Module 7

Human Digestive System

Session Overview
✓ Introduction to Human Digestion
✓ Organs of the Digestive System
✓ Major Digestive Enzymes
✓ Fats Absorption and Digestion
✓ PT (Lec/Lab) Medical Case Presentation: Gastroenterology
 Human Digestive System
A. Introduction Functions of the Digestive System
Ingestion
✓ The oral cavity allows food to enter the digestive tract and have mastication
(chewing) occurs , and the resulting food bolus is swallowed .

Digestion
Mechanical digestion
✓ muscular movement of the digestive tract (mainly in the oral cavity and stomach)
physically break down food into smaller particles
Chemical digestion
✓ hydrolysis reactions aided by enzymes (mainly in the stomach and small intestine)
chemically break down food particles into nutrient molecules , small enough to be
absorbed.
 Human Digestive System
A. Introduction Functions of the Digestive System
Secretion
✓ Enzymes and digestive fluids secreted
by the digestive tract and its accessory
organs facilitate chemical digestion.
Absorption
✓ Passage of the end – products
(nutrients) of chemical digestion from
the digestive tract into blood or lymph
for distribution to tissue cells.
Elimination
✓ Undigested material will be released
through the rectum and anus by
defecation .
 Human Digestive System
A. Introduction
Organization of The Digestive System
Organs of the digestive system are divided
into 2 main group : the gastrointestinal tract
(GI tract) and accessory structures.

✓ GI tract is a continuous tube extending

through the ventral cavity from the mouth
to the anus – it consists of the mouth , oral
cavity , oropharynx , esophagus , stomach
, small intestine , large intestine , rectum ,
and anus.

✓ Accessory structures include the teeth,

tongue (in oral cavity) , salivary glands ,
liver , gallbladder , and pancreas .
 Human Digestive System
A. Introduction Muscular Movement of the GI tract

Peristalsis
✓ wavelike movement that occurs from the
oropharynx to the rectum , allowing GI tract to Peristalsis and Segmentation
push food particles toward the anus.
Mixing
✓ mixing motion in the oral cavity and stomach
that allows the GI tract to repeatedly break
down food into smaller particles , using
mechanical digestion.
Segmentation
✓ regions of the small intestine contracting and
relaxing independently , allowing the small
intestine to digestive and absorb more
Something to watch:
efficiently
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPPojZfAPNQ
 Human Digestive System
A. Introduction Histology of the Alimentary Canal
 Human Digestive System
A. Introduction Regulation of GI Tract Activities
Autonomic nervous system
✓ Parasympathetic nerves stimulate
GI tract activities
✓ Sympathetic nerves inhibit GI
tract activities.
Hormonal control
✓ Hormones from endocrine gland
and from GI tract itself help
regulate GI tract activities.
Reflex mechanism
✓ Regions of the GI tract (especially
the stomach and small intestine)
use reflexes to stimulate or inhibit
one another .
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Mouth and Oral Cavity
✓ Food enters the GI tract by ingestion.
✓ Food is broken down by mechanical digestion,
using mastication.
✓ One chemical digestive process occur where
amylase enzyme in saliva breaks down
polysaccharide into disaccharides.
✓ The tongue , made of skeletal muscle,
manipulates the food during mastication . it
also contains taste buds to detect taste
sensations(intrinsic).
✓ Food particles are mixed with saliva during
mastication , resulting in a moist lump called
bolus for easier passage into or pharynx .
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Mouth and Oral Cavity
Teeth

✓ Adapted for mechanical digestion

(mastication) in the oral cavity.
✓ 20 deciduous or primary teeth before
the age of 6.
✓ By age 7, 32 permanent or secondary
teeth are developed & are divided into
4 types: Incisors (for cutting) , Canines
(for tearing) , Premolars (for crushing),
and Molars (for grinding). These teeth
follow the human dental formula of 2-
1-2-3.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Mouth and Oral Cavity
Salivary Glands
✓ 3 pairs of salivary glands called parotid,
submandibular, and sublingual gland
secrete most of the saliva in the oral
cavity , using salivary ducts.
✓ Saliva helps moisten the food during
mastication , dissolve the food in forming
the bolus , and help cleanse the teeth.
✓ Saliva consists of 99.5% water , the
remaining 0.5% is dissolved substances
including amylase enzyme (for chemically
digesting carbohydrate ), bicarbonate ion
(HCO3 - ; maintains pH of saliva at 6.5- Something to watch:
7.5), and many electrolytes. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWJkETu6GbU
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Pharyngeal Cavity
Pharynx
✓ Is the part of the digestive system situated posterior
to the nasal and oral cavities and posterior to the
larynx. It is therefore divisible into nasal, oral, and
laryngeal parts: the (1) nasopharynx, (2) oropharynx,
and (3) laryngopharynx.
✓ The pharynx extends from the base of the skull down
to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage (around
the C6 vertebral level), where it becomes continuous
with the esophagus.
✓ The pharynx is the common channel for deglutition
(swallowing) and respiration, and the food and air
pathways cross each other in the pharynx.
✓ In the anesthetized patient, the passage of air
through the pharynx is facilitated by extension of the
neck. Something to watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wsaWuy8rzY
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Esophagus
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
Stomach
✓A pouch-like organ primarily designed for food storage (for 2-4
hours) , some mechanical and chemical digestion also occur.
✓Contains two sphincters at both ends to regulate food movement
– cardiac sphincter near the esophagus, and pyloric sphincter
near the small intestine.
✓Divided into 4 regions : cardiac stomach (or Cardiac), fundic
stomach (or Funded) , body of stomach, and pyloric stomach (or
Pylorus).
✓Contain thick folds called rugae at its layer , for providing larger
surface area for expansion, secretion , digestion , and some
absorption.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
Gastric Secretory Cells

✓ Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (an inactive

enzyme).
✓ Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric acid and
(HCl) and "intrinsic factor" (which helps
absorption of vitamin B12 in the intestines).
✓ Mucous cells: secrete mucus and alkaline
substances to help neutralize HCl in the
gastric juice.
✓ G cells: secrete a hormone called gastrin ,
which stimulates the parietal cells and overall Gastric Cells
gastric secretion . Something to watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-fWC0ka82zE
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
Chemical Digestion & Absorption in the Stomach

✓Carbohydrate digestion is continued with gastric amylase , resulting in

disaccharides.
✓Protein digestion begins with pepsin (activation of pepsinogen by HCl) ,
resulting in peptides (small chains of protein).
✓Lipid digestion begins with gastric lipases which can only break down certain
lipids such as butterfat , resulting in fatty acids.
✓Absorption in the stomach is limited, where only small and fat-soluble
substances can be absorbed—water , alcohol, aspirin , and certain drugs.
✓The result of all these mixing , chemical digestion , secretion, and absorption
is a yellowish paste called chyme , which will be passed on to the small
intestine .
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
Regulation of Gastric Secretion

✓Regulation of gastric secretion and activities is by both nervous and hormonal

mechanisms – food moving along the oral cavity and esophagus stimulates
the parasympathetic nerves to activate the secretion in gastric glands , the
gastric hormone from G cells in turn stimulates the gastric glands for more
activities ("positive feedback").
✓On the other hand , when food is emptying from the stomach , sympathetic
nerves inhibit the gastric glands and gastric , and a hormone called intestinal
gastrin (released by small intestine) inhibits other gastric activities.
✓The above regulations occur in 3 overlapping phases: Cephalic Phase, Gastric
Phase, & Intestinal Phase.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach

Stomach: Neural & Hormonal Mechanisms

 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
Cephalic Phase
✓ involves special senses detect food
and uses parasympathetic nerves in
the vagus nerve to stimulate gastric
activities.
1. Sight, Smell , and Taste of food cause
stimulation of vagus nuclei in brain.
2. Vagus stimulates acid secretion.
a. Direct stimulation of parietal cells
(major effect).
b. Stimulation of Gastrin secretion
(lesser effect)
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
Gastric Phase
✓ Involves the distention of stomach and
stimulates its own activities by the vagus
nerve. Distension of stomach (stretch -
receptors) stimulates vagus nerve ; vagus
stimulates acid secretion.
✓ Amino acids and peptides in stomach
lumen stimulates acid secretion (chemo -
receptors).
✓ Direct stimulation of parietal cells (lesser
effect)
✓ Stimulation of gastrin secretion ; gastrin
stimulates acid secretion (major effect).
✓ Gastrin secretion inhibited when PH of
gastric juice falls below 2.5.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Stomach
Intestinal Phase
✓ Involves acidic chyme passing into the small intestine
which secretes intestinal gastrin hormone to inhibit
gastric activates.
✓ Neural inhibition of gastric emptying and acid
secretion. Arrival of chyme in duodenum causes
distension & an increase in osmotic pressure. These
stimuli activate a neural reflex that inhibits gastric
activity.
✓ In response to fat in chyme , duodenum secretes the
hormone, secretin that inhibits gastric acid
secretion.
✓ The enterogastric reflex: This reflex begins in the
small intestine (entero) and ends in the stomach
(gastro).
✓ Duodenum fills with chyme. Sensory stretch
receptors are stimulated. Sensory nerve impulses
travel to CNS. Nerve impulses from CNS (vagus)
inhibit peristalsis in stomach wall.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Pancreas

✓Most pancreatic enzymes are produced as inactivate molecules , or

zymogens , so that the risk of self – digestion within the pancreas is
minimized.
✓More than 98% of the pancreas mass is devoted to its exocrine function: the
secretion of pancreatic juice by the pancreatic acini and their ductile cells.
Ductile cells produce Sodium bicarbonate which helps neutralize the acidic
gastric contents.
✓Acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas produce a variety of digestive enzymes
to break down food substances into smaller absorbable molecules.
✓Only 2% of pancreas mass is devoted to the islets of langerhan , which
produce insulin and glucagon , hormones that regulate blood sugar and
carbohydrate metabolism (they have opposite effects) .
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Pancreas
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Pancreas
Major Pancreatic Enzymes
❖Pancreatic amylase: digest polysaccharides into disaccharides.

❖Pancreatic lipases digest triglycerides into fatty acids.

❖Pancreatic nucleases digest nucleic acids into nucleotides.

❖Pancreatic proteinases (all secreted in their inactive forms) digest

peptides into amino acids:
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase (secreted by duodenum) into
trypsin , which in turn activates the other 3 enzymes – chymotrypsinogen
becomes chymotrypisn , proaminopeptidase becomes aminopeptidase,
and procarboxypeptidase becomes carboxypeptidase.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Pancreas

Activation of
Pancreatic Proteases
in the Small Intestine

Something to watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZ4zcrTzUjA
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Pancreas
Pancreatic Secretion
1. The parasympathetic nervous system
increases pancreatic secretion
2. Two duodenal hormones also
influence pancreatic secretion:
Secretin and Cholecystokinin.
3. Food entering the small intestine
stimulates the secretion of both
hormones.
4. Secretin stimulates the secretion of
pancreatic electrolyte – rich fluid ,
while CCK enhances the enzymatic
secretions of the pancreas .
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Pancreas

Regulation of Pancreatic Juice

1. Acidic chyme enters duodenum.
2. Secretin is released into blood stream
from intestinal mucosa.
3. Secretin stimulates pancreas.
4. Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice.
5. Pancreatic juice , high in bicarbonate
ions , neutralizes acidic chyme.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Liver

Functions of The Liver

✓Important in carbohydrate metabolism where hepatic cells conduct
glycogenesis (converting glucose into glycogen) , and glycogenolysis
(breaking glycogen down to glucose).
✓Also is critical in lipid metabolism where hepatic cells produce bile (for
fat emulsification), oxidize fatty acids , synthesize various forms of
lipids ,and convert glucose to fatty acids (lipogenesis).
✓Storage of glycogen, iron , and vitamins A,D,B12.
✓Contains phagocytes to destroy damaged erythrocytes and foreign
substances, using phagocytosis.
✓Detoxifies harmful substances in the blood.
✓Serves as a blood reservoir (contains 7% of blood volume).
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Liver

Something to watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbh3SjzydnQ
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Gall Bladder

✓A small sac located on the inferior , visceral surface of the liver.

✓Stores and concentrates bile secreted by the liver.

Regulation of Bile Release:

1. Chyme with fat enters small intestine.
2. Cells of intestinal mucosa secrete the hormone Cholecystokinin (CCK)
into the blood stream.
3. CCK stimulates muscular layer of gallbladder wall to contract.
4. Bile passes down the cystic duct and common bile duct to duodenum.
5. Hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxes and bile enters duodenum.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Gall Bladder
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Small Intestine

✓A long tube, with a small

diameter (about 1 inch),
extending from pyloric
sphincter to the ileocecal
valve.

✓Divided into Duodenum,

Jejunum, and Ileum.

Something to watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gkERcbBFyOs
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Small Intestine
Secretions of small intestine:

✓ Intestinal glands secrete a watery fluid that lack digestive enzymes but provides a
vehicle for moving chyme to villi

✓ Intestinal enzymes include :

- Maltase digests maltose into glucose
- Sucrose digests sucrose into glucose and fructose
- Lactase digests sucrose into glucose and glucose.
- Peptidases digest peptides into amino acids
- Lipases digest triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol .
- Nucleases digest nucleotides into nitrogenous bases
- Enterokinase converts trypsinogen into trypsin.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Small Intestine

Secretions of small intestine:

✓ Digestive enzymes embedded in

the surfaces of microvilli split
molecules of sugars, proteins and
fats.
✓ Regulation of small intestine
secretions: secretion is stimulated
by gastric juice , chyme , and
reflex stimulated by distension of
the small intestinal wall .
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Small Intestine
Secretions of small intestine:

✓ Each villus contains blood capillaries to

absorb water , glucose , amino acids ,
vitamins , minerals , and short-chain fatty
acids , and also contains lymphatic
capillaries called lacteals to absorb long –
chain fatty acids in the forms of micelles.

✓ Water is absorbed by osmosis , fatty acids

are absorbed by diffusion (since they are fat-
soluble), and most other nutrients (glucose,
amino acids, & minerals) are absorbed by
active transport.
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Large Intestine

✓ The last segment of the GI tract ,

with a large diameter (2-3
inches) , extending from the
ileocecal valve to the anus.

✓ Divided into cecum , ascending

colon , transverse colon ,
descending colon , sigmoid
colon , rectum , anal canal , and
anus.

Something to watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8gmFGR3x2A
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Large Intestine

✓ The large intestine has little or no digestive function , although it secretes

mucus. Its mucosa has no villa or microvillus , but contains numerous goblet
cells for secreting mucus to aid in the formation of feces and maintain an
alkaline condition.
✓ Mechanical stimulation and parasympathetic impulses control the rate of
mucus secretion.
✓ The large intestine only absorbs water, electrolytes and some vitamins.
✓ Many bacteria inhabit the large intestine , where they break down certain
indigestible substances and synthesize certain vitamins.
✓ Feces are formed and stored in the large intestine. Defecation involves a reflex
mechanism aided by voluntary contraction of the diaphragm , abdominal
muscles ,and the external anal sphincter .
 Human Digestive System
B. Organs of the Digestive System Large Intestine
Major Hormones of The Digestive Tract

1. Gastrin : (Gastric & intestinal) : released by Gastric cells , in response to the

presence of food. Causes Gastric glands to increase their secretory activity.
2. Somatostatin : (Gastric inhibitory peptides - GIP): Inhibits secretion of acid
by parietal cells.
3. Cholecystokinin : released by intestinal wall cells , in response to the
presence of proteins and fats in the small intestine. It causes gastric glands
to decrease their secretory activity and inhibits gastric motility ; stimulation
of pancreas to secrete digestive enzyme; stimulates gall – bladder to contract
and release bile.
4. Secretin: released by cells in the duodenal wall, in response to acidic chyme
entering the small intestine.
 Human Digestive System
C. Major Digestive Enzymes
❖Salivary enzyme: Begins carbohydrates digestion by breaking down starch and
glycogen to disaccharides
❖Gastric enzymes:
Pepsin , from Gastric glands – Begins protein digestion
Lipase, from Gastric glands – Begins fat digestion.
❖Pancreatic enzymes:
Amylase , from pancreas – breaks down starch and glycogen into disaccharides.
Lipase, from pancreas – breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
❖Proteolytic enzymes :
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, and Carboxypeptidase from pancreas breaks down
peptides into amino acids .
Nucleases, from pancreas breaks down nucleic acids into nucleotides
 Human Digestive System
C. Major Digestive Enzymes
 Human Digestive System
C. Major Digestive Enzymes
Intestinal Enzymes:

❖Peptidase, from mucosal cells, breaks down

peptides into amino acids.
❖Sucrase, maltase, and lactase , from mucosal
cells, breaks down disaccharides into
monosaccharides.
❖Lipase, from mucosal cells, breaks down fats
into fatty acid and glycerol.
❖Enterokinase , from mucosal cells, (breaks
down) converts trypsinogen into trypsin .
 Human Digestive System
D. Fat Absorption and Digestion
 PT (Lec/Lab)
Medical Case Presentation:
Gastroenterology

See the Medical Case Assignment on the page

 Human Digestive System
PT Medical Case Assignment:
- Achalasia
- Cholecystitis
- Cholelithiasis
- Cholestasis
Research Highlight!
- Cirrhosis
- Accessory Digestive Organ: Appendix, Functions and Importance
- Diverticulitis
- The Damaging Potentials of Alcohol in the Human Digestive System
- Dysentery
- The Normal Flora
- Dyspepsia
- Bifidus and Lactobacilli: Gut Helpers and Cleaners
- Dysphasia
- My Sweet Saliva: Content and Composition Meaning
- Enteritis
- My Daily Poop Graphical Presentation and Analysis
- Halitosis
- Hemorrhoid
- Hernia
 • Van Putt, Cinnamon; Regan, Jennifer L.; Russo,
Andrew F., Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology, 2015, 9th Edition, Mc Graw Hill Publishing
• Shier, David; Butler, Jackie; Lewis, Ricki. Hole’s Human
Anatomy and Physiology, 2016, 12th Edition, Mc Graw
Hill Publishing
• Links:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPPojZfAPNQ
References https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWJkETu6GbU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wsaWuy8rzY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-fWC0ka82zE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZ4zcrTzUjA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbh3SjzydnQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gkERcbBFyOs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8gmFGR3x2A