Work Design. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 74, 413–440.
Pasmore, W. A., Francis, C., Haldeman, J., & Shani, A. (1982). Socio-Technical Systems: A
North American Reflection on Empirical Studies of the Seventies. Review of Industrial
and organizational psychology, 11, 33–60. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Pasmore, W. A. (1988). Designing Effective Organizations: The Socio-Technical Systems

perspective. New York: Wiley.
264
Pearce, J. L. (1998). Job Insecurity is Important, but not for the Reasons you Might Think
Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 1986-1998
Pearlman, K. & Barney, M.F. (2000). Selection for a Changing Workplace. In Kehoe, J.F.
(ed.), Managing Selection in Changing Organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass,
3-72.
Pearn, M. & Kandola, R. (1993). Job Analysis: A Manager’s guide (2nd Ed.). London:
Institute of Personnel Management.
Pendleton, A. & Poutsma, E. (2004). Financial Participation: The Role of Governments and
Social Partners, Report for the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and
Working Conditions, Dublin, Ireland.
Peng, M.W. (2002). Towards an institution-based view of business strategy. Asia Pacific
Performance Research. Human Resource Management Journal, 15(3), 67–94.
People Assessment in Industry (PAI). (2005). Guidelines for the Validation and Use of
Assessment Procedures for the Workplace. Society for Industrial and Organizational
Psychology of South Africa
Pettigrew, A. M. (1997). What is a Processual Analysis? Scandinavian Journal of

Pettigrew, A. M., Woodman, R. W., & Cameron, K. S. (2001). Studying Organizational

Change and Development: Challenges for Future Research. Academy of Management
Journal, 44, 697–713.
Pfeffer, J., & Baron, J. N. (1988). Taking the workers back out: Recent trends in the
structuring of employment. Research in Organizational Behaviour, 10, 257–303
Pfeffer, J. (1994). Competitive Advantage through People. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
School Press.
Pfeffer, J. (1998). The Human Equation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Phillips, J.M. (1998). Effects of Realistic Job Previews on Multiple Organizational

Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 673–690.
Phelps, G. (2002). The New World of Call Centre Management. Gallup Management
Journal, 1-3.
Pittel M. (1999). Recalibrating Point Factor Job Evaluation Plans to Reflect Labour Market
Pay Levels. Workspan, 42(10), 29–33.
265
Pizam, A., & Ellis, T. (1999). Absenteeism and Turnover in the Hospitality Industry in Lee-
Ross Darren (Ed.), HRM in Tourism and Hospitality. London: Cassell.
Pizam, A., & Thornburg, S.W. (2000). Absenteeism and Voluntary Turnover in Central
Florida Hotels: A Pilot Study. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 19(2),
211-217.
Popovich, J. M. (1998). Multidimensional Performance Measurement. Journal of Nursing

Care Quality, 12(4), 14–21.
Porter, L., Steers, R., Mowday, R. & Boulian, P. (1974). Organizational Commitment, Job
Satisfaction and Turnover among Psychiatric Technicians. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 59(5), 603–609.
Posner, B., Kouzes, J. & Schmidt, W. (1985). Shared values make a difference: An empirical
test of corporate culture. Human Resource Management, 24, 293–309.
Posner, B. (1992). Person–Organization Values Congruence: No Support for Individual

Differences as a Moderating Influence. Human Relations, 45, 351–361.
Powell, G. N. (1991). Effect of Job Attributes and Recruiting Practices on Applicant

Decisions: A Comparison. Personnel Psychology, 37, 721–732.
Price, J. L. (1989). The impact of turnover on the organization. Work and Occupations, 16,
461–473.
Price, A. (1997). Human Resource Management in a Business Context. London: International

Thompson Business Press.
Prien, E. P. (1977). The Function of Job Analysis in Content Validation. Personnel

Primoff, E. S. & Fine, S. A. (1988). A History of Job Analysis. In G. Salvendy (Ed)

Handbook of industrial engineering (New York: John Wiley & Sons),1415 –1 445.
Pritchard, R. D., Holling, H., Lammers, F., & Clark, B. D. (Eds.). (2002). Improving
Organizational Performance with the Productivity Measurement and Enhancement
System: An International Collaboration. Huntington, New York: Nova Science.
Project Information Document (PID) (2004) Pakistan- Public Sector Capacity Building,
Report No: AB154 http:// www.worldbank.org/infoshop
Purcell, J., Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S., Rayton, B. & Swart, J. (2003). Understanding the
People and Performance Link: Unlocking the Black Box. London: Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development.
266
Quinetta M. Roberson., Christopher J. Collins & Shaul Oreg. ( 2005 ). The Effects of
Recruitment message specificity on applicant attraction to organizations. Journal of
Business and Psychology, 19 (3), 319-339
Ramsay, H., Schlorarios, D. & Harley, B. (2000). Employees and High-performance Work
Systems: Testing Inside the Black Box, British Journal of Industrial Relations, 38(4),
501–31.
Randall, D. (1990).The Consequences of Organizational Commitment: Methodological

Investigation’. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 11(5), 361–379.
Randy L. Desimone, Jon M. Werner, David M. Harris (2002). Human Resource

Development, 3rd Ed., Harcourt College Publishers, pp 486-487
Read, B. (2000). Designing the Best Call Centre for Your Business. New York: CMP Books
Richard M. Ryan (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behaviour.

New York: Plenum.
Richardson, R. & Thompson, M. (1999). The Impact of People Management Practices on

Business Performance: A Literature Review. London: Institute of Personnel and
Development.
Roberts, K. H., & Glick, W. (1981). The Job Characteristics Approach to Task Design: A
Critical Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66(2), 193–217.
Robertson, I.T. & Smith, M. (2001). Personnel Selection. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 74, 441-472.
Robinson, S. L., Kratz, M. S., & Rousseau, D. M. (1994). Changing Obligations and the
Psychological Contract: A Longitudinal Study. Academy of Management Journal, 37,
137–152.
Rodriguez, J.M. & De Pablos, P.O. (2002). Strategic Human Resource Management: An
Organizational Learning Perspective. International Journal of Human Resources
Development and Management, 2 (34), 249-263.
Rohmert, W. & Landau, K. (1979). A New Technique for Job Analysis (AET). (New York:
Taylor & Francis Inc.).
Rohmert, W. (1988). AET. In S. Gael (Eds). The Job Analysis Handbook for Business,
Industry and Government, Vol. II (New York: John Wiley & Sons), 843–859.
Rose, M. (2005). Job Satisfaction in Britain: Dealing with Complexity. British Journal of
Organizational Psychology, 73(1), 67–85.
267
Roskies, E. & Louis-Guerin, C. (1990). Job Insecurity in Managers: Antecedents and
Consequences, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 11, 345-359.
Rothwell WJ. (2005). Effective Succession Planning, Ensuring Leadership Continuity and
Building Talent from Within, 3rd Ed. New York:
Rotundo M. & Sackett P.R. (2004). Specific versus General Skills and Abilities: A Job Level
Examination of Relationships with Wage. Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, 77, 127– 148.
Rousseau, D. M. (1977). Technological Differences in Job Characteristics, Employee

Satisfaction and Motivation: A Synthesis of Job Design Research and Socio-Technical
Systems Theory. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 19, 18– 42.
Rousseau DM. (1982). Job Perceptions When Working with Data, People and Things.
Journal of Occupational Psychology, 55, 43-52.
Rousseau, D. M. (1989). Psychological and Implied Contracts in Organizations. Employee

Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2, 121–139.
Rousseau, D. M. (1990). New Hire Perceptions of Their Own and Their Employer’s
Obligations: A Study of Psychological Contracts. Journal of Organizational Behaviour,
11, 389–400.
Rousseau, D.M., & Parks, J.M. (1993). The Contracts of Individuals and Organizations. In
L.L. Cummings & B.W. Staw (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behaviour, 15, 1–43.
Rousseau, D.M., & Greller, M.M. (1994). Human Resource Practice: Administrative
Contract Makers. Human Resource Management, 33(3), 385–401.
Rousseau, D.M. (1995). Psychological Contracts in Organizations: Understanding Written

and Unwritten Agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rousseau, D. M., & Fried, Y. (2001). Location, Location, Location: Contextualizing

organizational Research. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 22, 1–13.
Rousseau, D. M., & Shperling, Z. (2003). Pieces of the Action: Ownership and the Changing
Employment Relationship. Academy of Management Review, 28, 553–570.
Roy, D. F. (1959). Banana Time: Job Satisfaction and Informal Interaction. Human
Organization, 18, 158–168.
Rutt S.M. & Doverspike D. (1999). Salary and Organizational Level Affects on Job
Evaluation Ratings. Journal of Business and Psychology, 14(2), 379–385.
268
Ryan, A.M. (2001). Explaining the Black and White test score gap: The role of test
perceptions. Human Performance, 14, 45–75.
Rynes, S. L., & Lawler, J. (1983). A Policy-Capturing Investigation of the Role of

Expectancies in Decisions to Pursue Job Alternatives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68,
620-632.
Rynes, S. L., & Barber, A. E. (1990). Applicant Attraction Strategies: An Organizational

Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 15, 286-310.
Rynes, S. L. (1991). Recruitment, Job Choice and Post-Hire Consequences: A Call for New
Research Directions. In M. D. Dunnette & R. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial
and Organizational Psychology, 399-444. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Rynes, S.L., & Gerhart, B. (1991). The Importance of Recruitment in Job Choice: A
Different Way of Looking. Personnel Psychology, 44, 487–521.
Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G. (2002). HR Professionals’ Beliefs about
Effective Human Resource Practices: Correspondence between Research and Practice.
Saari, L. M. (2000). Employee Surveys and Attitudes across Cultures. In Business as

Unusual? Are I/O Psychology Practices Applicable across Culture? Paper Presented at
the Fifteenth Annual Employee Conference of the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.
Saari, L. M., & Erez, M. (2002). Cross-Cultural Diversity and Employee Attitudes. Paper
Presented at the Seventeenth Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, Toronto.
Sally A. Carless., & Josephine Wintle (2007). Applicant Attraction: The role of recruiter
function, work–life balance policies and career salience. International Journal of
Selection and Assessment. 15(4),394-404
Salvendy G (Ed.). (1987). Handbook of Human Factors. New York: Wiley.
Sanchez J I, Fraser S L (1992). On the Choice of Scales for Task Analysis. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 77, 545–553
Sanchez, J. I., & Fraser, S. L. (1994). An Empirical Procedure to Identify Job Duty-Skill
Linkages in Managerial Jobs: A Case Example. Journal of Business and Psychology,
8,309-8,326.
Sanchez J I, Prager I, Wilson A, Viswesvaran C (1998). Understanding within Job Title

Variance in Job Analytic Ratings. Journal of Business & Psychology, 12(4), 407–420
269
Sanchez, J. I., & Levine, E. L. (1999). Is Job Analysis Dead, Misunderstood or Both? New
Forms of Work Analysis and Design. In A. Kraut & A. Korman (Eds.), Evolving Practices
in Human Resource Management 43-68
Sanchez J I, Levine E L (2000). Accuracy or Consequential Validity: Which is the Better

Standard for Job Analysis Data? Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 21(7), 809–818
Sandberg, J.I (2000). ‘Understanding Human Competence at Work: An Interpretive

Approach. Academy of Management Review, 41(1), 9–25.
Sanders MS, McCormick EJ. (1987). Human Factors in Engineering and Design (6th Ed).
New York: McOraw-HiU.
Sandra Diwisch (2006). The Shadow of Succession in Family Firms, Department of

Economics, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration
Saratoga (2005). ‘Key Trends in Human Capital: A Global Perspective’, Price Waterhouse
Coopers publication, 1–19.
Schein, E.H (1987). Individuals and Careers. In J. Lorsch (Ed), Handbook of Organizational
Behaviour, 155-171 Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall
Schmidt, F. L. & Hunter, J. E. (1977). Development of a General Solution to the Problem of

Validity Generalization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 529–540.
Schmitt N, Cohen S A (1989). Internal Analyses of Task Ratings by job Incumbents. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 74(1), 96–104
Schneider B, Reichers AE, Mitchell TM. (1982). A Note on Some Relationships between the
Aptitude Requirements and Reward Attributes of Tasks. Academy of Management
Review. 25,567-574.
Schneider, Benjamin (1975). Organizational Climates: An Essay, Personnel Psychology, 28

(4), 447-479.
Schneider, Benjamin & Arnon E. Reichers (1983). On the Etiology of Climates, Personnel
Psychology, 36 (1), 19-39.
Schoemaker, P. (2008). The future challenges of business: Rethinking management

education. California Management Review, 50(3), 119-139.
Schoenfelder, T., & Hantula, D. A. (2003). A Job with a Future? Delay Discounting,
Magnitude Effects and Domain Independence of Utility for Career Decisions. Journal of
Vocational Behaviour, 62, 43–55.
270
Schreiber, D.M. (2000). Staying power: Focus on employee retention. Club Management.
79(3), 36, 39.
Schuler, R.S. & Jackson, S.E. (1996). Human Resource Management: Positioning for the
21st Century, 6th Ed. St Paul, MN: West Publishing.
Schuler, R.S., Budhwar, P.S. & Florkowski, G.W. (2002). International Human Resource
Management: Review and Critique. International Journal of Management Reviews, 4,
41–70.
Schuler, R.S. & Tarique, I. (2007). International Human Resource Management: A Hematic
Update and Suggestions for Future Research. International Journal of Human Resource
Schultz, D. & Schultz, S.E. (1998). Psychology @ Work Today: An Introduction to

Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Schwab DP. (1980). Job Evaluation and Pay Setting: Concepts and Practices. In Livernash
ER (Ed.), Comparable Worth: Issues and alternatives. Washington, DC: Equal
Employment Advisory Council.
Schwab, D.P. & Grams, R. (1985). Sex-Related Errors in Job Evaluation: A ‘‘Real-World’’
Test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(3), 533–539.
Schwab, D. P., Rynes, S. L., & Aldag, R. J. (1987). Theories and Research on Job Search and
Choice. In K. M. Rowland & G. R. Ferris (Eds.), Research in Personnel and Human
Resources Management, 5,129-166. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press Inc.
Schwind, H., Das, H., Werther, Jr, W.B. & Davis, K. (1995). Canadian Human Resource
Management, 4th Ed. Toronto, ON: McGraw-Hill-Ryerson.
Seccombe, I., Smith, G. (1997). Taking Part: Registered Nurses and the Labour Market in
1997. Institute for Employment Studies, Brighton.
Shamir, B. (1991). Meaning, Self, and Motivation in Organizations. Organization Studies,

12, 405–424.
Shanahan, T. (2000). Thinking Differently to Recruit, Hire and Reduce Turnover. AAHOA
Hospitality, 5(1), 89, 91.
Shaw, J. B. & Mccormick, E. J. (1976). The Prediction of Job Ability Requirements Using
Attribute Data Based upon the Position Analysis Questionnaire Department of
Psychological Sciences, Purdue University.
Shaw, J., Delery, J., Jenkins, G. & Gupta, N. (1998). An Organizational-Level Analysis of
Voluntary and Involuntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 41(5), 511–525
271
Shaw, J. D., Gupta, N., & Delery, J. E. (2002). Voluntary Turnover and Organizational
Performance. Denver, CO: Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of
Management.
Sherman, A., Bohlander, G. & Snell, S. (1998). Managing Human Resources, 11th Ed.
Cincinnati, OH: South Western College Publishing.
Shore, L. M., & Tetrick, L. E. (1994). The psychological contract as an explanatory

framework in the employment relationship. Trends in Organizational Behaviour, 1, 91–
109.
Siegel, G. (1997). Job Analysis in the TQM Environment. Public Personnel Management
Journal, 25, 485–94.
Silverman, S. B., Wexley, K. N., & Johnson, J. C. (1984). The Effects of Age and Job Experience
on Employee Responses to a Structured Job Analysis Questionnaire. Public Personnel
Management Journal, 13, 355-359.
Sims HP, Szilagyi AD, Keller RT (1976). The Measurement of Job Characteristics. Academy
of Management Journal, 19,195-212.
Sims, R.R. (1994). Human Resources Management's Role in Clarifying the New
Psychological Contract. Human Resource Management, 33(3), 373–382.
Sissons, D. (2001). The retention dilemma: Why Productive Workers Leave-Seven

Suggestions for Keeping Them. Hay Insight Corporation. Retrieved 15 March, 2004,
from http://www.slftoronto.com/ userfiles/files/213-0Retenrion.pdf/
Sivasubramanyam, N. & Venkataratnam, C.S. (1998) The Relationship between Human

Resource Management and Firm Performance: The Indian Experience, Paradigm, 1,
135–41.
Slaughter, J. E., Stanton, J. M., Mohr, D. C., & Schoel, W. A. (2005). The Interaction of
Attraction and Selection: Implications for College Recruitment and Schneider’s ASA
Model. Applied Psychology, 54, 419–441.
Smith, J. E., & Hakel, M. D. (1979). Convergence Among Data Sources, Response Bias and
Reliability and Validity of a Structured Job Analysis Questionnaire. Personnel
Psychology, 32,677-692.
Smith, M. (1994). A Theory of the Validity of Predictors in Selection. Journal of

Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67, 13–31.
Smithson, J., & Lewis, S. (2000). Is Job Insecurity Changing the Psychological Contract?
Personnel Review, 29(5– 6), 680–702.
272
Snell, S.A. and Dean, J.W. Jr (1992). Integrated Manufacturing and Human Resource
Management: A Human Capital Perspective, Academy of Management Journal, 35, 467–
504.
Somers, M. (1995). Organizational Commitment, Turnover and Absenteeism: An

Examination of Direct and Interaction Effects. Journal of Organizational Behaviour,
16(1), 49–58.
Spangenberg, H. & Theron, C. (2001). Adapting the Systems Model of Performance

Management to Major Changes in the External and Internal Organizational Environments.
South African Journal of Business Management, 32 (1), 35-47.
Sparrow, P. (2007). Globalization of HR at Function Level: Four Case Studies of the

International Recruitment, Selection and Assessment Process. International Journal of
Spector, P. E., Brannick, M. T., & Coovert, M. D. (1989). Job Analysis. In C. L. Cooper & I.
Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
1989, 281-328. New York: John Wiley.
Stahl, G.K., Miller, E. & Tung, R. (2002). Toward the Boundary less Career: Closer Look at
the Expatriate Career Concept and the Perceived Implications of an International
Assignment. Journal of World Business, 37, 216–227.
Stalcup, L.D., & Thomas P. (2001). A Model of the Causes of Management Turnover in
Hotels. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 25(1), 17-30.
Statt, D. (2004). Psychology and the World of Work (2nd Ed.). New York: Palgrave
MacMillan
Stevens, M. J., & Campion, M. A. (1994). The Knowledge, Skill and Ability Requirements for
Teamwork: Implications for Human Resource Management. Journal of Management,
20,503-530.
Staw, B. M. (1980). The Consequences of Turnover. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 1,

253–273.
Staw, B. M., Bell, N. E., & Clausen, J. A. (1986). The Dispositional Approach to Job
Attitudes: A Lifetime Longitudinal Test. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, 437–453.
Steers RM, Mowday RT. (1977). The Motivational Properties of Tasks. Academy of
Management Review, 2,645-658.
Steers, Richard M. (1977). Antecedents and Outcomes of Organizational Commitment,

Administrative Science Quarterly, 22 (1), 46-56.
273
Steers, R. & Mowday, R. (1981). Employee Turnover and Post-Decision Accommodation
Processes, in L.L. Cummings and B.M. Staw (Eds.), Research in Organizational
Behaviour, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 3, 235–282.
Stern, M. (1999) You’ll Do. Sign here. Canadian Business. 72, 49-52
Stone, E. F., & Gueutal, H. G. (1985). An Empirical Derivation of the Dimensions along
which Characteristics of Jobs are Perceived. Academy of Management Review, 3,945-
958.
Storey, J. & Sisson, K. (1993). Managing Human Resources and Industrial Relations.
Salaman, G. (Ed.). London: Open University Press.
Sullivan, J. (2000). Recruiting and Retaining Key Talent’, Lexington, Mass.: The Center for
Organisational Research.
Sumer, H. C., Su¨ mer, N., Demirutku, K., & C¸ ifci, O. S. (2001). Using a Personality-
Oriented Job Analysis to Identify Attributes to be assessed in Officer Selection. Military
Psychology, 13(3), 129–146.
Susman, G. (1976). Autonomy at Work. New York: Praeger.
Susskind, A.M., Borchgrevink, C.P., Kacmar, K.M. & Brymer, R.A. (2000). Customer
Service Employees' Behavioural Intentions and Attitudes: An Examination. International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 19(1), 53-77.
Tan, F. M. (2008). Organizational Support as the Mediator of Career-Related HRM Practices

and Affective Commitment: Evidence from Knowledge Workers in Malaysia, Research
and Practice in Human Resource Management, 16(2), 8-24.
Taylor, F. W. (1911). The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Norton.
Taylor, M. S., & Bergmann, T. J. (1987). Organizational Recruitment Activities and

Applicants’ Reactions at Different Stages of the Recruitment Process. Personnel
Psychology, 40,261–285.
Taylor, M. S., & Collins, C. J. (2000). Organizational Recruitment: Enhancing the

Intersection of Research and Practice. In C. L. Cooper & E. A. Locke (Eds.), Industrial
and Organizational Psychology: Linking Theory with Practice, 304–334. Malden, MA:
Blackwell Publishers.
Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., & Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality Measures as Predictors of
Job Performance: A Meta-Analytic Review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703–742.
274
Tett, R. & Meyer, J. (1993). ‘Job satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover
Intention, and Turnover: Path Analyses based on Meta-Analytic Findings’. Personnel
Psychology, 46(2), 259–293.
Thite, M. (2001). Help Us but Help Yourself: the paradox of Contemporary Career
Management. Career Development in the Withdrawal Process: An Evaluation of Eight
Structural Equation.
Thompson, P., Baker, R., & Smallwood, N. (1986). Improving Professional Development by
Applying the Four Stage Career Model. Organizational Dynamics, 14, 49–62.
Thompson, A.A., & Strickland, A.J. (2001). Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases,
12th Ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Thompson, J. (1967). Organizations in Action. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tichauer ER. (1978). The Biomechanical Basis of Ergonomics: A Anatomy Applied to the
Design of Work Situations. New York: Wiley.
Torraco, R. J. (2005). Work design theory: A Review and Critique with Implications for
Human Resource Development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16, 85–110.
Toulson, P. & Dewe, P. (2004). ‘HR Accounting as a Management Tool. Human Resources
Management Journal, 14(2), 75–81.
Towers, P. (1992). Priorities for Competitive Advantage: A Worldwide Human Resource

Study. New York: IBM/Towers Perrin.
Trevor, C. (2001). Interactions Among Actual Ease-of-Movement Determinants and Job

Satisfaction in Prediction of Voluntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal,
44(4), 621–638.
Triandis, H. C., Kurowski, L. L., & Gelfand, M. J. (1994). Workplace Diversity. In H. C.

Triandis, M. Dunnette, & L. Hough (Eds.),
Truss, C. (2001). Complexities and Controversies in Linking HRM with Organizational

Outcomes, Journal of Management Studies, 38(8), 1120–1149.
Tsui A.S. Pearce, J. L., Porter, L. W., & Tripoli, A. M. (1997). Alternative Approaches to the
Employee–Organization Relationship: Does Investment in Employees Pay-off? Academy
of Management Journal, 40, 1089–1121.
Tung, R.L. & Worm, V. (2001). Network capitalism: The Role of Human Resources in
Penetrating the China Market. International Journal of Human Resource Management,
12,
275
Turban, D. B., Forret, M. L., & Hendrickson, C. L. (1998). Applicant Attraction to Firms:
Influences of Organization Reputation, Job and Organizational Attributes, and Recruiter
Behaviours. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 52, 24-44.
Turban, D. B., & Cable, D. M. (2003). Firm Reputation and Applicant Pool Characteristics.
Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 24, 733–751.
Tzeng, H. M. (2004). Nurses’ Self-assessment of their Nursing Competencies, Job Demands

and Job Performance in the Taiwan Hospital System. International Journal of Nursing
Studies, 41(5), 487–496.
Tziner, A. (1987). Congruency Issue Retested using Fineman’s Achievement Climate
Notion. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 2, 63–78.
Uhl-Bien, M., Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. A. (2000). Implications of Leader-Member

Exchange (LMX) for Strategic Human Resource Management Systems: Relationships as
Social Capital for Competitive Advantage. Research in Personnel and Human Resource
Ulrich, D., Brockbank, W., Yeung, A. K., & Lake, D. G. (1995). Human Resource
Competencies: An Empirical Assessment. Human Resource Management, 34, 473–495.
Ulrich, D. (1997). Measuring Human Resources: An Overview of Practice and a Prescription

for Results. Human Resources Management, 36, 303–20.
Van Breukelen, Wim, Van der Vlist & Herman Steensma (2004).Voluntary Employee
Turnover: Combining Variables from the ‘Traditional’ Turnover Literature with the
Theory of Planned Behaviour, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 25 (7), 893-914.
Van de Ven, A. H. (1992). Suggestions for Studying Strategy Process: A research note.
Strategic Management Journal, 13, 169–188.
Vecchio, R. P. (1995). The Impact of Referral Sources on Employee Attitudes: Evidence

from a National Sample. Journal of Management, 21, 953–965.
Visser C. F., Altink W. M. M. & Algera J. A. (1997). From Job Analysis to Work Profiling:
do Traditional Procedures Still Apply? In: International Handbook of Selection and
Assessment editions N. Anderson & P. Herriot, 441–454.
Viswesvaran, C., Ones, D. S., & Schmidt, F. L. (1996). Comparative Analysis of the
Reliability of Job Performance Ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 557–574.
Viswesvaran C., Schmidt F.L. & Ones D.S. (2005). Is there a General Factor in Ratings of
Job Performance? A Meta-Analytic Framework for Disentangling Substantive and Error
Influences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90,108–131.
276
Wade-Benzoni, K. A. (2006). Legacies, Immortality and the Future: The Psychology of
Intergenerational Altruism. In A. E. Tenbrunsel (Ed.), Research in Managing Groups and
Teams: Ethics in Groups, 8, 247–270.London: Elsevier.
Walker, Orville C., Gilbert A. Churchill Jr., & Neil M. Ford (1977). Motivation and
Performance in Industrial Selling: Present Knowledge and Needed Research, Journal of
Marketing Research, 14 (May), 156–68.
Walker, J. (1998). Do We Need Succession Planning Anymore? Human Resource Planning,

21(13), 9-12.
Wall, T. D., Corbett, J. M., Clegg, C. W., & Jackson, P. R. (1990). Advanced Manufacturing
Technology and Work Design: Towards a Theoretical Framework. Journal of
Organizational Behaviour, 11, 201–219.
Wall, T. D., Jackson, P. R., & Davids, K. (1992). Operator Work Design and Robotics
System Performance: A Serendipitous Field Study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77,
353–362.
Wall, T. D., & Jackson, P. R. (1995). New Manufacturing Initiatives and Shop Floor Job
Design. In A. Howard (Ed.), The Changing Nature of Work. San Francisco: Jossey Bass
Wall, T. D., Cordery, J. L., & Clegg, C. W. (2002). Empowerment, Performance and
Operational Uncertainty: A Theoretical Integration. Journal of Applied Psychology, 51,
149–169.
Wanous, J.P. (1977). Organizational Entry: Newcomers Moving from Outside to Inside.
Psychological Bulletin, 2, 601–618.
Wanous, J.P. (1992). Organizational Entry: Recruitment, Selection, Orientation and

Socialization of Newcomers (2nd Ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Hudy, M. J. (1997). Overall Job Satisfaction: How Good
are Single-Item Measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 247–252.
Warr, P. B. (1989). Work, Unemployment and Mental Health. Oxford University Press, UK:
Wasti, S. Arzu (2003). Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intentions and the Influence
of Cultural Values, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76 (3), 303-
321.
Waterman, R.H., Waterman, J.A. and Collard, B.A. (1994). Toward a Career Resilient
Workforce. Harvard Business Review, July–August, 87–95.
Watson, T. (2004). HRM and Critical Social Science Analysis, Journal of Management
Studies, 41(3), 447–67.
277
Watson R. & Thompson D.R. (2006) Using Factor Analysis in Journal of Advanced Nursing:
A literature Review. Journal of Advanced Nursing 55, 330–341.
Watts A. & Green S. (2004) Agenda for Change–The Largest Ever Planned Change. Nursing
Management, 10(9), 10–11.
Weiner, S. P. (2000). Worldwide technical recruiting in IBM: Research and Action. In P. D.

Bachiochi (Chair), Attracting and Keeping Top Talent in the High-Tech Industry.
Practitioner Forum at the Fifteenth Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.
Welbourne T.M. & Trevor C.O. (2000). The Roles of Departmental and Position Power in
Job Evaluation. Academy of Management Journal, 43(4), 761–771.
Welford AT. (1976). Skilled Performance: Perceptual and Motor Skills. Glenview. IL: Scott-
Foresman.
Wernimont, P. F. and Campbell, J. P. (1968). Signs, Samples, and Criteria. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 52, 372-376.
Werther W.B. & Davis K. (1993). Human Resources and Personnel Management. New
York: McGraw-Hill,
Wexley, K. N., & Silverman, S. B. (1978). An Examination of Differences between Managing

Real Effectiveness and Response Patterns on a Structured Job Analysis Questionnaire.
Wexley, K. N., & Yukl, G. A. (1984). Organizational Behaviour and Personnel Psychology (2nd
Ed.). Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Williams, C. R., Labig, C. E., & Stone, T. H. (1993). Recruitment Sources and Post-Hire
Outcomes for Job Applicants and New Hires: A Test of Two Hypotheses. Journal of
Williams, K. J., DeNisi, A. S., Blencoe, A. G., & Cafferty, T. P. (1985). The Role of
Appraisal Purposes: Effects of Purpose on Information Acquisition and Utilization.
Organizational Behaviour and Human Resource Decision Processes, 35, 314–339.
Wolfaardt, J.B. (2001). Basic Concepts. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds), An Introduction to
Psychological Assessment in the South African Context, 34-66. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.
Wright, P.M., Kacmar, K.M., McMahan, G.C. & Deleeuw, K. (1995). P=f (MxA): Cognitive
Ability as a Moderator of the Relationship between Personality and Job Performance.
Journal of Management, 21(6), 1129-1139.
278
Wright, P.M., McMahan, G.C., McCormick, B. & Sherman, W.S. (1998). Strategy, Core
Competence, and HR Involvement as Determinants of HR Effectiveness and Refinery
Performance. Human Resource Management, 37, 17–29.
Wright, P M., Mcgormick, B., Sherman, W. & Mcmahan, G. (1999). The Role of Human
Resource Practices in Petro-Chemical Refinery Performance. International Journal of
Human Resource Management, 10(4), 551-571
Wright, P. & Sherman, S. (1999). Failing to Find Fit in Strategic Human Resource
Management: Theoretical and Empirical Problems, Research in Personnel and Human
Resources Management, 4, 53–74.
Wright, P. (2001). Avery Dennison’s Strategic HR Metrics: Measure Now, Perfect Later,
Strategic HR Review, Launch issue, 22–4.
Wright, T. A., & Bonett, D. G. (2002). The Moderating Effects of Employee Tenure on the
Relation between Organizational Commitment and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1183–1190.
Wright, P., Gardner, M. & Moynihan, L. (2003). ‘The Impact of HR Practices on the
Performance of Business Units. Human Resources Management Journal, 13(4), 21–36.
Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C. R., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, Careers and
Callings: People’s Relations to their Work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 21–
33.
Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. E. (2001). Crafting A Job: Revisioning Employees as Active
Crafters of their Work. Academy of Management Review, 26, 179–201.
Wynekoop, J.L. & Walz, D.B. (2000) Investigating Traits of Top Performing Software
Developers. Information Technology & People, 13(3), 186–95.
Yitzhak Fried; et. ( 2007 ). Job design in temporal context: a career dynamics perspective.
Journal of organizational behaviour. 28 (7), 911-927
Young, S. M. (1992). A Framework for Successful Adoption and Performance of Japanese

Manufacturing Practices in the U.S. Academy of Management Review, 17, 677-700.
Zaccaro, S. J., & Stone, E. F. (1988). Incremental Validity of an Empirically based measure
of Job Characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(2), 245–252.
Zedeck, S., & Cascio, W. F. (1982). Performance Appraisal Decisions as a Function of Rater
Training and Purpose of the Appraisal. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 752–758.
279
Appendix - A
Variable items with alpha
Job Analysis Q. No ALPHA
How important is job analysis to conduct? ( JA 1) 11 a N/A
How often your organization conducted job analysis( JA2) 11 b N/A
Job Design
I like my job because it allows me to be creative S 27
My job allows me to work in my own style S 28
I can take responsibility for my work as there is no S 29 .78
interference ( 5 items )
I can discuss my job related issues with my supervisor S 38
My superiors listen to my suggestions regarding my job S 40
Job Evaluation
I joined this job because it pays well S 31 .62
My job meets my financial needs S 34 ( 2 items)
Job Security
If I perform well I will not loose my present job S 13
If I fail to perform to the satisfaction of my supervisor, I will S 14
loose my job
I perform better once I feel secure in my job S 23 .60
I perform better once I feel that is needed to keep my S 24 ( 5 items )
present job
I joined this job because it is secure S 30
Job Succession
Planning
I will get promoted to the next grade in any case S 15
My promotion to the next grade is subject to my good S 16
performance
I see a career path to my present job S 17
I will have to enhance my present knowledge base to get S 18 .73
promoted ( 6 items )
I require improving my skills to perform well on the higher S 19
post
I joined this job because it has a regular career path S 32

Recruitment
The job demands and the level of eligibility/experience as S1
advertised/announced match
Considering the time spent, I realize the functions match S2
the job portfolio/position
I believe I have enough knowledge about the job S3 .73
I possess the abilities to perform my present duties S4 ( 5 items )
I have mastery of the specific skills that I need to S5
successfully perform the tasks related to my present job
280
Job Performance
My present job gives me the opportunity to enhance my S6
performance on job
My present job has a direct impact on achieving the S7
organizational objectives
My job performance outcomes are consistent with the S8
goals of the organization .77
My good performance on job is rewarded financial terms S9 ( 6 items )
My good performance on job is given formal appreciation S 10
by the higher ups
The job performance evaluation system is objective S 11
Job Satisfaction
My present job gives me internal satisfaction S 22
I am respected because of my job S 35
My job gives me a sense of fulfillment S 36
I can seek my peers help regarding my job S 39 .72
I will recommend this job to a friend if it is advertised S 41 ( 6 items )
/announced
I feel cared for by my organization S 42
Retention
I will continue in my present job even if I am paid less S 21
Had my job met my expectations I would have given it my S 25
best.
I like my job because it is totally monotonous in nature S 26 .57
I joined this job because I had no other options S 33 ( 6 items )
I can consider changing my job in the next 12 months S 37
I would like to reach my superannuation in my present S 43
organization
N/A: Not applicable being single item.
281
APPENDIX-B
JOB ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE

Name: _________________________ Designation: _______________________
Organization: _________________________ Department/Section _______________________
Grade: _________________________ Date: ----------------------------
PERSONAL DATA
Your highest level of Education
Q.1 Your age (Years) Q.2
(Pl. specify discipline)
1. Under 25 1. Ph.D ________________________________
2. 25-35 2. Master Degree ________________________
3. 35-45 3. B.Sc Engineering_______________________
4. 45-55 4. Graduation. ___________________________
5. 55-60 5. Intermediate __________________________
6. Above 60 6. Matriculation __________________________
Q.3 Your Gender Q.4 Number of years in present organization
1. Male 1. Less than 1 2. 1-2
2. Female 3. 3-5 4. 6-10
5. Over 10
Q.5 Job Status Q.6 Number of years in your present position.
1. Permanent 1 Less than 1 2 1-2
2. Contractual 3 3-5 4 6-10
3. Deputation 5 Over 10
4. Daily Wager
Q.7 Job Category Q.8 Mode of appointment in current position.
1 Technical 1. Direct recruitment
2 Managerial/Admn. 2. Promotion
3 Any Other 3. Deputation
Q.9 Job level Q.10 Your services/recruitment matters are being dealt by
1. Top Management 1. HR Department
2. Middle Management 2. Any other ________________________________
3. Supervisor
4. Non-managerial
GENERAL PURPOSE OF THE POSITION
Indicate in one or two lines the general purpose of the position (or why this job exists)
282
SUMMARY OF RESPONSIBILITYES/DUTIES
Describe specific job responsibilities/duties, listing the most important first.

1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
Question.3: JOB ANALYSIS Tick the relevant circle
0 1 2 3 4 5
I) How important is job Not Somewhat Very Extremely Essential at the time
Important
analysis to conduct? important important important important of recruitment only
How often your 0 1 2 3 4 5

II) organization
conducted job Not Every two After every After four to When it is felt
Every year
analysis: Performed year three year five year essential
Tab
le 1
1. Before joining my present job I knew about the organization Yes No
2. Before joining my present position I knew the job –specific functions to perform Yes No
3. I was interviewed by the organization’s own board Yes No
4. I was selected by a panel other than the organization Yes No
The formal job advertisement/announcement delineated the specific requirements

5. Yes No
for the job
6. I know now that the interviewing board/body consisted of job related experts also Yes No
I was asked during the selection process to demonstrate, justify or prove my level of
7. Yes No
abilities to perform the job well
283
Strongly Neither agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
Disagree nor disagree Agree
The job demands and the level of eligibility/experience as

1. 1 2 3 4 5
advertised/announced match
Considering the time spent, I realize the functions match
2. 1 2 3 4 5
the job portfolio/position
3. I believe I have enough knowledge about the job 1 2 3 4 5
4. I possess the abilities to perform my present duties 1 2 3 4 5
I have mastery of the specific skills that I need to

5. 1 2 3 4 5
successfully perform the tasks related to my present job
My present job gives me the opportunity to enhance my
6. 1 2 3 4 5
performance on job
My present job has a direct impact on achieving the
7. 1 2 3 4 5
organizational objectives
My job performance outcomes are consistent with the
8. 1 2 3 4 5
goals of the organization
9. My good performance on job is rewarded financial terms 1 2 3 4 5
My good performance on job is given formal appreciation

10. 1 2 3 4 5
by the higher ups
11. The job performance evaluation system is objective 1 2 3 4 5
Before finalizing his/her formal annual/ periodical report

12. 1 2 3 4 5
my supervisor discusses my performance with me
13. If I perform well I will not loose my present job 1 2 3 4 5
If I fail to perform to the satisfaction of my supervisor, I

14. 1 2 3 4 5
will loose my job
15. I will get promoted to the next grade in any case 1 2 3 4 5
My promotion to the next grade is subject to my good

16. 1 2 3 4 5
performance
17. I see a career path to my present job 1 2 3 4 5
I will have to enhance my present knowledge base to get

18. 1 2 3 4 5
promoted
I require improving my skills to perform well on the higher
19. 1 2 3 4 5
post
My present abilities match a higher grade than required
20. 1 2 3 4 5
by my present job
21. I will continue in my present job even if I am paid less 1 2 3 4 5
22. My present job gives me internal satisfaction 1 2 3 4 5
23. I perform better once I feel secure in my job 1 2 3 4 5
284
Strongly Neither agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
Disagree nor disagree Agree
I perform better once I feel that is needed to keep my

24. 1 2 3 4 5
present job
Had my job met my expectations I would have given it my
25. 1 2 3 4 5
best
26. I like my job because it totally monotonous in nature 1 2 3 4 5
27. I like my job because it allows me to be creative 1 2 3 4 5
28. My job allows me to work in my own style 1 2 3 4 5
I can take responsibility for my work as there is no

29. 1 2 3 4 5
interference
30. I joined this job because it is secure 1 2 3 4 5
31. I joined this job because it pays well 1 2 3 4 5
32. I joined this job because it has a regular career path 1 2 3 4 5
33. I joined this job because I had no other options 1 2 3 4 5
34. My job meets my financial needs 1 2 3 4 5
35. I am respected because of my job 1 2 3 4 5
36. My job gives me a sense of fulfillment 1 2 3 4 5
37. I can consider changing my job in the next 12 months 1 2 3 4 5
38. I can discuss my job related issues with my supervisor 1 2 3 4 5
39. I can seek my peers help regarding my job 1 2 3 4 5
40. My superiors listen to my suggestions regarding my job 1 2 3 4 5
I will recommend this job to a friend if it is advertised

41. 1 2 3 4 5
/announced
42. I feel cared for by my organization 1 2 3 4 5
I would like to reach my superannuation in my present

43. 1 2 3 4 5
organization
SIGNATURE:
285
APPENDIX- C
Figure 4.11 Scattered diagram Job analysis 1( JA 1 ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.00
3.00
JA1
2.00
1.00
0.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

JP
Figure 4.12 Scattered diagram Job analysis 2 ( JA 1 ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.00
3.00
JA2
2.00
1.00
0.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

286
JP
Figure 4.13 Scattered diagram Job design ( JD ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.00
JD
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

JP
Figure 4.14 Scattered diagram Job evaluation ( JE ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.00
JE
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

JP
287
Figure 4.15 Scattered diagram Job security ( JS ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.50
4.00
JS
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

JP
Figure 4.16 Scattered diagram Job succession planning ( JSP ) and Job performance
( JP )
5.00
4.00
JSP
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

288
JP
Figure 4.17 Scattered diagram recruitment ( Rec ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.00
Rec
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

JP
Figure 4.18 Scattered diagram Job satisfaction ( JStn ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.50
4.00
JStn
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
289
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
JP
Figure 4.19 Scattered diagram Job retention ( Rtn ) and Job performance ( JP )
5.00
4.00
Rtn
3.00
2.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

JP
290
Figure 4.20 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job analysis 1( JA 1 )
Figure 4.20
250
200
Frequency
150
100
50
Mean = 2.8327
Std. Dev. = 0.99656
N = 568
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
JA1
Figure 4.21 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job analysis 2 ( JA 2 )
200
150
Frequency
100
50
Mean = 2.1866
Std. Dev. = 2.1423
N = 568
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
291
JA2
Figure 4.22 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job succession planning ( JSP )
80
60
Frequency
40
20
Mean = 3.5725
Std. Dev. = 0.66371
N = 568
0
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
JSP
Figure 4.23 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job security ( JS )
120
100
80
Frequency
60
40
20
Mean = 3.6669
Std. Dev. = 0.58929
N = 568
0
2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
JS
292
Figure 4.24 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job design ( JD )
100
80
Frequency
60
40
20
Mean = 3.6278
Std. Dev. = 0.70623
N = 568
0
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
JD
Figure 4.25 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job performance ( JP )
100
80
Frequency
60
40
20
Mean = 3.6846
Std. Dev. = 0.65497
N = 568
0
2.00 4.00
JP
293
Figure 4.26 Histogram of Frequency distribution of recruitment ( Rec )
150
120
Frequency
90
60
30
Mean = 4.0602
Std. Dev. = 0.52099
N = 568
0
2.00 4.00
Rec
Figure 4.27 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job satisfaction ( JStn )
100
80
Frequency
60
40
20
Mean = 3.7063
Std. Dev. = 0.57142
N = 568
0
2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
JStn
294
Figure 4.28 Histogram of Frequency distribution of Job retention ( Rtn )
100
80
Frequency
60
40
20
Mean = 3.1684
Std. Dev. = 0.59835
N = 568
0
2.00 3.00 4.00
Rtn
295
Appendix-D
Descriptive Statistics of all variables of Pakistan Telecommunication Authority
( PTA )
JA1 JA2 JD JE JS JSP JP Rect JStn Rtn
Mean 2.80 2.54 3.76 3.63 3.76 3.60 3.70 1.18 3.53 3.53
Standard 0.07 0.15 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.05
Error
Standard 1.01 2.07 0.44 0.59 0.59 0.71 0.74 0.26 0.67 0.76
Deviation
Count ( N ) 179 179 179 179 179 179 179 179 179 179
Descriptive Statistics of all variables of Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory

Authority ( PEMRA )
Mean 3.35 2.10 3.80 3.67 3.77 3.44 3.74 1.10 3.43 3.32
Standard 0.13 0.33 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.08 0.09
Error
Standard 0.91 2.35 0.37 0.57 0.50 0.69 0.42 0.20 0.54 0.68
Deviation
Count ( N ) 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48
Descriptive Statistics of all variables of National Electric Power Regulatory

Authority ( NEPRA )
Mean 2.94 1.62 3.91 3.32 3.90 3.76 3.54 1.27 3.52 3.14
Standard 0.17 0.41 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.14 0.13 0.06 0.12 0.11
Error
Standard 0.98 2.37 0.45 0.59 0.49 0.81 0.75 0.33 0.70 0.63
Deviation
Count ( N ) 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34
296
Descriptive Statistics of all variables of STATE BANK
Mean 2.75 2.11 3.70 3.45 3.58 3.43 3.58 1.17 3.34 3.38
Standard 0.06 0.13 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.04
Error
Standard 1.00 2.08 0.47 0.65 0.62 0.74 0.51 0.28 0.63 0.65
Deviation
Count ( N ) 241 241 241 241 241 241 241 241 241 241
Descriptive Statistics of all variables of Security Exchange commission of Pakistan

( SECP )
Mean 2.62 1.32 3.67 3.33 3.63 3.43 3.63 1.13 3.38 3.39
Standard 0.18 0.31 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.05 0.08 0.10
Error
Standard 1.07 1.82 0.39 0.57 0.48 0.62 0.47 0.30 0.49 0.64
Deviation
Count ( N ) 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34
Descriptive Statistics of all variables of Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority

( OGRA )
Mean 2.96 2.43 3.56 3.30 3.44 3.49 3.47 1.08 3.05 3.10
Standard 0.10 0.42 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.03 0.07 0.09
Error
Standard 0.59 2.40 0.54 0.54 0.51 0.67 0.43 0.18 0.42 0.53
Deviation
Count ( N ) 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
JA 1 Importance of Job analysis JA 2 Job Analysis conducted JD Job Design

JE Job Evaluation JS Job Security JP Job Performance
JSP Job Succession Planing JStn Job Satisfaction JRtn Job Retention
Rect Recruitment
297
Appendix- E
Durbin-Watson Value
Durbin value shown in the last column in the model summary as a result of entering of
the independent and dependent variables in regression analysis reflects whether the
assumption of independent errors is tenable. The closer to 2 that the value is, the better.
Variables Entered
Model Variables Entered Variables Removed Method
1 JA1, JA2(a) . Enter
a All requested variables entered.
b Dependent Variable: JP
JA 1 Importance of Job analysis, JA 2 Job analysis conducted (Independent variables)

JP Job performance ( Dependent variable )
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .198(a) .039 .036 .64317 1.855
a Predictors: (Constant), JA1, JA2
Variables Entered
1 JD(a) . Enter
JD Job design (Independent variable)

Model Summary
1 .528(a) .279 .277 .55682 1.930
a Predictors: (Constant), JD
298
Variables Entered
1 JE(a) . Enter
JE Job evaluation (Independent variable)

Model Summary
1 .319(a) .102 .100 .62134 1.828
a Predictors: (Constant), JE
Variables Entered
1 JS(a) . Enter
JS Job Security (Independent variable)

Model Summary
1 .455(a) .207 .206 .58369 1.950
a Predictors: (Constant), JS
Variables Entered
1 JSP(a) . Enter
JSP Job Succession Planning (Independent variable)

299
Model Summary
1 .557(a) .310 .309 .54449 1.804
a Predictors: (Constant), JSP
Variables Entered
1 JStn(a) . Enter
JStn Job Satisfaction (Independent variable)

Model Summary
1 .518(a) .268 .267 .56078 1.922
a Predictors: (Constant), JStn
Variables Entered
1 Rtn(a) . Enter
Rtn Job Retention (Independent variable)

Model Summary
1 .230(a) .053 .051 .63791 1.887
a Predictors: (Constant), Rtn
300
Variables Entered
1 Rtn, JA1, JA2, JE, JD, JS, JStn, JSP(a) . Enter
Rtn : Job Retention JA 1: Importance of Job analysis, JA 2 : Job analysis conducted

JE: Job evaluation JD: Job design JS: Job satisfaction JSP: Job Succession Planning
(Independent variables)
Model Summary
1 .659(a) .434 .426 .49616 1.876
a Predictors: (Constant), Rtn, JA1, JA2, JE, JD, JS, JStn, JSP
Durbin-Watson Value by adding recruitment
Variables Entered
1 JA1,JA2 (a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
Model Summary
1 .198(a) .039 .036 .64317
2 .483(b) .233 .229 .57507 1.903
a Predictors: (Constant), JA2, JA1
b Predictors: (Constant), JA2, JA1, Rec
c Dependent Variable: JP
301
Variables Entered
1 JD(a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
Model Summary
1 .528(a) .279 .277 .55682
2 .632(b) .399 .397 .50872 2.001
a Predictors: (Constant), JD
b Predictors: (Constant), JD, Rec
Variables Entered
1 JE(a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
Model Summary
1 .319(a) .102 .100 .62134
2 .557(b) .310 .308 .54492 1.933
a Predictors: (Constant), JE
b Predictors: (Constant), JE, Rec
Variables Entered
1 JS(a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
302
Model Summary
1 .455(a) .207 .206 .58369
2 .587(b) .345 .343 .53108 2.017
a Predictors: (Constant), JS
b Predictors: (Constant), JS, Rec
Variables Entered
1 JSP(a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
Model Summary
1 .557(a) .310 .309 .54449
2 .680(b) .462 .460 .48117 1.933
a Predictors: (Constant), JSP
b Predictors: (Constant), JSP, Rec
Variables Entered
1 JStn(a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
Model Summary
1 .518(a) .268 .267 .56078
2 .638(b) .407 .405 .50525 2.016
a Predictors: (Constant), JStn
b Predictors: (Constant), JStn, Rec
303
Variables Entered
1 Rtn(a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
Model Summary
1 .230(a) .053 .051 .63791
2 .504(b) .254 .252 .56662 1.966
a Predictors: (Constant), Rtn
b Predictors: (Constant), Rtn, Rec
Variables Entered
1 Rtn, JA1, JA2, JE, JD, JS, JStn, JSP(a) . Enter
2 Rec(a) . Enter
Model Summary
Change Statistics
Std. Error
R Adjusted Sig. F Durbin-
Model R of the R Square F
Square R Square df1 df2 Change Watson
Estimate Change Change
1 .659(a) .434 .426 .49616 .434 53.633 8 559 .000

2 .732(b) .536 .528 .44988 .101 121.916 1 558 .000 1.981
a Predictors: (Constant), Rtn, JA1, JA2, JE, JD, JS, JStn, JSP
b Predictors: (Constant), Rtn, JA1, JA2, JE, JD, JS, JStn, JSP, Rec
304
Appendix-F
DIRECTOR GENERAL (F&A)
Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority Job Description
(PEMRA)
Job Title Grade Ref. No.

DG (Finance &Administration) PS-10 101
Department Location Reports to
Finance & Administration Islamabad Executive Member
Main Purpose of the Job:

Overall responsible for financial, administrative and human resource matters of PEMRA.
Develop a strategic plan to advance the PEMRA mission and objectives and to promote
revenue, profitability and growth. Oversee PEMRA operations to ensure productivity,
efficiency, quality, service, and cost-effective management of resources.
Main Tasks & Responsibilities:
• Direct and coordinate PEMRA financial, administrative ad human resources functions.

• Develop a strategic plan to advance the PEMRA's goals and objectives and to generate
revenue and growth as an organization.
• Oversee PEMRA operations to ensure productivity, efficiency, quality, service, and
cost-effective management of resources.
• Effectively manage the human resources of the organization according to personnel
policies and procedures that fully conform to the rules and regulations.
• To facilitate creation of conducive work environment and providing opportunities for
development & motivation of human resources.
• Plan, develop, and implement strategies for generating resources and/or revenues for
the PEMRA.
• Approve/ sanction PEMRA operational procedures, policies, and standards.
• Review activity reports and financial statements to determine progress and status in
attaining objectives and revise objectives and plans in accordance with current
conditions.
• Establish and implement short- and long-term goals, objectives, policies and operating
procedures.
• Formulate and propose amendments in policies and procedures.
• Evaluate performance of staff for compliance with established policies and objectives
of the PEMRA and contributions in attaining objectives.
• Promote PEMRA through written articles and personal appearances at conferences
and on radio and TV.
• Represent PEMRA at legislative sessions, committee meetings, and at formal
functions.
• Promote PEMRA to local, regional, national, and international constituencies.
• Oversee regional offices operations to evaluate operating and financial performance.
• Other duties as assigned.
305
Knowledge and Skill Requirements:
Knowledge of financial management, administrative policies ad procedures, contracting,

negotiating, and change management. Skill in examining the cases and approvals as per
policies and procedures. Experience in formulating policy, and developing and implementing
new strategies and procedures. Ability to develop financial plans and manage resources.
Ability to analyze and interpret financial data. Knowledge of public relations principles and
practices. Knowledge of communication and public relation techniques. Ability to develop
and deliver presentations. Ability to identify and secure funding/revenue sources. Ability to
communicate and interact with officers/officials and to work effectively with a wide range of
constituencies. Ability to motivate staff and simultaneously manage several wings. 2nd Class
or Grade’C’ MBA/M.Sc/M.A /LLB or BSc Engineering in relevant discipline with fifteen
years of work experience.
306
GENERAL MANAGER (HUMAN RESOURCES)
(PEMRA)

GM (Human Resources) PS-9 106
Human Resources. Islamabad Director General (F&A)

Responsible for all Human Resources matters of PEMRA. Provide guidance and coordination
of PEMRA Human Resource functions. Develop and implement corporate Human Resource
strategy and programs. Implementation of Human Resource Information System( HRIS)

• Coordinate actions effectively relative to the Human Resources activities, ensuring
consistency in the application of PEMRA rules and regulations.
• Preparation of recruitment process and hiring of staff accordingly.
• Job analysis, job specifications and preparation of job description.
• Staff recruiting and interviewing, preparation of minutes of meeting and offer letters.
• Supervise and maintenance of Human Resource Information System ( HRIS )
• Identifying training needs assessments and plan training of staff.
• Create and implement PEMRA training and organizational development plans to meet
personal, professional, and organizational needs of PEMRA employees.
• Evaluate procedures and technology solutions to improve human resources
information system.
• Administering and supervising all benefits, including medical plans, insurance,
TA/DA and special awards.
• Develop, review HR policy and procedure for recruitment, promotion and career path.
• Plan and implement compensation and rewards for the motivation of staff.
• Orientation plan for newly employed.
• Provide information on conditions of service, duties and responsibilities, and
privileges and entitlements under the PEMRA Rules and Regulations.
• Recommend and maintain an organizational structure and staffing levels to
accomplish PEMRA goals and objectives.
• Evaluate PEMRA culture and provide recommendations on changes to accomplish
PEMRA goals and objectives.
• Evaluate and recommend human resource outsourcing opportunities and identify
potential trainers/consultants.
• Review and updating of PEMRA Employees Regulations in the light of Government
instructions.
• Any other duties as assigned.
307
Knowledge of human resource functions, HR policies, recruitment and selection, training and
development, Performance appraisal and compensations. Knowledge of Government rules
and regulations. Strong interpersonal and communication skills. Ability to analyze data and
provide recommendations. MBA major in human resource management with ten years of
human resource management experience.
308
DEPUTY GENERAL MANAGER (TECHNICAL)
(PEMRA)

DGM (Technical) PS-8 121
Technical Wing. Islamabad Director General(Technical)
Assist Director General (Technical) in technical matters related with the Satellite TV
broadcast stations, multipoint multichannel distribution service (MMDS), internet protocol
television (IPTV) and Mobile TV and issuance of licencing and temporary uplinking
permissions thereof. Prepare technical and regulatory plans to advance the PEMRA mission
and objectives and to promote revenue, profitability and growth.

• Preparing recommendations to envisage new trends and technologies in the regulatory
ambit of PEMRA.
• Identification of new technologies related to broadcast and distribution services.
• Providing assistance to the stakeholders related to the technical aspects of the project.
• Preparation of Terms of Reference for studies and market surveys.
• Assist in carrying out all related procedures for licensing of satellite TV channels,
internet protocol TV, MMDS, Mobile TV and DTH.
• Submission of the cases of temporary uplinking permissions.
• Carry out frequency planning for wireless terrestrial broadcast and distribution
services in coordination with Frequency Allocation Board.
• Rendering technical input and processing of cases for import of broadcast /
distribution equipment.
• Participates in public hearing and content presentation for the issuance of satellite TV
licences as a member of Evaluation Committee.
• Liaison with stakeholders. Ministries, Organizations and Departments on related
matters.
• Preparing respective working papers.
• Preparing comments for Frequency Allocation Board meetings.
• Preparation of comments/answers on Starred / Un-starred National Assembly
Questions related to the Technical Wing.
• Maintaining up-to-date status and record related to licensees and cases under process.
• Miscellaneous cases related to the licensees.
• Other duties as assigned.
309
Knowledge of regulatory matters, cable television system, Satellite TV, MMDS, uplinking
and broadcasting services. Good knowledge in regulatory affairs. Manages client interaction
for multiple or large-scale development efforts. Anticipates clients needs and proposes
alternative technical solutions. Bachelors Degree in Electrical, Electronics or
Telecommunication Engineering with five years of work experience.
310
ASSISTANT GENERAL MANAGER (IT)
(PEMRA)

AGM (Information Technology) PS-7 147
Information Technology. Islamabad Director General (P&P)

Responsible for all Information technology matters of PEMRA. To ensure development and
smooth functioning of user friendly computer applications systems. Install setup and monitor
local area network (LAN). Perform a variety of installation, maintenance work to ensure LAN
performance meets PEMRA and user requirements.
• Installation of computers, network hardware, peripheral equipment and software.

• Administer network workstations, utilizing one or more TCP/IP or non-TCP/IP
networking protocols and/or one or more UNIX-based or non-UNIX based operating
systems.
• Attending user problems, identify their source, determine possible solutions, test and
implement solutions.
• Install, configure, and maintain personal computers, Novell networks, UNIX
workstations, file servers, network cabling and other related equipment, devices, and
systems.
• Adds or upgrades and configures modems, disk drives, data acquisition boards, CD
ROM units, printers, and related equipment.
• Perform and/or oversee software and application development, installation, and
upgrades.
• Maintain site licenses for department/organization.
• Plan and implement network security, including building firewalls, managing host
security, file permissions, backup and disaster recovery plans, file system integrity,
and adding and deleting users.
• Troubleshoot networks, systems, and applications to identify and correct malfunctions
and other operational difficulties.
• Develop and arrange training for system users on operating systems, relational
databases, and other applications; assist users in maximizing use of networks and
computing systems.
• Anticipate communication and networking problems and implement preventive
measures.
• Establish and perform maintenance programs following vendor standards.
• Maintain confidentiality with regard to the information being processed, stored or
accessed by the network.
• Any other duties as assigned.
311
Knowledge of hardware equipments and softwares. Ability to process computer data to

generate reports. Ability to implement and troubleshoot programming changes and
modifications Ability to learn and support new systems and applications. MBA/IT, MCS with
five years of experience.
312

Impact of Job Analysis On Job Performance: A Study of Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Impact of Job Analysis On Job Performance: A Study of Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Impact of Job Analysis On Job Performance: A Study of Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

IMPACT OF JOB ANALYSIS ON JOB

PERFORMANCE: A STUDY OF PUBLIC

Muhammad Safdar Rehman

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES

Muhammad Safdar Rehman

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

FACULTY OF ADVANCED INTEGRATED STUDIES AND RESEARCH

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES, ISLAMABAD

Thanks to all my colleagues in Pakistan Scientific and Technological Information Centre,

Muhammad Safdar Rehman

DISSERTATION AND DEFENSE APPROVAL FORM

Submitted By: Muhammad Safdar Rehman Registration #: 326- PhD /MS/2005

Dr. Hamid Rafiq Khattak ______________________________

Prof. Dr. Shazra Munnawar ______________________________

Prof. Dr. Aziz Ahmad Khan ______________________________

June 30, 2010

I Muhammad Safdar Rehman

Son of Mr. Abdul Rehman Sohalvi ( Late )

Registration No 326- PhD/MS/2005

Discipline Management Sciences

Candidate of Doctor of Philosophy at the National University of Modern Languages do

submitted by me in partial fulfillment of PhD degree in discipline/department Faculty of

I also understand that if evidence of plagiarism is found in my dissertation at any stage,

Muhammad Safdar Rehman

Results supported the HR-Performance conceptual model by showing significant impact

1.1.2 Why Conduct a Job Analysis? 5

1.1.3 Implications for Jobs and Job Analysis 8

1.2 JOB PERFORMANCE 9

1.3 RECRUITMENT PROCESS 13

1.4 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH 17

1.4.2 Specific aims 17

1.5 EMPIRICAL STUDY 18

1.6 THE PROBLEM STATEMENT 19

1.7 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES 20

1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY 21

1.9 PUBLIC SECTOR REFORMS IN PAKISTAN 24

1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 26

1.11 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 28

CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW 29

2.2 JOB DESIGN 35

2.4 JOB SECURITY 43

2.5 JOB SUCCESSION PLANNING 47

2.6 EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT 51

2.7 JOB PERFORMANCE 57

2.8 JOB SATISFACTION 61

2.9 JOB RETENTION 67

2.10 RESEARCH MODEL 71

CHAPTER 3 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 72

3.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH STUDY 72

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN 74

3.4 OPERATIONALIZATION OF RESEARCH MODEL AND 79

3.6 SAMPLE AND RESPONSE RATE 87

3.7 DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENTATION 89

3.8 DATA ANALYSIS 89

3.8.2 Means and Standard Deviations 90

3.8.4 Factor Analysis 92

3.8.5 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling 93

3.8.7 Regression Analysis 94

3.8.8 Multiple Regression Analysis 96