ADVANCED PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

EMOTION

Neural basis of communication of emotions-

recognition & expression

Stress and coping

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Sources of stress

Coping Styles
 Neural basis of communication of emotions-recognition & expression

Charles Darwin suggested that human expressions of emotions are innate, unlearned responses consisting of a
complex set of movements, principally of the facial muscles.

He obtained evidence for his conclusion by observing his own children and by corresponding with people living in
various isolated cultures around the world.

Research by Ekman and his colleagues tend to confirm Darwin’s hypothesis.

Ekman and Friesen(1971) studies the ability of members of an isolated tribe in New Guinea to recognize facial
expressions of emotions produced by Westerners and they had no trouble. They themselves produced expressions
that Westerners readily recognized.

Other research have compared the facial expressions of blind and normally sighted children.
The facial expression of young blind and sighted children was very similar

Research have not yet determined whether other means of communicating emotions such as tone of voice or body
postures ate learned or are at least partly innate.
 RECOGNITION
 We recognize people’s feelings/expressed emotions by means of vision and
audition, that is, through facial expressions and tone of voice .

 According to studies, right hemisphere plays a more important role than left
hemisphere in comprehension of emotions especially negative emotions.
Investigators have found that left ear and left visual field is better in
recognition of emotionally related stimuli

 General verbal content of a message is processed by left hemisphere but the

emotional tone of voice in message is taken up by right hemisphere

 Blonder, Bowers and Heilman (1991) found that patients with right hemisphere
lesions had no difficulty making emotional judgements about particular situation
but were severely impaired in judging the emotion conveyed by facial expressions
or hand gestures

 Heilman, Watson, Bowers (1983) recorded particular case of a man with a

disorder called pure word deafness. The man is not deaf but couldn’t comprehend
the meaning of speech. Yet the man had no difficulty in identifying the emotion
being expressed by it’s tone.
Thus word comprehension and tone recognition are independent functions
 Adolph and his colleagues found that damage to the somatosensory cortex of the right
hemisphere caused severe damage in recognizing and identifying facial expressions of
emotions.
 They reported that the ability of patients with right hemisphere lesions to recognize facial
expressions of emotions is correlated with their ability to perceive somatosensory stimuli.
Thus patients with somatosensory impairments also had impairment in recognition of
emotions

 Damage to a region of the visual association cortex can cause prosopagnosia-inability

to recognize particular faces. However, if the lesions do not involve other parts of the
brain, they do not impair recognition of facial expressions of emotions.
Thus recognition of particular faces and facial expressions of emotions are
accomplished by different brain functions

 Amygdala- play a role in emotional recognition

Several studies have found that lesions of amygdala impair people’s ability to recognize
facial expressions of emotions especially expression of fear
Functional imaging studies have found large increase in the activity of amygdala when
people view photographs of face expressing fear than looking at happy faces.

 Basal Ganglia – Damage to this part disrupts persons ability to recognize the emotion
disgust . Several studies have found that people with Huntington’s disease or OCD have
lost the ability to recognize facial expression of disgust
 EXPRESSION
 Facial expressions of emotions are automatic and involuntary.

 Ekman and Davidson have confirmed an early observation by Guillaume-Benjamin

Duchenne de Boulogne, that genuinely happy smiles as opposed to false smile or
social smile used to greet someone else , involve contraction of muscle near the eyes ,
the lateral part of the orbicularis oculi – Duchenne’s muscle
Based on this Konstantin Stanislavsky to develop his system of method acting.

 Two neurological disorders with complimentary symptoms –volitional facial paresis

and emotional facial paresis
volitional facial paresis- the patients cannot voluntarily move the facial muscles but will
involuntarily express a genuine emotion with those muscles
emotional facial paresis-people with this disorder can move their face muscles voluntarily
but do not express emotions on the affected side of the face

 Right hemisphere also plays an important role in expressing of emotions .

 People show emotions with their facial muscles, the left side of the face usually makes
a more intense expression
Sackeim and Gur ( 1978) cut photos of people into two left and right parts and
prepared mirror images of each and pasted them –chimerical faces . They found that left
side were more expressive. Thus right hemisphere is more expressive than left

 Right hemisphere lesions do impair expression of emotion, both facially and by tone of
voice

 Amygdala is not much involved in emotional expression.

Anderson and Phels (2000) reported a case, 54 yr old women, had bilateral
amygdalectomy. She lost ability to recognize facial expressions of emotions but could
produce her own facial expression of emotions
STRESS AND COPING

GENERAL ADAPTATION
SYNDROM

SOURCES OF STRESS

COPING STYLES
 STRESS

 Stress can be defined as a state of worry or mental tension caused by a difficult

situation. Stress is a natural human response that prompts us to address challenges
and threats in our lives

 Stressors - A stressor is a situation or event that causes us to feel stressed. They

can be internal or external factors, like our memories, environment, or the people
around us.

 Eustress - Also known as "positive stress", eustress is a beneficial and necessary

type of stress that can come from challenging or exciting situations. It can be
short-term and feel within a person's coping abilities. Examples of eustress
include starting a new job, preparing for a presentation

 Distress - A negative type of stress that can have adverse effects on both
physical and mental health. Distress can occur when challenges or demands
exceed a person's perceived ability to cope, or when there are continuous
challenges without relief or relaxation between stressors. Examples of distress
include a toxic work environment, heavy workload, bullying, the death of a
loved one
 Appraisal of stressor - steps in managing stressors

 Primary appraisal - A person is trying to understand what the event is and what it will mean. Types of
assessment
1.Harm- damage that has already been done
2.Threat - possible future damage
3.Challenge - more confident expectation that one can cope with the stressful event , more favorable
emotional reactions, lower blood pressure

 Secondary appraisal - assesses whether personal resources are sufficient to meet the demands
of the environment . If sufficient resources then less stress and experience a sense of
challenge and if not then a great deal of stress is experienced

 The psychological and physiological response to a stressor is called strain

Walter Cannon's Contribution to Stress Research

• Described the fight-or-flight response (1932).

• This physiological response mobilizes the body to attack or flee.

• Evolved to include aggressive responses to stress, such as anger or action, and

social withdrawal.

• Adaptive but can disrupt emotional and physiological functioning, leading to

health problems.
 GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROM
 Another important early contribution to stress was Hans Selye’s (1956, 1976) work on the
general adaptation syndrome.

 Selye's work on stressors led to the development of the general adaptation syndrome.

 He observed that all stressors produced the same physiological changes: an enlarged adrenal
cortex, shrinking of the thymus and lymph glands, and ulceration of the stomach and
duodenum.

 Selye argued that when confronted with a stressor, the person mobilizes itself for action.

 The general adaptation syndrome consists of three phases: alarm, resistance, and
exhaustion.

• Alarm involves mobilization to meet the threat.

• Resistance involves efforts to cope with the threat.

• Exhaustion occurs if the person fails to overcome the threat, depleting its physiological
resources.
Alarm Reaction

• The first stage of the GAS mobilizes the body's resources,

similar to a fight-or-flight response.

• The sympathetic nervous system activates organs, including the

adrenal glands, releasing epinephrine and norepinephrine into the
bloodstream.

• The hypothalamus-pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) of the stress

response is activated, triggering the pituitary gland to secrete
ACTH(adrenocorticotropic hormone) and the adrenal gland to
release cortisol.

• This response speeds up and slows down bodily processes,

allowing resources to be applied where needed.

• Symptoms of the alarm reaction include headache, fever,

fatigue, sore muscles, shortness of breath, diarrhea, upset
stomach, loss of appetite, and lack of energy.
Stage of Resistance

• Stage of resistance occurs when a strong stressor persists,

reducing initial sympathetic nervous system reactions and
focusing on HPA activation.

• Physiological arousal remains high, and the body

replenishes hormones released by adrenal glands.

• Despite continuous physiological arousal, the body may

show few signs of stress, but its resistance to new stressors
may become impaired, potentially leading to diseases of
adaptation.

• During this stage, the body's defenses balance, causing

symptoms of the alarm reaction to disappear.

• However, this normality comes at a cost, reducing resistance

to other stresses.

• During this stage, signs of psychosomatic disorders start to

appear.
Stage of Exhaustion

• Prolonged physiological arousal from severe stress can

weaken the immune system and deplete energy reserves.

• If stress persists, disease, damage to internal organs, and death

may occur.

• Typical signs include anxiety, apathy, irritability, and mental

fatigue.

• Behavioral signs include avoidance of responsibilities,

extreme behavior, self-neglect, and poor judgment.

• Physical signs include excessive worry about illness, frequent

illness, exhaustion, overuse of medicines, and physical ailments.
 SOURCES OF STRESS THROUGHOUT LIFE

Babies, children, and adults all experience stress. The sources of stress may change as people develop, but stress can occur at
any time throughout life.
Sources that arise within the person, in the family, and in the community and society.

Sources within the person

1.Illness as a Stress Source

• Illness creates physical and psychological demands on the individual, affecting their stress levels.

• The severity of the illness and the individual's age significantly influence the stress levels.

• The body's ability to fight disease improves in childhood and declines in old age.

• The meaning of a serious illness changes with age, with adults focusing on current difficulties and future concerns.
2.Appraisal of opposing motivational forces, when a state of conflict exists

• Conflict arises when opposing motivational forces are appraised.

• Conflicts can be momentous or complex, with multiple alternatives and attractive features.

• People find conflict stressful when choices involve many features, opposing motivational forces are
equally strong, and the 'wrong' choice can lead to negative and permanent consequences.

The pushes and pulls of conflict produce opposing tendencies: approach and avoidance describes the
three types of conflict these tendencies produce

Approach-Approach Conflict Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict Approach-Avoidance Conflict

•Definition: This occurs when a •Definition: This arises when a •Definition: This occurs when a single
person is faced with two equally person is faced with two equally option has both positive and negative
desirable options. undesirable options. aspects.
•Characteristics: Both choices are •Characteristics: Both choices are •Characteristics: The individual is
attractive, making the decision unpleasant, creating a dilemma. simultaneously attracted to and
difficult. •Example: Choosing between repelled by the same choice.
•Example: Choosing between two studying for a difficult exam or •Example: Wanting to eat a delicious
dream vacation destinations or facing the consequences of failing. dessert but being concerned about
accepting two job offers with equal weight gain.
benefits.
3.Social Motives and Stressors
• Social motives include the need to be connected to others and concerns about achievement and status.
• Experiences of rejection, isolation, conflict with others, competition, failure, and disrespect are central sources of stress.
• The threat of being rejected or evaluated negatively by others can evoke large stress responses, including increased blood
pressure, cortisol, and other stress hormones.

Sources in the family

• Social motives play a significant role in stress, with close relationships being major sources of stress.

• Family tension and conflict can arise from financial problems, inconsiderate behavior, use of household resources, and
opposing goals.

• Three main sources of family stress are adding a new family member, marital conflict and divorce, and illness
and death.
1.An Addition to the Family
• A new child in the family brings stress, especially to the mother.
• The father may worry about the health of his wife and baby, and the need to earn more money.
• The child's emerging personality[personality
dispositions], or temperaments, is a significant factor in parental stress.
• Temperamentally difficult babies tend to cry a lot, resist new foods, routines, and people, and their patterns of sleeping and
eating are hard to predict.

2.High Stress During Pregnancy

• High levels of stress during pregnancy can adversely affect the baby, leading to premature births and below-normal weight.

3.Marital Strain and Divorce:

• Frequent and severe marital conflict can lead to significant health issues.
• Increased stress responses, such as blood pressure, cortisol, and other stress hormones, are observed in couples experiencing
chronic marital strain
• Divorce leads to stressful transitions for all family members, including children who may move to a new neighborhood, have
new sitters, or take on new chores.
• Adapting to divorce usually takes several years, with some children showing long-term effects.
4.Family Illness, Disability, and Death:

• Chronic illness in children can cause long-term stress in families, potentially leading to symptoms of post-traumatic stress
disorder.
• Adult illness or disability can strain financial resources and limit family time and freedom, leading to significant changes in
interpersonal relationships.
• The demands of related medical care can place burdens on both patients and their spouses.
• Age significantly impacts stress during family death.
• Childhood loss of a parent can be traumatic, leading to incomplete understanding of death.
• Surviving spouses also lose hope, expectations, roles, and companionship.
• Such losses can alter stress physiology and pose a threat to long-term health.

Stress Sources in Community and Society

• External sources of stress include school, competitive events, jobs, and environmental conditions.
• High workloads can lead to increased rates of accidents and health problems.
• Medical personnel have heavy workloads and must deal with life-or-death situations frequently.
• Poor interpersonal relationships can increase job stress when co-workers or customers are socially abrasive or treated
unfairly.
• Perceived inadequate recognition or advancement can lead to job loss and insecurity.
• Academic stressors in children
• Low socio-economic status
• Discrimination and mistreatment due to income, occupation, neighborhood, race, ethnicity, or sexual orientation can
increase stress responses and the risk of health problems
 Coping Style
Coping style is a propensity to deal with stressful events in a particular way.

Types of coping styles

Approach Versus Avoidance

Coping

Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused

Coping

Proactive Coping
Approach Versus Avoidance Coping

Approach Coping

Directly addresses the stressor: This involves confronting the situation head-on and working towards a solution. People with
this style are proactive and seek information, plan solutions, and take action to manage the problem.
Goal-oriented: Approachers are driven to find a resolution and achieve a positive outcome. They might seek social support or
use logic and problem-solving skills to navigate the situation.
Examples: Talking to a supervisor about a work issue, studying for an exam, seeking professional help for a mental health
concern.

Avoidance Coping

Focuses on escaping the stressor: This style prioritizes distancing oneself from the problem or the emotions it triggers.
People who rely heavily on avoidance might procrastinate, deny the issue exists, or use distractions to detach from the stress.
Short-term relief: Avoidance can offer temporary comfort by numbing emotions or delaying dealing with the situation.
However, it doesn't address the root cause and can lead to bigger problems in the long run.
Examples: Procrastinating on a deadline, mindlessly scrolling through social media, oversleeping to avoid a difficult
conversation.
Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping

Problem-Focused Coping
• Problem-focused coping involves constructive action against stressful conditions.
• Emotion-focused coping aims to regulate emotions experienced due to the stressful event.
• Both types of coping are useful in managing stressful events.
• The nature of the event influences the use of coping strategies.
• Work-related problems benefit from problem-focused coping, while health problems favor emotion-focused coping.
• People who can shift their coping strategies to meet situation demands cope better with stress.

Emotional Approach Coping

• Emotional-approach coping involves clarifying, focusing on, and working through emotions experienced in response to a
stressor.
• It improves adjustment to chronic conditions, including chronic pain and medical conditions like pregnancy and breast cancer.
• Emotional-approach coping is especially beneficial for women.
• It may be soothing and positively affect stress regulatory systems.
• It may lead to the attachment of important aspects of one's identity, leading to health benefits.
Proactive Coping

•Anticipation: The core of proactive coping lies in identifying potential stressors that might come your way. This could
involve reflecting on past experiences, considering upcoming events, or simply acknowledging the general uncertainties of
life.

•Planning and Preparation: Once you've anticipated potential challenges, proactive coping involves developing
strategies to address them. This might involve:
• Building resources: This could be anything from saving money for emergencies to developing strong social
support networks or acquiring new skills relevant to future challenges.
• Creating contingency plans: Having a backup plan for potential roadblocks can give you a sense of control and
reduce anxiety.
• Developing coping mechanisms: Learning relaxation techniques, practicing positive self-talk, or identifying
healthy outlets for expressing emotions can all be valuable tools in your proactive coping toolbox.

•Positive Mindset: Proactive coping is not just about anticipating problems; it's also about cultivating a positive and
future-oriented outlook. This can involve:
• Reframing challenges as opportunities: Viewing difficulties as chances for growth and learning can make them
less daunting.
• Maintaining optimism: A belief in your ability to handle challenges can boost your confidence and resilience.
 REFERENCE

Carlson, N. R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Pearson.

Sarafino, E. P., & Smith, T.W. (2012). Health Psychology: Biopsychosocial Interaction.
7th Edition. New Delhi: Wiley India.

Taylor, S. E. (2015). Health Psychology. 9th Edition. Delhi: Tata McGraw- Hill.
THANK
YOU