Physics Record Writing Instruction

1. Write the Record Notebook using Blue and Black ball point pens.
2. Use pencil to draw diagram graph and tables. (Don’t write any readings in the
table)
3. Write the names of the experiments on the index page as per order Section-A(Four
Experiments),Section-B (Four Experiments) followed by Activities Section-A(3
Activities), Section-B(3 Activities)
4. The unruled side of the record notebook to be used to draw Diagrams, Table,
Graph, and to solve Calculations of experiments.
5. The record with ruled lines side is for writing Aim, Apparatus required, Formula
and Explanation, Procedure, Precautions, Sources of error, Result.
6. Each experiments required minimum 3 pages maximum 5 pages of both ruled and
unruled side
7. The underlined pages indicating contents to be written ruled side of the record
8. The result must be written on the last page of the ruled side last 5 lines
9. Avoid using pens on the unruled side of the record
10. Don’t write any of this instruction on the record which is given for your
understanding
 Physics Practical

Index Page

Experiments

Section -A
1.To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference versus current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge.
3. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
4.To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

Section-B

5.To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v.
6.To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
7.To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
8.To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward and
reverse bias.

Activities

Section-A

1.To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a
power source.
2.To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
3.To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Section-B

4.To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
5.To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass
slab.
6.To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by using a
candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens)
 OHM's LAW

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Model Graph
 Left Side of the Record (Unruled Side) content -Page-2

Draw the Tables below two times for Wire -1 & Wire-2

Table-2

S. No Linear Scale Reading Circular Scale Total Reading

(LSR) Reading (CSR) =(LSR+(CSR x LC))
 Left Side of the Record (Unruled Side) content -Page-3

Calculation:
 Right Side of the Record Notebook page-1

OHM's LAW

AIM:
To determine the resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.

Required Apparatus:

Two resistance wires, a voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery/battery

eliminator, a rheostat, a meter scale, a one-way key, connecting wires, and a screw gauge.

Formula

Where R is the constant of proportionality, it is known as the resistance of the conductor. R

depends on the nature of the material, temperature and dimension of the conductor.

Specific resistance (ρ) of the material is given by

Where L is the length, D is the diameter of the given wire.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove any
insulating coating on them.
2. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and ammeter.
3. Note whether pointers in milliammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the
measuring scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the
screw provided near the base of the needle using a screw driver.
4. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that current
passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
6. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
 Right Side of the Record Notebook page-2

Precautions:

The connection should be neat clean and tight.

Thick connections wire should be used for the connections.
The voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
A low-resistance rheostat should be used.
The key should be inserted only while taking observation to avoid heating of resistance.
At one place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular
directions.
The wire should not make a loop.

Source of Error:

The instrument crew may be lost.

Thick connection wires may not be available.
Rheostat may have high resistance.
The wire may not have uniform thickness.
The screw gauge may have faults like a ‘back lash’ error and a wrong pitch.
 Right Side of the Record Notebook page-3

Result
Resistance of first wire from table =
Resistivity of 1st wire=
Resistance of 2nd wire from table =
Resistivity of 2nd wire =
 Experiment-2

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Meter Bridge
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 Left Side of the Record (Unruled Side) content -Page-3

Calculation
 Experiment – 2
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Meter Bridge

Aim:
To determine the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long (of material whose specific resistance is to be determined),
a resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires, sand paper, screw gauge.
Formula :

Where,
R is known resistance placed in the left gap of the metre bridge.

X is the unknown resistance placed in the right gap of the metre bridge.

L (cm) is the length of the metre bridge wire from zero end up to the balance point.
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

PROCEDURE
1. Find the average diameter of the wire with a screw gauge. From this, obtain the value of its
radius r.
2. Clean the insulation at the ends of connecting wires with a piece of sand paper. Tighten all
plugs of the resistance box (RBOX) by pressing each plug.
3. Set up the circuit with unknown resistance wire of known length in gap E.
4. Next, introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box. Bring the jockey J in
contact with terminal A first and then with terminal C. Note the direction in which pointer of
the galvanometer gets deflected in each case. Make sure that jockey remains in contact with the
wire for a fraction of a second. If the galvanometer shows deflection on both sides of its zero
mark for these two points of contact of the jockey, null point will be somewhere on the wire
AC. If it is not so, adjust resistance R so that the null point is somewhere in the middle of the
wire AC, say, between 30 cm and 70 cm.
5. If there is one-sided deflection, check the circuit again, especially junctions, for their
continuity.
6. Repeat step 4 for four different values of resistance R.
7. Interchange the position of the resistances S and R and repeat steps 4 to 6 for the same five
values of R. While interchanging S and R, ensure that the same length of wire of resistance S is
now in the gap F. The interchange takes care of unaccounted resistance offered by terminals.
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-3

Precautions:
The balance point should lie between 40 cm and 60 cm.
All connections should be clean and tight.
Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of the metre bridge.
Move the jockey gently on the wire and do not keep the jockey and wire in contact for a long
time.

Sources of Error:
The key of the resistance box may not be clean and tight.
The wire may not be uniformly thick throughout.
The screw of the instruments may be loose

Result:

The value of unknown resistance X is —------ Ω

 Experiment-3

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Meter Bridge-Series
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Table

Resistance S. No Resistance Balancing 100-l Unknown Mean

coil from the Length (l) Resistance Resistance
Resistance r=
Box 100−𝑙
xR
𝑙

R1 only

R2 only

R1 &R2 in
Series
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Calculation:
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Meter Bridge -Series

Aim:
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances by using a meter bridge.

Required Apparatus:

A metre bridge, battery eliminator, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistance
wires or two resistance coils of known resistances, a set square, connecting wires, a piece of
sandpaper.

Formula

The resistance r of a resistance wire or coil is given by

Where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance r in the right gap of
the metre bridge. I cm is the length of a metre bridge wire from zero end up to the balance
point.

(ii) When r1 and r2 are connected in series, then their combined resistance.
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit

2. Tighten all plugs in the resistance box (RBOX) by rotating and pressing each plug to ensure
that all plugs make good electrical contacts. Clean the ends of connecting wires using a sand
paper before making the connections.
3. Remove some plug(s) from the resistance box to get suitable value of resistance R. Obtain the
null point D on the metre bridge wire by sliding the jockey between ends A and C.
4. Note resistance R and lengths AD and DC in the observation table.
5. Calculate the experimental value of the equivalent series resistance (X) of combination of
resistances
6. Repeat the experiment for four more values of resistances R. Obtain the mean value of
unknown resistance.

Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.

2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
3. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn’t be rubbed.
4. The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. The null point should be between 30 cm and 70 cm.
6. To avoid the error of parallax, the set square should be used to note the null point.
7. There shouldn’t be any loops in the wire.

Sources Of Error:

1. The screws of the instrument might be loose.

2. The plugs may not be clean.

3. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.

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Result
The laws of combination (series) of resistances by using a meter bridge is verified.
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Experiment-4

Diagram-1

Diagram-2
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Table-1

S.No Resistance R Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanomete

(Ohm) Galvanomete Resistance S Deflection r Resistance
r(θ) (Ohm) θ/2 G=RS/R-S

Table -2
Figure of Merit

Emf of Battery Resistance Deflection In Figure of Merit

(Volt) (Ohm) Galvanometer K=E/(R+G)θ
(θ) divisions
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Calculations
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Galvanometer-Half Deflection Method (Figure of Merit)

AIM:
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

Apparatus Required:
A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10000 ohm and
1000 ohm) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an
ammeter if given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Formula:

a) To find the resistance of galvanometer:

Where,

G is the resistance of the galvanometer

R is the resistance of the resistance box.

S is the shunt resistance.

b) To find the figure of merit:

The figure of merit is current per unit deflection.

OR

Where,

I is the current in the circuit.

k is the figure of merit.

 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

θ is the deflection.

E is the e.m.f. of the cell or battery eliminator.

b) To find the figure of merit:

The figure of merit is current per unit deflection.

OR

figure-of-merit-formula
Where,

I is the current in the circuit.

k is the figure of merit.

θ is the deflection.

E is the e.m.f. of the cell or battery eliminator.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and tight connections as per the
circuit diagram
2. From the high resistance box (RBOX 1) (1-10 kΩ), remove 5 kΩ key and then close the key
K1 . Adjust the resistance R from this resistance box to get full scale deflection on the
galvanometer dial. Record the values of resistance, R and deflection θ.
3. Insert the key K2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt resistance S to get the
deflection in the galvanometer which is exactly half of θ. Note down S. Remove plug K2
after noting down the value of shunt resistance, S.
4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that θ is even number of divisions
and record the observations for R, S, θ and 2θ in tabular form.
5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k of
galvanometer
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-3

Precautions:

1. All connections must be neat and tight.

2. Key Kl should be closed after taking out a high resistance from theresistance box R.
3. The deflection of galvanometer should be large.
4. The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
5. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.

Sources Of Error:

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The emf of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Result:
Resistance of given Galvanometer, G—---
Figure of merit of Given Galvanometer, k—----
 Section -B
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Model Graph
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S.No Object Lens(cm) Image Object distance Image

Needle(cm) needle(cm) (cm) distance
(cm)
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Calculation
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Experiment-5

Convex Lens

Aim:
Find the focal length of convex lens by plotting a graph between u and v.

Formula

Where,

f = focal length of convex lens.

u = distance of object needle from optical centre of lens.

v = distance of image needle from optical centre of lens.

Note:- According to sign convention u has -ve value and v has +ve value, hence f comes +ve .
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

PROCEDURE
1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex lens by focusing the image of
a distant object. It can be found by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a distant tree on a screen,
say a plane wall, or a sheet of paper placed on the other side of the lens and measuring the distance
between the lens and the image with a scale. This distance is a rough estimate of the focal length,
f of the convex lens.
Note: Do not look at the image of Sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform, and using the spirit level, make it
horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided at the base of the bench.
3. Clamp the convex lens on an upright and mount it vertically almost near to the middle of the
optical bench such that its principal axis is parallel to the optical bench. In this position, the lens
would lie in a plane perpendicular to the optical bench.
4. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted pin close to the lens. Adjust the
index needle (a sharp-edged knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally such
that its one end touches one of the curved surfaces of the lens and the other end touches the tip of
the pin. Note the positions of the two uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. The
difference of the two would give the observed length of the index needle. The actual length
between the tip of the pin and optical centre O would be length of the index needle (as measured
by a scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens because optical centre of a double convex lens
with surfaces of equal curvature is at its geometrical centre. The difference of the two lengths is
the index correction. Find index correction for both the pins.
5. Place the vertically mounted sharp pins P and P′ on left- and right-hand sides of the lens
respectively. Adjust the pins P and P′ so that the heights of the tips of these pins
become equal to the height of the optical centre O of the lens from the base of the optical bench.
Let the pin P (placed on left hand side of the lens) be the object pin and the pin P′ (lying on right
hand side) be the image pin. Put a small piece of paper on one of the pins (say on image pin P′)
to differentiate it from the object pin P′.
6. Displace the object pin P (on left side of the lens) to a distance slightly less than 2f from the
optical centre O of the lens Locate the position of the real and inverted image on
the other side of the lens above the image pin P′.
7. Using the method of parallax, adjust the position of the image pin P′ such that the image of the
object pin P coincides with the image pin P′.
Note: As the value of u changes from 2f to f, v changes from 2f to infinity. Since the values of u
and v are interchangeable, i.e., the object and image are two conjugate points, therefore it is clear
that complete range of values for both u and v between f and infinity are obtained
for a movement of the object pin over the range 2f to f.
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-3

8. Note the upright position of the object pin, convex lens and image pin on the optical bench and
record the readings in an observation table.
9. Move the object pin P closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say by 2 cm or 3 cm). Repeat
the experiment and record at least six sets of readings for various distances of object pin between
f and 2f from the lens.

Precautions

The tips of the needles and the centre of the lens should be at the same height.
Parallax must be removed tip to tip.
The index correction should be taken into account.
The uprights carrying the lens and the needles should not be shaky.

Sources of error

The needles are not at the same height.

Index correction not properly applied.
Parallax not removed.

Result
From graph, focal length of convex lens is —-
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Experiment -6

Angle of Minimum Deviation

Model Graph
 Left Side (Unruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

Table

S.No Angle of incidence (I) Angle of Deviation(Dm)

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Calculation
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Angle of Minimum Deviation

Aim:
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation

Apparatus Required:

A drawing board, a sheet of paper, a pencil, a glass triangular prism, pins, a half-meter scale,
graph paper and a protractor.

Formula Used:

angle-of-minimum-deviation-by-prism
where,
n is the refractive index of the glass prism.

A is the angle of the prism

Dm is the minimum deviation.

 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of cello tape or drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XY, using a sharp pencil nearly in the middle and parallel to the length
of the paper.
3. Mark points O1, O2, O3. ., . . . . on the straight line XY at suitable
distances of about 8 to 10 cm and draw normal N1O1, N2 O2, N3 O3. . . . on these points
4.Draw straight lines, P1 O1, P2O2, P3O3, . . . corresponding to the incident rays making
angles of incidence at 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, . . . 60° respectively with the normal, using a
protractor. Write the values of the angles ∠P1O1 N1, ∠P2O2N2, ∠P3O3N3,... on the white
paper sheet.
5. Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XY with point O1 in the middle of AB
as shown in the figure. Draw the boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
6.Fix two pins Pl and Q1 with sharp tips vertically about 10 cm apart, on the incident ray line Pl
Ql such that pin Q1 is close to point O1. Close one eye (say left) and looking through
the prism, bring your right eye in line with the images of the pins Pl and Ql. Fix pins Rl and Sl
about 10 cm apart vertically on the white paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the
images of pins Pl and Ql . In this way pins R1 and S1 will become collinear, with the images of
pins P1 and Q1.
7. Remove the pins Rl and Sl and encircle their pin pricks on the white paper sheet with the help
of a sharp pencil. Remove the pins P1 and Q1 and encircle their pin pricks also.
8. Join the points ( or pin pricks) Rl and Sl with the help of a sharp
pencil and scale, to obtain the emergent ray Rl Sl . Produce it backwards to meet the incident
ray Pl Ql (produced forward) at T1. Draw arrowheads on Pl Ql and R1 S1 to show the direction
of the rays.
9. Measure the angle of deviation l and the angle BAC (angle A) of the prism with a protractor
and write the values of these angles indicated in the diagram.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for different values of angle of incidence (40°,45°, 50°...) and measure the
corresponding angles of deviation2, 3... with the protractor, and indicate them in the respective
diagrams.
11. Record observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-3

Precautions:
35°- 55° is the angle of incidence that needs to be maintained.
The placement of the pins must be vertical.
The placement of two pins should be such that the distance is not more than 10mm.
To represent incident and emergent rays, arrowheads must be marked.
The angle of the prism used should be the same for all the observations.

Sources of error:
The pricks made by the pin might be thick.
Angles might be wrong while measuring them.

Result:
Angle of minimum deviation, Dm= —----
the refractive index of the material of the prism, n= —----
The graph indicates as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases to
attain the minimum value of Dm and then again increases with the angle of incidence.
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Experiment -7
Travelling Microscope
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Table

S.No R1 R2 R3 R3-R1 R3-R2 𝑅3−𝑅1

n=
𝑅3−𝑅2
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Calculation
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Travelling Microscope
Aim:
To determine the refractive index of glass by using travelling microscope.

Apparatus required

A travelling microscope with vernier scale, a glass slab, white paper, a pen and lycopodium
powder

Formula

Where,

n-Refractive index
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

Procedure:

1. Find the least count of the microscope scale, being used.

2. Put a mark on a sheet of paper.
3. Place the paper on the horizontal platform of the microscope. Adjust the microscope in such a
way that its lens system is vertically above the mark.
4. Focus the microscope on the mark and record the reading a1 using Main Scale Reading
(MSR) and Vernier Scale Reading (VSR) of its coinciding division.
5. Next, place the glass slab over the mark on the sheet of paper.
6. Move the microscope upward until mark on the paper, seen through the slab is sharp and
clear. Take the reading a2 with the main scale and coinciding division of the vernier scale.
7. Spread a little lycopodium powder/chalk dust over the top surface of the glass slab.
8. Raise the lens system of the microscope and focus the microscope to see some of their
particles clearly and record reading a3.
9. Invert the slab and repeat steps 3 to 8

PRECAUTIONS
1.once focussed on the cross-mark, the focussing should not be disturbed throughout the
experiment. Only rack and pinion screw should be used to raise the microscope upward.
Only a thin layer of lycopodium powder should be spread on the top of the slab.
2.The microscope tube should be vertical.
3.Microscope should not be shaky.
4.Eyepiece should be adjusted so that cross-wires are distinctly seen.
5.As far as possible, the rack and pinion screw should be moved in one direction only to avoid
backlash error.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1.The scale used in the microscope might be calibration property.
2.Microscope tube may not be exactly vertical.
3.The lycopodium powder layer on the glass slab might be thick.
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-3

Result:
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope —----
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Experiment-8
PN junction diode

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias
 Left Side (Unruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

Forward Bias

S.No Forward Voltage(V) Forward Current(I)(mA)

Reverse bias

S.No Reverse Voltage (V) Reverse Current (µA)

 Left Side (Unruled side) of the Record Notebook page-3

Model Graph
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-1

PN junction diode

AIM
To draw the I - V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

A p-n junction diode, a resistor, one variable voltage power supply, voltmeter, milliammeter, a
plug key, connecting wires, sand paper and a microammeter

PROCEDURE

1. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter (V), milliammeter (mA) and the
microammeter (µA).
2. Remove the insulating layers from the connecting wires and leads of diode using a
sand paper.
3. Connect the variable voltage power supply, p-n junction diode, voltmeter, milliammeter,
resistor and a plug key in a circuit
4. Initially when the key is open, you would note at this stage, that no current is flowing through
the circuit. Now close the key.
5. Give a small voltage to the circuit by slight and gentle turning of the power supply knob.
Note the voltmeter reading across the diode and the corresponding milliammeter reading to find
the current I flowing through the diode.
6. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps) in the circuit and note the corresponding
voltmeter and milliammeter readings The value of current flowing through the diode would be
negligibly small till the voltage across the diode exceeds the value of its cut in or threshold
voltage. After the cut- in voltage, the variation in current will be rapid.
7. Once the threshold voltage is reached, vary the diode voltage very slowly (preferably in steps
of 0.1V) noting the corresponding current I flowing through the diode. Continue increasing
voltage till the current reaches the limit of the milliammeter.
8. Now disconnect the circuit and make the connections for the reverse bias characteristics.
Connect p-side of p-n junction diode to the negative terminal of the power supply and replace
milliammeter with a microammeter. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps)
in the circuit and note the corresponding voltmeter and microammeter readings in Table In this
part of experiment, with the given supply voltage you will get only flat portion of the
reverse bias characteristic curve.
 Right Side (Ruled side) of the Record Notebook page-2

PRECAUTIONS
1. Find out manufacturer’s specification for maximum permissible current through the given
diode in forward bias. Take care not to exceed this limit.
2. Find out manufacturer’s specification for maximum reverse voltage to be applied to the
diode. Take care not to exceed this limit.
3. It is important to take care that the potential difference across the diode is increased
gradually, in small steps. Keep your eyes on the ammeter and let the current not exceed the
specified limit.

RESULT
I-V characteristics of forward and reverse bias diode Are drawn.
A. The value of cut-in voltage for the given diode is ... V