Chapter-2 (Simple Harmonic Motion)

In everyday life we come across numerous things that move. These motions are of two
types, viz. (i) the motion in which the body moves about a mean position i.e. a fixed point and (ii)
the motion in which the body moves from one place to the other with respect to time. The first
type of motion of a body about a mean position is called oscillatory motion. A moving train, flying
aero plane, moving ball etc., correspond to the second type of motion, Examples of oscillatory
motion are: an oscillating pendulum, vibrations of a stretched string, movement of water in a cup,
vibration of electrons, movement of light in a laser beam etc.
Sometimes both the types of motion are exhibited in the same phenomenon depending on our
point of view. The sea waves appear to move towards the beach but the water moves up and
down about the mean position. When a stretched rope is displaced, the displacement pulse
travels from one end to the other but the material of the rope vibrates about the mean position
without travelling forward.

Wave and wave motions: Wave is a form of disturbance which travels through the
elastic medium due to the repeated periodic motion of the particles of the medium. For example,
when we drop a pebble into a pond of still water, a few circular ripples (disturbances) move
outwards on the surface of the water. As these circular ripples spread out, energy is being carried
with them. Fig-1 below shows circular ripples.

Fig-1: Circular ripples Fig-2: Generating waves by rope.

Source of waves: The source of any wave is a vibration or oscillation. For example, we can
produce waves on a rope by fixing one end to a wall and moving the other end up and down as
shown in Fig-2.The up and down movements make up the vibrations and oscillations.
Characteristics of wave motion:
1. Wav motion is a disturbance produced in the medium by the repeated periodic motion of the
particles of the medium.
2. Only the wave travels forward where as the particles of the medium vibrate about their
mean positions.
3. There is a regular phase change between the various particles of the medium. The particle
ahead starts vibrating a little later than a particle just preceding it.

1
 4. The velocity of the wave is different from the velocity with which the particles of the
medium are vibrating about their mean positions. The wave travels with a uniform velocity
where as the velocity of the particles is different at different positions. It is the maximum at
the mean position and zero at the extreme position of the particles.
Types of waves: There are two main types of waves. They are
1. Mechanical waves and 2. electromagnetic waves
Mechanical waves: These waves propagate through a medium, and the substance of this medium
is deformed. The deformation reverses itself owing to restoring forces resulting from its
deformation. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules colliding with their
neighbors. When air molecules collide, they also bounce away from each other (a restoring force).
This keeps the molecules from continuing to travel in the direction of the wave.
Electromagnetic (EM) waves: These waves do not require a medium. Instead, they consist of
periodic oscillations in electrical and magnetic fields generated by charged particles, and can
therefore travel through a vacuum. These types of waves vary in wavelength, and include radio
waves, microwave, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Fig. below shows the EM spectrum with increasing wavelength.
Gamma ray X-ray Ultraviolet Visible Infra-red Microwave Radio
radiation light radiation wave

Some common properties of all EM wave:

1. They are all transverse waves.
2. They travel at the same speed of 3X108 m/s in vacuum.
3. They do not require any material medium to travel.
4. They obey the laws of reflection, refraction and diffraction.
5. They can be emitted and absorbed by matter.
6. The wave equation v=f λ is applicable to all these waves.
Waves are classified into another two types depending on the direction of its oscillation. They are:
1. Transverse wave and 2. Longitudinal wave
1. Transverse wave: The wave in which vibration of particles are perpendicular (at right angles) to
the direction of wave propagation (the direction of energy transfer) are called transverse wave.
Examples: Water wave, light wave and all EM waves.

2
2. Longitudinal wave: The wave in which vibration of particles are parallel to the direction of
wave propagation (the direction of energy transfer) are called longitudinal wave.
Examples: Sound wave and wave in a spring.

Distinction between transverse and longitudinal wave

Sl. No. Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
1 The wave in which vibration of particles The wave in which vibration of particles
are perpendicular (at right angles) to the are parallel to the direction of wave
direction of wave propagation (the propagation (the direction of energy
direction of energy transfer) are called transfer) are called longitudinal wave.
transverse wave.
2 During propagation of the wave crests and During propagation of the wave
troughs are produced in the medium. compression and rarefaction are
produced in the medium.
3 The distance between two successive The distance between two successive
crests or troughs is called wavelength. compressions or rarefaction is called
wavelength.
4 Polarization of the medium takes places. Polarization of the medium does not
takes places.

Progressive waves
Definition: If the wave generated from a source progresses with time from one point to another
through a medium, it is called progressive wave. Progressive wave can be longitudinal or
transverse.
Characteristics of Progressive waves:
1. These waves are generated by continuous disturbance of a portion of a medium.
2. These waves travel with a fixed velocity through a uniform medium.
3. The velocity of propagation of the waves depends on the density and elasticity of the
medium.
4. Vibrations of the particles of medium may be transverse or longitudinal.

3
 5. As the wave progresses, every point of the medium undergoes same change of pressure and
density.

Equation of progressive waves:

Let a progressive wave originating at a point O travels with a velocity v along positive X-axis
as shown in fig-1. So, the displacement of the particle O at x = 0 is given by
y (0, t) = a sin ωt ……….. (1) where a = amplitude, ω = angular velocity of the particle = 2Πn
= 2Π/T and ωt = phase angle of the particle or simply phase.
Since the successive particles to the right of O receive and repeat its movements after definite
interval of time.
We know, the distance travelled by a wave in one complete vibration is called wavelength λ and
the phase difference between two particles situated at a distance λ is 2Π.
Now, let the phase difference of the particle at P, a distance x from O be δ. Then the equation of
motion of the particle at P is y = a sin (ωt- δ)………………(2)
Since in travelling the distance λ the phase difference is 2Π, so the phase difference for distance
x is
δ = 2Πx/λ, i.e., phase difference,
2π
δ= × path difference
λ
Again,
2π 2πv 1
ω= = 2πn = [∵ n = and v = nλ]
T λ T
Putting the values of δ and ω in equation (2), we get
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin( − ) => 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin (vt − 𝑥) …….. (3)
Equation (3) represents a progressive wave or simple harmonic wave. It gives the displacement of
any particle at time t.
Similarly, for a particle at a distance x in the negative direction (i.e., to the left of O), the equation
for displacement is
y = a sin (vt + x) ……..(4)
Equation (4) represents a progressive wave or simple harmonic wave travelling in the negative X-
axis.
Prob-1: The equation of a progressive wave is y = 5 sin (200πt-1.57x), here all quantities are
expressed in S.I. unit. Find the amplitude, frequency, time period and velocity of the wave.
Solution: We have, y = 5 sin (200πt-1.57x)…..(1) and we know,
2 2 2
y  A sin (vt  x)  A sin( vt  x) ……….(2). Comparing eq. (1) and (2), we get,
  
A = 5m, 2πvt/λ = 200πt or, 2v/ λ = 200 or, 2n = 200 or, n = 100 Hz.
2πx/λ = 1.57 x or, 2π/λ = 1.57 or, λ = 2π/1.57 = 4 m.
v = n λ = 100 X 4 = 400m/s, T = 1/n = 1/100 = 0.01 s.

4
Prob-2: The amplitude of a wave is 0.2 m. Find the displacement of the point at a distance x =
λ/6 from the source at time t = T/3.
Solution: We know,
y = a sin (vt − x) = 0.2 sin v× − = 0.2 sin( −
)

= 0.2 sin( − ) = 0.2 sin( − ) = 0.2 sin = 0.173 m (Ans)

Differential equation of wave motion/progressive wave/simple harmonic wave:

The general equation of a simple harmonic wave or progressive wave is,

y = a sin (vt − x) …….. (1)
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time,
= cos (vt − x) … … … … … . . (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to time,
= sin (vt − x) … … … … … . . (3)
To find the value of compression, we differentiate eqn. (1) with respect to x,
=− cos (vt − x) … … … … … . . (4)
To find the rate of change of compression with respect to distance, we differentiate eqn. (4) with
respect to x,
=− sin (vt − x) … … … … … . . (5)
From eqns. (2) and (4),

= −𝑣 … … … … . . (6)
From eqns. (3) and (5),

=v …………… (7)
Equation (7) represents the differential equation of wave motion/ progressive wave/ simple
harmonic wave.
The general differential equation of wave motion can be written as,

=K …………… (8)
Where K = v => 𝑣 = √K
Thus, knowing the value of K, the value of the wave velocity can be calculated.

5
Energy density and energy current (intensity) of a plane progressive wave:
The energy density of a plane progressive wave means the total (KE + PE) energy per unit volume
of the medium through which the wave is passing.
In order to obtain an expression for energy density, let us start with the equation of a plane
progressive wave, which is
y = a sin (vt − x)
The velocity of the particle is
dy 2πav 2π
U= = cos (vt − x) … … … … … . . (1)
dt λ λ
And the acceleration of the particle,
dU d2 y 4π2 v2 2π 4π2 v2 y
= 2 = − 2 a sin (vt − x) = − 2 … … … … … . . (2)
dt dt λ λ λ
Now, we consider unit volume of th medium in the form of an extremely thin element of the
medium parallel to the wave front. Since density is mass per unit volume and unit volume is being
considered here, so,
Mass of the element = ρ, the density of the medium.
Again, since the layer is very thin, the velocity of all the particles in it may be assumed to be the
same. Thus, the kinetic energy per unit volume of the medium is

K. E. = ρU = ρ[ cos (vt − x)] = cos [ (vt − x)]… (3)

Now, the work done per unit volume for a small displacement dy of the layer is

dw = force X displacement = mass X acceleration X displacement = ydy

Then the total work done when the layer is displaced from 0 to y is given by,

W= ∫ ydy = ∫ ydy = × =
2π v ρ 2π
=> 𝑊 = a sin [ (vt − x)]
λ λ
This work must be stored up in the medium in the form of potential energy.

Hence, potential energy per unit volume is, P.E. = a sin [ (vt − x)]
Thus, the total energy per unit volume, i.e., energy density is
2π a v ρ 2π 2π 2π a v ρ
E= cos (vt − x) + sin (vt − x) =
λ λ λ λ
v
= 2π ( ) ρa
λ
=> 𝐸 = 2π n a ρ

6
It is interesting to note that both KE and PE depend on the values of x and t, but its total energy or
energy density is quite independent of either.
The rate of flow of energy per unit area of creoss-section of the wave front along the direction of
wave propagation is called the energy current (C) or the energy flux of the wave and is equal to
E X v. Thus, the energy current or the energy flux of a plane progressive wave is
C = 2π n a ρv
The intensity of the wave (I) is defined as the quantity of incident energy per unit area of the wave
front per unit time and is the same as the energy current or the energy flux of the wave. Hence,
I = 2π n a ρv
Prob-3: A source of sound has amplitude of 0.25 cm and frequency of 512 Hz. If the velocity
of sound in air is 340 m/s and the density of air is 0.00129 gm/cm3, what is the rate of flow of
energy per square cm?
Solution: We know, rate of flow of energy per square cm is the intensity and is given
by,
I = 2π n a ρv = 2 × (512) × (0.25) × (0.00129) × (340000)
=> 𝐼 = 1.417 × 10 = 1.417 J/cm s (Ans)
Principle of superposition of waves:
When two or more waves progress in the same medium, then they propagate independently. When
these waves superpose in the region of a medium, the resultant displacement is governed by a
principle, known as the principle of superposition. The principle states that “when two or more
waves pass simultaneously through the same medium, the resultant displacement of each particle of
the medium at any instant is equal to the vector sum of the displacements produced by the waves
separately”.
Let the displacement at any point in the medium due to one wave is y1 and that due to the other
wave at the same instant is y2, then according to the superposition principle, the resultant
displacement, y = y1 + y2 . Here, y1 , y2 both can be positive or negative or one can be positive and
the other one negative. By the application of this principle we can explain the formation of
stationary wave, interference of sounds and beats etc.

7
Stationary Waves
Definition: The resultant wave produced by the superposition of two progressive waves, having
same wavelength and amplitude, traveling in opposite directions is called stationary wave. The
stationary wave has no forward motion but remains fixed in peace.
In stationary waves there are certain points where the amplitude is zero. These points are nodes
and there are some points where the amplitude is maximum. These points are called antinodes. In
fig-1 points A are antinodes and N is nodes.

Demonstration: A long uniform string is kept in horizontal position by fixing its two ends to rigid
support [fig .1]. It is plucked at the middle. The transverse waves produced in the string travel
along the string to the both ends and are reflected back. These reflected waves travel along the
string in opposite direction. These waves being similar have phase difference of 180. They combine
to form a transverse stationary or standing wave. The string is found to vibrate in a series of equal
segment. The points are called nodes and there the string remains at rest. Between each pair of
nodes, the string vibrates with increasing amplitude towards the center, where it becomes
maximum. The points A are called antinodes. In a stationary waves the distance between two
consecutive nodes or antinodes is equal to half the wave length of the wave i. e., NN = AA = λ/2.

8
Characteristics of stationary waves: There are some characteristics of stationary waves which are
mentioned below:
1. Stationary waves are produced when two identical progressive waves traveling along the same
straight line
but opposite direction are superposed.
2. Crests and trough or compression and rarefaction do not progress forward through the medium,
but simply
appear and disappear at the same place alternately.
3. The point where amplitude is zero is called nodes and where it is maximum is called antinodes.
4. All the particles, except those at the nodes, execute simple harmonic motion.
5. The distance between two adjacent nodes and antinodes is equal to half the wavelength.
6. The distance between three adjacent nodes or antinodes or between two loops is equal to the
wavelength of
the wave.
7. There is no propagation of energy in stationary wave.
8. Stationary waves are producing both by transverse and longitudinal wave.

Equation of a stationary wave

Let a progressive wave move along positive X-axis with velocity v. The equation of this wave is,
y = A sin (vt − x)
And the equation of progressive wave moving along negative X-axis with the same velocity v is
y = A sin (vt + x)
Here =amplitude of the wave; ω= angular velocity; and are the displacements of a
particle of the wave at a distance x from the source at time t.
By the principal of superposition, the resultant displacement of the particle at x at a time t is

2 2
= 2 A0 cos x sin vt
 

9
 2
----------(1) . Here A  2 A0 cos x = displacement of the particle of wave at x.

Eq. (1) represents a simple harmonic vibration of same wavelength λ as the superposing wave.
2
The amplitude A  2 A0 cos x is not a constant. For different values of x, the amplitude has

different values as shown in fig-2.
It should be mentioned that this simple harmonic vibration does not represent a progressive wave
since its phase does not contain term (vt- x). So eq. (1) represents a stationary wave.

2
Nodes: The amplitude of the stationary wave is A  2 A0 cos x It depends on the position of the

particle. The point where A= 0, i. e; amplitude zero, nodes will formed.
2
Now, condition for A  2 A0 cos x  0 is


or,

These are points of nodes. Distance between two successive nodes =

Antinodes: The point where amplitude A is maximum, antinodes is formed. So, condition for
maximum amplitude is
2
A  2 A0 cos x  2 A0


10
 Distance between two successive antinodes = [ - ]=

The distance between a nodes and adjacent antinodes is . In fig.1 points ‘N’ and ‘A’ represent
nodes and antinodes. Between two nodes there exist an antinode.

7.1 Velocity of Transverse Waves Along a Stretched String

First Method.
Consider a string PQ stretched by a tension T. Let the string be plucked at the centre O and left free
(Fig. 7.1). The string vibrates transversely. These Vibrations are simple harmonic in nature. The
force tending to bring any element of the string back to the equilibrium position is the component
of tension acting at right angles to PQ.

Let the undisplaced position of the string correspond to X-axis and let the displacement be along
the Y-axis. Consider a small element AB of length x. The tangents drawn at A and B make angles
 and - with the X-axis (Fig. 7.1). The tension at A is resolved into two rectangular
components. The downward component of tension at A = T sin .

As  is small sin  = tan 

 Downward component of tension
at A = T tan 

But tan  = at A (i.e. slope at A)

 Downward component of tension at A

dy
Ty = T dx ... (1)

The rate of change of slope with respect to the length of the element,

dy  dy  d 2 y
=  
dx  dx  dx 2
The change in slope for a distance x
d2y
= dx 2 
The slope at the point B
dy d 2 y
 
tan ( -) = dx dx 2

The upward component of tension acting at B

As  is small, sin( - ) = tan ( -)
11
 Upward component of tension at B
 T tan(   )
 dy d 2 y 
 T   2 .x  .................................(2)
 dx dx 
From equations (1) and (2); resultant downward tension.
dy  dy d 2 y 
F T  T   2 .x 
dx  dx dx 
d2y
F T x
dx 2
let m be the mass of the string per unit length.
Mass of the element = mx
Acceleration of the element in the direction of y-axis
d2y
dt 2
Force acting on the element = mass X acceleration.
d2y
F  mx ............(4)
dx 2
From equations (3) and (4).
d2y d2y
mx  T x
dx 2 dx 2
d2y T d2y
 ................(5)
dt 2 m dx 2
This is similar to the differential equation of wave motion.
d2y 2
2 d y
 v ................(6)
dt 2 dx 2
Here v is the velocity of propagation of the wave.
Comparing equations (5) and (6),
T
v2 
m
T
v ...................(7)
m
Also v = n
In case the string of length l vibrates in P segments, length of each segment =l/P and each segment
corresponds to half wave length.
l 
 
p 2
2l

p

12
 n( 2l )
v  .................(8)
p
Substituting this value of  in equation (7)
n(2l ) T

p m
p T
n .................(9)
2l m
In case the string vibrates in one segment
p=1,
1 T
and n  ............(10)
2l m

7.3. Laws of Transverse Vibration of Strings.

There are three laws of transverse vibration of strings:
(1) The fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the string
1
n
l
(2) The fundamental frequency is directly proportional to the square root of the stretching force
or tension
n T
The fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit length.
1
n
m
Combining the above three laws.
1 T
n
l m
k T
or n 
l m
The value of constant
1
n
2
l T
n  ................(1)
2l m
If D is the diameter of the wire and d is the density of the material of the wire, then
D 2
m 1 d
4
l 4T
n
2l D 2 d

13
 l T
n ....................(2)
lD d
Example 7.1 Two strings each of length 60 cm are stretched, one by a force of 4 kg wt and the
other by a force of 9 kg wt. What is the interval between the two notes that are produced?
n2 T2 9 3
  
n1 T1 4 2
The interval between the two notes is the fifth.
Example. 7.2. A wire of length 108 cm produces a fundamental note of frequency 256 when
stretched by a weight of 1 kg. By how much its length should be increased so that its pitch is raised
by a major tone if it is now stretched by a weight of 4 kg.
l1 = 108 cm, T1 = 1 kg, n1 = 256
l2 = ? T2 = 4 kg
n2 9

n1 8
9
or n2   256  288
8
n 2 l1 T2

n1 l 2 T1

9 108 4

8 l2 1
l2 = 192 cm
The increase in length
Example 7.3. A wire of specific gravity 7. one metre long and mm in diameter is stretched by a
weight of 1 kg. Calculate the pitch of the fundamental note.
Here, d = 7, l = 100 cm
1
D = 1 mm = cm
10
T = 11 kg = 11  1000  98 dynes
n=?
1 T
n
lD d
1 11  100  980  7
n  70
1 22  7
100 
10
Example 7.4. Calculate the frequency of the fundamental note of a string, metre long and weighing
2 grams when stretched by a weight of 400 kg.
Hee, n1 = 256, n2 = 2  256 = 512
T1 = 4 kg wt; T2 = ?

14
n2 T2 512 T2
 or
n1 T1 256 T1

T2
or  2, T2  16 kg wt .
4
Example 7.5. Calculate the frequency of the fundamental note of a string, l metre long and
weighing 2 grams when stretched by a weight of 400 kg.
Here, l = 1 m
Total mass = 2 g = 0.002 kg/m
0.002
m  0.002 kg / m
1
T = 400 kg = 400  9.8 newtons
1 T
n
2l m
1 400  9.8

2 1 0.002
1
n 400  4900  700.
2
Example 7.6. A tuning fork of frequency 160 is sounded along with a sonometer wire of length 25
cm stretched to a tension of 1.25 kg wt Calculate the number of beats/s. (Mass per unit length =
0.025 g.)
Here, l = 25cm, m = 0.025 g/cm
T = 1.25 kg wt = 1.25  1000  980 dynes
1 T 1 1.25  1000  980
n 
2l m 2  25 0.025
7000
n  140
50
Frequency of the tuning fork N = 160
 Beats/s = N – n = 160 – 140 = 20.

7.7. A Wire Gives out a fundamental note of 256 cycles per second when it is under a tendion of 10
kg wt.
(i) Under what tension will the string emit a frequency of 512 cycles per second?
(ii) How would you make the wire emilt a note of 768 cycles second keeping the tension at
10 kg wt.

(i) Here, n1 = 256. Ti = 10 kg wt.

n2 = 512, T2 = ?
n2 T2
=
n1 T1
15
 512 T2
=
256 10

T2 = 40 kg wt.
or
(iii) Here, in the first case
n1 = 256
Length of the wire = l1
In the second case n2 = 768
Length of the wire = l2
n2 l1 768 l1
= or =
n1 l 2 256 l 2
l1
l2 =
3
or
Therefore, by changing the length to 1/3 of the length in the first case, the wire will emit a note
of frequency 768.
Example 7.8. A flexible string of length 0.99 metre and mass one gram is stretched by a tension of
T newtons. The sting vibrates in three segments with a frequency of 500 hertz. Calculate the
tension.

P T
n=
2l m

P 2T
n2 =
4l 2m
or
4n 2l 2m
T=
P2

Here
Example 7.9. A flexible string of length 0.88 m is stretched by a farce of 55 newtons. the mass of
the string is 1 gram. Calculate the frequency of vibration of the sting if it vibrates in 5 segments.
p T
n
2l m
Here p=5
T=55 newtons
l=0.88m

16
 10 3
m kg / m
0.66
5 55  0.88
n
5  0.88 10 3
n=625 Hz.
Example 7.10. Two similar sonometer wires of the same material, under the same tension, produce
2 beats/s. The length of one wire is 50cm and that of the other is 50-1 cm. Calculate the frequencies
of the two wires.
Here n1-n2 = 2 .............(1)
l1 = 50 cm
l2 = 50.1 cm
As the tensions and material of the wires are the same
n1l1 = n2l2
n1 l 2

n 2 l1
or
n1 50.1

n2 50
 50.1 
or n1   n2
 50 
Substituting this value of n1 in equation (1).
 50.1 
 n2  n 2  2
 50 
n2 = 1000 Hz.
 n1 = n2 + 2
n1 = 1000 + 2
n1 = 1002 Hz.

17