ATOMS, COMPOUNDS, AND IONS

Dalton's Atomic Theory (00:01 - 09:55)

• John Dalton's atomic theory states that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter.

o Atoms of a given element are identical to one another in mass and other properties.

o Atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

• Law of conservation of mass: Total mass of substances before and after a chemical process
remains the same.

• Law of multiple proportions: If two elements form more than one compound, the masses of the
second element combined with a given mass of the first are in the ratio of small whole numbers.

Subatomic Particles

• Protons have a charge of +1, electrons have a charge of -1, and neutrons are neutral.

o Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass, while electrons have a much
smaller mass.

• The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, while electrons orbit around the nucleus.

Atomic Mass Unit

• Atoms have extremely small masses, with the heaviest known atom having a mass of
approximately 4.0 x 10^-22 grams.

o The atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 1.66054 x 10^-24 grams.

• Atomic mass unit (amu) is used as the base unit for measuring atomic masses.

Measurement of Atomic and Molecular Weight (10:01 - 20:00)

• "Atomic and molecular weight can be measured with greater accuracy using a mass
spectrometer."

• Mass spectrometer compares elements to the mass of a carbon atom with six protons and six
neutrons.

o Mass spectrometer can detect and separate elements with high accuracy.
Symbols of Elements

• The symbol of an element consists of one or two letters.

o The first letter of the symbol is typically a capital letter while the second letter is a
lowercase letter.

• The atomic number of an element represents the number of protons or electrons and is denoted
by "Z" as a subscript before the symbol.

o The mass number, representing the total number of protons and neutrons, is written as
a superscript before the symbol.

• All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, known as the atomic number.

Isotopes of Elements

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses due to varying numbers of
neutrons.

o Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

• Carbon has four isotopes: carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14.

 o The number of neutrons in each isotope can be determined by subtracting the atomic
number from the mass number.

Atomic Weight

• The atomic weight of an element is found using the average masses of all isotopes weighted by
their relative abundance.

• The atomic weight is calculated as the sum of the isotope mass times the fractional natural
abundance for each isotope.

o For example, the atomic weight of chlorine is calculated by considering the abundance
and atomic mass of its isotopes.

Periodic Table

• The periodic table is a systematic organization of elements based on their atomic number.

• Elements are arranged in order of atomic number, with the element's symbol and atomic
number displayed for each element.

Periodic Table (20:04 - 30:02)

• The rows on the periodic table are called periods.

o Period 1: composed of hydrogen and helium.

o Period 2: goes from lithium to neon.

o Period 3: goes from sodium to argon.

o Period 4: goes from potassium to krypton.

• The columns are called the groups.

o Group A: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, and noble gases.

o Group B: transition metals.

• Transitional elements or transition metals in the same group have similar chemical properties.

• The periodic table is called periodic because of the repeating pattern of activity in the chemical
properties of elements.

Metal, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

• Metals are found at the left side of the periodic table.

o Properties of metals include being shiny, conducting heat and electricity, and being solid
(except for mercury).

• Nonmetals are found at the right side of the periodic table.

o They can be solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature.

 • Metalloids have properties sometimes like metals and sometimes like nonmetals and are found
in a step-like line on the table.

Chemical Formulas

• The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells us the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of the compound.

• Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

• There are diatomic molecules like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and
iodine.

• Empirical formulas give the lowest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.

• Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound.

• From the molecular formula, we can determine the empirical formula, but not vice versa.

Empirical Formulas and Molecular Formulas (30:05 - 40:03)

• The largest common factor is used to determine the empirical formula

o The empirical formula for glucose is C6H12O6

o The empirical formula for nitrous oxide is N2O

• Different ways to represent molecules include structural formulas, perspective drawings, ball and
stick models, and space-filling models

Ions and Charges

• When an atom loses or gains electrons, it becomes an ion

o Cations are formed when at least one electron is lost and are formed by metals

o Anions are formed when electrons are gained and are formed by nonmetals

• Chemical symbols for ions include a superscript indicating the mass number and the charge

o The ion for titanium is Ti2+ and is a cation because it is a metal

Mass Number and Chemical Symbols (40:05 - 50:04)

• "The mass number is equal to the number of neutrons plus protons."

o Mass number = protons + neutrons

• Chemical symbol for iron is Fe, with a mass number at the top left and a positive charge.

Determining Protons and Charge for Sulfur

• Sulfur has 16 protons based on its position in the periodic table.

 o Charge = protons - electrons

o Sulfur forms an anion with a charge of -.

Cations and Anions

• Cations generally have a positive charge, while anions have a negative charge.

o Anions are produced by nonmetals.

• Examples of common cations and anions are provided, including those with multiple charges.

Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds are formed by the combination of a metal and a nonmetal.

o Electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal, resulting in oppositely
charged ions.

• The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion, and the charge on the anion
becomes the subscript of the cation when writing ionic formulas.

o Subscripts should be in the lowest whole number ratio.

Example of Ionic Formula

• Magnesium with a charge of 2+ combines with nitrogen with a charge of 3-.

o The resulting formula is Mg3N2 by switching the charges and dropping the signs.

Common Anions and Cations

• Common cations and anions are listed, including those with multiple charges and polyatomic
ions.

Ionic Compounds and Nomenclature (50:07 - 00:04)

• When combining magnesium and nitrogen, magnesium has a charge of +2 and nitrogen has a
charge of -3, yielding a neutral compound.

o The compound should be neutral, canceling out the charges of the individual ions.

• Naming conventions for inorganic compounds:

o For cations with more than one possible charge, write the charge as a Roman numeral in
parentheses.

o Anions that are elements change their ending to "IDE," and for polyatomic ions, simply
write the name of the ion.

o Examples: KSO4 -> potassium sulfate, Ba(OH)2 -> barium hydroxide, FeCl3 -> iron
chloride or ferric chloride.

Oxyanions and Nomenclature

 • Oxyanions with fewer oxygen atoms end in "ITE," while those with more oxygen atoms end in
"ATE."

o Example: NO2- is nitrite, NO3- is nitrate.

• Elements from period 2 can form oxyanions with a maximum of three oxygen atoms, while those
from period 3 can form oxyanions with a maximum of four oxygen atoms.

Acids and Nomenclature

• When forming acids from anions such as chloride, chlorate, perchlorate, etc., add hydrogen and
change the ending accordingly.

o Example: Cl- becomes HCl, which forms hydrochloric acid.

• Anions ending in "IDE" change to "IC" when forming acids and add the prefix "hydro-."

o Example: Cl- becomes hydrochloric acid.

Ionic Compounds Nomenclature

• Anions with -ite ending become -ous acid, e.g., chlorite becomes chlorous acid.

o Anion ending in -ate becomes -ic acid, e.g., chlorate becomes chloric acid.

• Cations are always mentioned first, followed by anions.

o Sodium chloride: sodium is cation, chloride is anion.

• Nomenclature of binary molecular compounds involves using prefixes.

o Use mono- only when not naming the first element.

o Ending on the second element is changed to -ide, e.g., carbon to carbon ide.

o Vowel elision occurs when a prefix ending in a or o precedes a vowel.

▪ Example: pentoxide instead of pentaoxide.

Examples

• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

o Prefix: mono- not used for first element (sulfur).

o Second element ending changed to -ide (oxygen becomes oxide).

• Phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5)

o Prefix: penta- for five sulfurs.

• Dichlorine trioxide (Cl2O3)

o Prefix: di- for two chlorines, changing the ending to -ide for last element.

Organic Compounds Nomenclature

 • Alkanes are hydrocarbons with only carbon and hydrogen.

o Named based on number of carbon atoms, e.g., methane, ethane, propane, butane.

o Functional groups replace a hydrogen and change the name, e.g., methanol, ethanol,
propanol.

o Position of functional groups indicated with a number in the name.

Definition of Covalent Bonding (00:00 - 09:55)

• Covalent bonding occurs between two or more nonmetals.

o Nonmetals can be identified using the periodic table, where elements to the left are
metals and those to the right are nonmetals, except for hydrogen.

Characteristics of Covalent Bonds

• Electrons are shared, not transferred, in covalent bonds.

o This is in contrast to ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred.

• Atoms will be neutral or have partial charges, but never full charges.

o This differs from ionic bonding, where full charges may be present.

• Bonds are represented as sticks, indicating the sharing of two electrons between the nuclei.

o The stick in the bond represents two electrons that are shared.

Examples of Molecules and Bond Identification

• CL2 is a covalent bond.

o Both chlorine atoms are nonmetals, meeting the definition of covalent bonding.

• NaBR is not a covalent bond.

o Sodium is a metal, while bromine is a nonmetal, forming an ionic bond.

• Al2S is not a covalent bond.

o Aluminum is a metal, and sulfur is a nonmetal, not meeting the definition of covalent
bonding.

• HO is a covalent bond.

o Both hydrogen and oxygen are nonmetals, meeting the definition of covalent bonding.

Drawing Covalent Bonds

 • When drawing out covalent molecules, the bond represents the sharing of two electrons
between the nuclei.

o Electrons that are not involved in sharing are not shown in the drawing.

• The sharing of electrons in a covalent bond is continuous and rapid, effectively sticking the
atoms together.

Example: CL2

• Chlorine atoms share electrons in a covalent bond, as neither can fulfill their electron
requirements individually.

• The bond represents the continuous exchange of two electrons between the chlorines,
effectively sticking them together.

Example: HO

• Hydrogen and oxygen share electrons in a covalent bond, following the principles of electron
sharing.

• The continuous exchange of two electrons between the atoms keeps them bonded together.

o Electrons that are not involved in sharing are not shown in the drawing.

Note

• It's important to understand that a covalent bond represents the sharing of two electrons, and
these electrons should not be shown elsewhere in the drawing.

Covalent Bonding (10:01 - 13:34)

• Hydrogen (H) has 1 valence electron, oxygen (O) has 6 valence electrons

o Need to have a full valence shell (H wants 2, O wants 8)

o Sharing will happen by connecting each H to the oxygen atom

• Not connecting the two H's to each other to allow for oxygen connection

o Each H will share its electron with the oxygen atom

o Oxygen will take back the electrons to achieve 8 electrons in its shell

Drawing Covalent Bonds

• Use the "connect-the-dot" method to form covalent bonds

o Connect hydrogen electron to a random oxygen electron to form a bond

o Redraw the structure to show non-bonding electrons

• Introduction to Lewis structures for drawing more complex molecules

Conclusion
• Lewis structures help in drawing out advanced covalent structures

o Learn the rules of connecting atoms in complex molecules using Lewis structures