arXiv:1008.

5023v4 [gr-qc] 21 Dec 2012

The cosmological constant and black hole

thermodynamic potentials

Brian P. Dolan
Department of Mathematical Physics, National University of Ireland,
Maynooth, Ireland
and
Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 10 Burlington Rd., Dublin, Ireland
e-mail: bdolan@stp.dias.ie

May 29, 2018

 Abstract

The thermodynamics of black holes in various dimensions are described in

the presence of a negative cosmological constant which is treated as a ther-
modynamic variable, interpreted as a pressure in the equation of state. The
black hole mass is then identified with the enthalpy, rather than the internal
energy, and heat capacities are calculated at constant pressure not at con-
stant volume. The Euclidean action is associated with a bridge equation for
the Gibbs free energy and not the Helmholtz free energy. Quantum correc-
tions to the enthalpy and the equation of state of the BTZ black hole are
studied.

Report No. DIAS-STP-10-10 PACS nos: 04.60.-m; 04.70.Dy

1 Introduction
The thermodynamics of black-holes has been an active and fascinating area
of research ever since the early papers of Beckenstein and Hawking’s deriva-
tion of the temperature associated with the event horizon, [1, 2]. In most
treatments of black-hole thermodynamics the cosmological constant, Λ, is
treated as a fixed parameter (possibly zero) but it has been considered as
a dynamical variable in [3, 4] and it has further been suggested that it is
better to consider Λ as a thermodynamic variable, [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Physically
Λ is interpreted as a thermodynamic pressure in [9], consistent with the ob-
servation in [7] that the conjugate thermodynamic variable is proportional
to a volume. This naturally leads to a slightly different interpretation of the
black-hole mass than is usual in thermodynamic treatments, the black-hole
mass is equated with enthalpy, H, in [9] rather than the internal energy E,
as is more usual.
A black-hole with a positive cosmological constant has both a cosmologi-
cal event horizon and a black-hole event horizon, these have different Hawking
temperatures associated with them in general which necessarily complicates
any thermodynamical treatment. We shall therefore focus on the case of a
negative cosmological constant in this work though, many of the conclusions
are applicable to the positive Λ case. The negative Λ case is of course of
interest for studies on AdS/CFT correspondence and the considerations here
are likely to be relevant to current attempts to model condensed matter sys-
tems in 2 + 1 dimensions using the boundary of 3 + 1 dimensional anti-de
Sitter space, see e.g. [10]. In particular quantities calculated at constant Λ
correspond physically to constant pressure: specific heats, for example, are
specific heats at constant pressure and not specific heats at constant volume
and it is the former that are more relevant to solid state applications.
In this work the idea that Λ is a thermodynamic pressure, and the conju-
gate variable a thermodynamic volume, is elaborated on and the thermody-
namical structure developed further. The relation between various thermo-
dynamical potentials and the black-hole equation of state in anti-de Sitter
space is explored in detail. §2 deals with the thermodynamic potentials in
the 4-dimensional case; §3 discusses the black-hole equation of state and
§4 the partition function. In §5 the discussion is extended to arbitrary di-
mensions while §6 deals specifically with the 3-dimensional case of the BTZ
black-hole, for which quantum corrections to the thermodynamical potential
are known, at least perturbatively. Finally §6 summarizes the main points

1
and conclusions.

2 Enthalpy
Consider a black hole with mass M in the presence of a cosmological constant
Λ. The cosmological constant generates a pressure
Λ
P =− (1)
8πGN
and has an energy density ǫ associated with it with ε + P = 0, i.e. the
enthalpy density associated with Λ is zero. If the black hole has a volume V
the total energy contained in V is

E = M + εV = M − P V ⇒ M = E + P V,

hence M is most naturally associated with the enthalpy H of the black hole

H = E + P V.

It is not obvious what the volume of a black hole should be. The naı̈ve
identification of V with the volume of a sphere with the radius of the event
horizon rh is too simplistic since the radial co-ordinate is time-like inside the
4πr 3
horizon and 3 h is not the volume of any space-like section of space-time
inside the horizon. It is suggested in [9] that V be identified with the volume
excluded by the black hole horizon from a spatial slice exterior to the black
4πr 3
hole, giving the naı̈ve result V = 3 h but from a more physically acceptable
perspective. For the moment we shall leave V unspecified and determine it
below from thermodynamic considerations.
The natural variables for enthalpy are entropy and pressure, so we should
view M as a function of S and P ,

M = H(S, P ).

The functional form of H is determined by the geometry together with the

Hawking relation, that entropy is one quarter of the horizon area

πrh2 πrh2
S= = 2 , (2)
h̄GN ℓ

2
 √
where l = h̄GN is the Planck length.1
The metric of four-dimensional space-time is given by
d2 s = −f (r)dt2 + f −1 (r)dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2 ,
with
2GN M Λ
f (r) = 1 −− r2, (3)
r 3
and dΩ2 = dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 the solid angle area element. The event horizon
is defined by f (rh ) = 0,
Λ 3
r − rh + 2GN M = 0. (4)
3 h
One can solve the cubic equation to find rh (M, Λ) analytically, but the
explicit
√ form will not be needed in the following. For Λ > 0 and 0 <
3M ΛGN < 1 there are two event horizons and the region of space-time
outside the black hole horizon √
but inside the de Sitter horizon lies between
them. They coincide when 3M ΛGN = 1. Each event horizon has a differ-
ent Hawking temperature associated with it and the system is not in thermal
equilibrium. In order to ensure thermal equilibrium we shall assume Λ < 0
in the following.
Equation (3) gives the mass as
rh Λ
 
M= 1 − rh2 . (5)
2GN 3
Identifying M with the enthalpy and using (1) and (2) gives
!1
ℓ2 S 8GN ℓ2 SP
!
1 2
H(S, P ) = 1+ . (6)
2GN π 3
The usual thermodynamic relations can now be used to determine the
temperature and the volume,
1
h̄(1 − Λrh2 )
!
∂H h̄ π

2
T = ⇒ T = 2
(1 + 8P GN ℓ2 S) = (7)
∂S P
4π ℓ S 4πrh
3
4 (ℓ2 S) 2 4πrh3
!
∂H
V = ⇒ V = √ = . (8)
∂P S
3 π 3
1
In the ensuing analysis we shall make factors of GN and h̄ explicit in order to exhibit
clearly which aspects of the physics are classical and which are quantum. Note that
ℓ2 S = πrh2 is a classical quantity, S diverges in the classical limit while ℓ2 S remains finite.

3
The Hawking temperature (7) comes as no surprise since it follows from the
usual formula relating the temperature to the surface gravity κ at the event
horizon
h̄κ h̄f ′ (rh )
T = = .
2π 4π
Varying (4) gives
2GN r2
df = − dM − h dΛ + f ′ (rh )drh = 0,
rh 3
so
∂M rh ′ ∂M h̄ ′
= f (rh ) ⇒ = f (rh ),
∂rh Λ
2G ∂S P
4π
which is equation (7). Equation (8) suggests that the “naı̈ve” volume is
indeed the correct one to use in thermodynamic relations.
Legendre transforming (6) gives the internal energy
s
1 ℓ2 S
E(S, V ) = H(S, P ) − P V = , (9)
2GN π
but the Legendre transform is not invertible: because H(S, P ) is linear in
P , E(S, V ) is independent of V and so the pressure cannot be determined
from a knowledge of E(S, V ) alone. For the same reason T = ∂E∂S V
gives the
wrong answer for the temperature if the pressure is non-zero.
Nevertheless we can still use (6) to determine the heat capacity at con-
stant pressure using the standard thermodynamic relation
T
CP = ∂T
.
∂S P

One finds
8GN P ℓ2 S + 1
!
CP = 2S . (10)
8GN P ℓ2 S − 1
The heat capacity at constant volume
T ∂S
CV = =T
∂T ∂T V
∂S V

vanishes, if we use the Hawking formula (2), since the variation of the entropy
is necessarily zero when the volume, and hence rh , is fixed.

4
 It could have been anticipated in advance that CV = 0, from (9): E
 2
depends only on S and S = ℓπ2 3V 4π
3
is a function of V alone so E is constant
if V is held fixed as the temperature is varied.
Local stability requires that CP > 0 so 8GN P ℓ2S > 1, or equivalently

−Λrh2 > 1,

so Λ must be negative. The fact that black holes can be thermodynami-

cally stable in anti-de Sitter space-time is well known [12]. Physically this
condition for stability can be understood as follows. For Λ < 0 the vacuum
energy density ε < 0 so the black hole contains negative vacuum energy. As
it radiates at constant pressure, and hence constant ε, the volume decreases
and the vacuum energy it contains increases (becoming less negative). At
the same time its temperature increases hence the energy can go up as the
temperature goes up, if |Λ| is large enough the heat capacity is positive and
the black hole is stabilised by the negative vacuum energy.
Local stability therefore implies a minimum temperature
s
2GN P
Tmin = h̄ (11)
π
below which the black hole is not stable, corresponding to the divergence
in CP when ∂T
∂S
= 0. As is well known, this is below the Hawking-Page
P q
temperature, THP = h̄ 8G3πN P , below which pure AdS space, with no black
hole and M = 0, has a lower free energy than
q that of a black hole with the
3
same Λ and M > 0 which occurs for rh = |Λ| , [12].

3 The black hole equation of state

Writing equation (7) in terms of V and P gives the black hole equation of
state  
 1 1
h̄  3V − 3 3V 3 
 
T (V, P ) = + 8πGN P . (12)
4π  4π 4π 
For a given pressure there is a minimum volume at Tmin ,
3
4π 1

2
V (Tmin ) = . (13)
3 8πGN P

5
 Figure 1 shows T (V ) for various pressures and figure 2 shows the black
hole indicator diagram, P (V ), for various temperatures. The temperature as
a function of entropy, at constant pressure, is shown in figure 3, for compar-
ison with the J = Q = 0 case in figure 1 of [5].

4 The partition function

A key concept in understanding black hole thermodynamics is the relation
between the Euclidean path integral and the black hole partition function
[11]. Defining the Euclidean action requires a regularisation procedure as
the volume of space-time is infinite and the Ricci scalar is non-zero [12]. A
regularised Euclidean action can be obtained by adding surface terms at large
r to cancel the infinities arising from taking r → ∞ in the bulk integrals,
[13, 15]. Two terms are necessary, one corresponding the extrinsic curvature
of the sphere at large radius, involving the unit normal nµ , and one simply
proportional to the area of the sphere,
1
Z
√
I = − (R − 2Λ) −g d4 x
16πGN M
1
Z
√ 3 1
Z
√
+ µν
γ ∇µ nν −γ d x − −γ d3 x. (14)
8πGN ∂M 2πGN L ∂M
In [11] the integral is taken over rh < r < ∞ with γ the three-dimensional
metric on the asymptotic boundary ∂M, r → ∞. In particular the event
horizon is not considered to be part of ∂M. L is the AdS length scale,
Λ = − L32 , and the Euclidean time parameter x0 is periodic with 0 < x0 < T1 .
Performing the integrals gives
Λrh2
!
rh
I= 1+ . (15)
4GN T 3
In the Euclidean approach to quantum gravity, [12], this is related to the
partition function Z = e−I through the bridge equation

T I = −T ln Z, (16)

and hence T I is identified with the free energy

Λr 2
!
rh
F= 1+ h . (17)
4GN 3

6
But is this the Helmholtz free energy F (T, V ) or the Gibbs free energy
G(T, P )?
The functional integral is performed with fixed T and Λ, so F (T, Λ)
should be though of as a function of T and Λ and, using (7), it is readily
shown that
πr 2 r3
dF = − h dT − h dΛ. (18)
GN h̄ 6GN
Hence
∂F πrh2 ∂F 4πrh3
∂F
− = =S and = −8πGN == V.
∂T Λ
GN h̄ T
∂P T
∂Λ3
(19)
These are the thermodynamic relations associated with the Gibbs free energy,
G(T, P ), and not the Helmholtz free energy. It is natural therefore to identify
F = G(T, P ) with the Gibbs free energy. The enthalpy is the Legendre
transform of the Gibbs free energy H = G + T S and a simple calculation
shows that H = M is the black-hole mass.
Euler’s equation for thermodynamic potentials follows from dimensional
analysis. Equation (4) is invariant under the rescalings rh → ηrh , Λ → η −2 Λ
and M → ηM (keeping GN fixed). Hence

ηM(S, P ) = M(η 2 S, η −2 P ) ⇒ M = 2(T S − P V ),

which is easily checked. This is Smarr’s formula [16] treated from the same
point of view as in [9]. A simple consequence of this scaling argument is that
M(S, P ) must have the functional form
√
M = SΦ(SP )

for some function Φ(SP ): in fact (6) shows that Φ(SP ) is a linear function.
Corrections to the entropy can modify this simple scaling analysis.

5 Higher dimensional black holes and differ-

ent event horizon geometries
In D space-time dimensions the AdS-Schwarzschild line element is

d2 s = −f (r)dt2 + f −1 (r)dr 2 + r d dΩ2(d) , (20)

7
where d = D − 2 and dΩ2(d) is the line element on a d-dimensional sphere of
unit radius. Denoting the volume of the unit sphere by
d
2π 2
Ω(d) =  
d
Γ 2

the D-dimensional Einstein equations give the function f (r) to be

16πGN M Λ
f (r) = 1 − d−1
− r2, (21)
Ω(d) d r (d + 1)

with Λ < 0 for AdS, [17].

A more general line element is possible if surfaces of constant r are taken
to be any Einstein space with constant curvature, such as flat space or d-
dimensional hyperbolic spaces. Replacing the spherical line element dΩ2(d)
in (20) by the appropriate constant curvature line element in each case we
denote the line element by dΩ2(d,k) and the volume by Ω(d,k) . For example
k = +1 for spheres, −1 for hyperbolic space and 0 for flat space. Einstein’s
equations are now solved by replacing the function f (r) with2
16πGN M Λ
f (r) = k − d−1
− r2. (22)
Ω(d,k) d r (d + 1)

For a general constant curvature Einstein space with d-dimensional Ricci

tensor
Rij = λgij ,
where λ is a constant and i, j = 1, . . . , d, the d-dimensional Ricci scalar is
R(d) = λd and (20) solves Einstein’s equations with cosmological constant Λ
provided
λ R(d)
k= = ,
d−1 d(d − 1)
and dΩ2(d,k) corresponds to the line element of the Einstein metric of the event
horizon. Note that Ω(d,k) is dimensionless in the conventions adopted here,
the event horizon has area rhd Ω(d,k) and R(d) is a dimensionless constant fixed
by the geometry of the event horizon, in particular it does not depend on rh .
2
For flat space the volume can be taken to be finite by making periodic identifications
to get the topology of a torus. For negatively curved spaces the same procedure gives
more complicated topologies, e.g. higher genus surfaces for d = 2.

8
 The analysis of §2 is easily repeated with minor modifications. In D
dimensions the Planck length is given by ld = h̄GN and the entropy is

Ω(d,k) rhd
S= . (23)
4 ld
Equating M with the enthalpy and Λ = − 16πG
d
N
P results in3
 !− 1 !1
h̄S  R(d) 4ld S d
16πGN P 4ld S d
H(S, P ) = + , (24)
4π  d − 1 Ω(d,k) d+1 Ω(d,k) 

from which all thermodynamic quantities can be calculated.

The thermodynamic volume is the naı̈ve result

Ω(d,k) rhd+1
V = , (25)
d+1
and the equation of state is
 !− 1 ! 1 
h̄  (d + 1)V d+1
(d + 1)V d+1 
T = R(d) + 16πGN P . (26)
4πd  Ω(d,k) Ω(d,k) 

For positive k there is a minimum temperature and volume for any given
fixed pressure
s ! d+1
2h̄ R(d) GN P Ω(d,k) R(d) 2
Tmin = , V (Tmin ) =
d π d+1 16πGN P

and the heat capacity is

  2 
d
4ld S
16πG P + R(d) 

 

 N Ω(d,k)


CP = Sd  2 ,
 dS d 
 16πGN P 4l
− R(d) 

 

Ω(d,k)

3
We use the convention Rµν = Λgµν , giving Einstein tensor Rµν − 12 R gµν =
D−2
Λ gµν . Identifying − D−2



− 2 2 Λ gµν = 8πGN Tµν , with Tµν an energy-momentum
tensor, leads to the quoted identification Λ = − 16πG
D−2 P . The gravitational action is
N

1
R
√ D
SGrav = 16πGN R − (D − 2)Λ −g d x.

9
which diverges at Tmin and is negative for T < Tmin . There is thus a Hawking-
Page phase transition for any positive curvature event horizon in D ≥ 4
dimensions, for spatially flat event horizons the specific heat CP = Sd is
always positive while for R(d) < 0 there is no minimum temperature, but
there is still a minimum value of |Λ| below which CP is negative. In all cases
one must have
|R(d) |
|Λ| >
d rh2
for a black hole to be stable in anti-de Sitter space-time.

6 The BTZ black hole

It is worthwhile studying the special case of the 2 + 1-dimensional BTZ black
hole, not only because it is conceptually and mathematically simpler than its
higher dimensional cousins but also because higher order corrections to the
entropy are easier to calculate and not as uncertain. For a review of BTZ
black holes see [18].
The BTZ black hole has line element

d2 s = −f (r)dt2 + f −1 (r)dr 2 + r 2 dφ2 .

For a non-rotating BTZ black hole

r2
f (r) = −8GN M + ,
L2
with cosmological constant Λ = − L22 giving a pressure P = 1
8πGN L2
.
The black hole radius q
rh = 8GN M L (27)
is immediate. The event horizon is a circle and the entropy is one-quarter of
the circumference in Planck units,
πrh
S= ,
2l
where l = h̄GN in three dimensions. Identifying the mass with the enthalpy
then gives
4ℓ2 2
H(S, P ) = S P, (28)
π

10
from which
8ℓ2 h̄rh
T = SP = (29)
π 2πL2
2
4ℓ 2
V = S = πrh2 , (30)
π
the standard results (for uniformity of notation the symbol V is used for
the thermodynamic “volume”, even though it is an area in three space-time
dimensions). The Gibbs free energy is
4l2 S 2 P
G = H − TS = − 2M = −M.
π
∂T T
CP is easily calculated, since T is linear in S we have ∂S P
= S
so

T
CP = ∂T
= S > 0.
∂S P

There is no local instability, there is however a global instability since ordi-

2
nary 3-dimensional AdS, with f (r) = 1 + Lr 2 corresponding to M = − 8G1N ,
has T = 0 giving G = H = − 8G1N , and so has lower Gibbs free energy than
the M = 0 black-hole, making it more stable. This suggests a phase transi-
tion from a black-hole AdS state to pure AdS3 when the Gibbs free energies
q
are equal, which happens for M = 8G1N at a temperature T = h̄ 2GπN P ,
[19, 20].
Using (30) to express S in terms of V we derive the BTZ equation of state
√
1 π
P V = 2 T.
2
4ℓ
From (28) one finds H = P V so Legendre transforming gives E = 0, the
BTZ internal energy vanishes classically.
The partition function for the BTZ black-hole, including quantum cor-
rections to all orders in perturbation theory, is given in [21] (earlier attempts
at calculating corrections to the BTZ black-hole entropy can be found in
[18, 22, 23, 24]). To understand the structure fully it is necessary to start
with the rotating black-hole, with metric [18]
2
1 4GN J

ds2 = −f (r)dt2 + dr 2 + r 2 dφ − dt , (31)
f (r) r2

11
where
r2 16G2N J 2
 
f (r) = −8GN M + 2 +
L r2
and J is the angular momentum, bounded above by J ≤ ML. There are now
two event horizons, and inner and an outer horizon at r+ and r− respectively,
with
2 # 12 
 " 
J
 
2
r± = 4GN ML2 1 ± 1 − . (32)
 ML 

The Hawking temperature associated with (31) is

f ′ (r+ ) (r 2 − r 2 )h̄
T = = + 2− . (33)
4π 2πL r+
The entropy corrections described in [21] are best discussed in the Eu-
clidean formalism. Wick rotating the time parameter sends t → −itE and
the angular momentum also rotates, J → iJE . The right hand side of (32)
then translates to
2 # 12 
 " 
JE
 
4GN ML2 1 ± 1 + . (34)
 ML 

in the Euclidean sector and we see that r+ → rE,+ while r− → irE,− where
2 # 12
" 
JE
  
2
rE,± = 4GN ML2  1 + ± 1 . (35)
ML

The partition function is elegantly described in terms of the dimensionless

complex parameter
rE,− + irE,+
τ= (36)
L
which has Im(τ ) > 0. The inverse Hawking temperature in the Euclidean
formalism is given by
−1
1 rE,+ L2 L 1
 
= 2 2
= Im − . (37)
2πT (rE,+ + rE,− ) h̄ h̄ τ
The BTZ partition function given in [21], including all perturbative quantum
corrections, is most succinctly written by defining q = e2πiτ in terms of which
L
∞
− 16h̄G
|1 − q n |−2 .
Y
ZBT Z = (q q̄) N (38)
n=2

12
Equation (38) does not include non-perturbative quantum corrections, but
it suffices to illustrate this discussion of corrections to thermodynamic quan-
tities. (Note that τ in our notation is − τ1 in the notation of [21], and ZBT Z
here is denoted Z1,0 there).
We now specialise to the case of zero angular momentum, when
rE,+ h̄ r+ h̄ 2πiT L r+ 2 LT
T = 2
= , τ= =i and q = e−4π h̄ .
2π L 2π L2 h̄ L
The partition function in this case is
π 2 T L2 ∞  −2
2n T L
1 − e−4π
Y
ZBT Z = e 2h̄2 GN h̄ . (39)
n=2

TL
Thermodynamic functions can immediately be read off. Defining x = h̄
=
r+
2πL
the Gibbs free energy is
∞
π 2 x2  2

ln 1 − e−4π nx ,
X
G(T, P ) = −T ln ZBT Z = − + 2T (40)
2GN n=2

where the first term on the right hand side is the classical result.
The entropy was calculated in [21] and the enthalpy can be determined
using the standard formula H(S, P ) = G + T S, giving
∞
π 2 x2 n
− 8π 2 xT
X
H= 4π 2 nx , (41)
2GN n=2 e −1

but this is not expressed explicitly in terms of the natural variables S and
P = 8πG1N L2 , the S dependence is only implicit.
The quantum corrections embodied in the logarithmic terms of (40) mod-
ify the thermodynamic volume,
∞
" ! #
∂G GN h̄ X n
V = = πrh2 1 − 8π 4π 2 nx . (42)
∂P T
L n=2 e −1

We see that the quantum corrections serve to reduce the volume below its
classical value. Figure 4 plots the PV-diagram, quantum effects reduce the
volume to zero at finite pressure, the effect being more pronounced at lower
temperatures.

13
7 Conclusions
Some consequences of the suggestion in [9], that the correct thermodynamic
interpretation of black-hole mass in the presence of a negative cosmological
constant is that it should be associated with enthalpy rather than the more
usual interpretation of internal energy, have been explored and expanded
upon. The cosmological constant is treated as a thermodynamic variable
proportional to the pressure and the black-hole mass is identified with the
enthalpy rather than the internal energy. The interpretation of many thermo-
dynamic quantities is modified in this approach: specific heats, for example,
are naturally calculated as specific heats at constant pressure rather than at
constant volume and the Euclidean action gives the Gibbs free energy and
not the Helmholtz free energy.
Black-hole solutions of Einstein’s equations in any dimension, and with
any Einstein manifold with constant scalar curvature as event horizon, can
easily be constructed and the classical equation of state determined. The
Hawking-Page transition is manifest as a change in sign the specific heat and
is present for black-holes with an event horizon with positive curvature in
any space-time dimension greater than three.
Quantum corrections to the thermodynamics relations for the BTZ black-
hole in three dimensions have been derived from the partition function in [21],
which includes corrections to all orders in perturbation theory but does not
include non-perturbative corrections. These corrections reduce the volume at
a given pressure and temperature, with a finite pressure giving zero volume.
The considerations presented here will have important implications for
AdS/CFT approaches to condensed matter systems, in which the specific
heat at constant pressure has greater significance than the specific heat con-
stant volume.
It is a pleasure to thank the Perimeter Institute, Waterloo, Canada for
hosting a visit during which this work was initiated. This work was partly
funded by the EU Research Training Network in Noncommutative Geometry
(EU-NCG).

14
 T

V
Figure 1: Black hole T-V diagram, showing curves of constant pressure
in AdS. The blue line shows the stability limit, the region to the left and
below the blue curve is unstable.

15
 P

V
Figure 2: Black hole P-V diagram, showing curves of constant temperature
in AdS. The blue line shows the stability limit, the region to the left and
below the blue curve is unstable.

16
 T

S
Figure 3: T-S diagram, showing curves of constant pressure.
The region left of the blue line is unstable, temperature
is an increasing function of entropy in the stable region.

17
 P classical
quantum

V
Figure 4: Black hole P-V diagram, showing curves of constant temperature
in AdS3 . The blue lines show the classical curves, P ∝ √1V . Red lines show
the quantum corrected equation of state. The region left of the blue line is unstable,
temperature is an increasing function of entropy in the stable region.

18
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