RAY OPTICS

QUIZRR 3

1 . I N T RODU CT I ON
The branch of physics called optics deals with the behaviour of light and other electromagnetic
waves. Light is the principal means by which we gain knowledge of the world. Consequently the nature
of light has been the source of one of the longest debates in the history of science.
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the range of about 4000 Å to 7000 Å, to which eye
is sensitive is called light.
Our investigation of light will revolve around two questions of fundamental importance (1) What
is the nature of light and (2) How does it behave under various circumstances ? The answers to these
two questions can be found in MaxwellÊs field equations (which is out of JEE syllabus). These equations
predict the existence of electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light. They also describe how
these waves behave. Interestingly, not all light phenomena can be explained by MaxwellÊs theory.
Experiments performed at the beginning of this century showed that light also has corpuscular, or
particle like properties.
We investigate the behaviour of a beam of light when it encounters simple optical devices like
mirrors, lenses and apertures. Under many circumstances, the wavelength of light is negligible compared
with the dimensions of the device as in the case of ordinary mirrors and lenses. A light beam can then
be treated as a ray whose propagation is governed by simple geometric rules. The part of optics that
deals with such phenomena is known as geometric optics. However, if the wavelength is not negligible
compared with the dimensions of the device (for example a very narrow slit), the ray approximation
becomes invalid and we have to examine the behaviour of light in terms of its wave properties. This
study is known as physical optics.

2 . RA Y
A ray can be defined as an imaginary line drawn in the direction in which light is travelling.
Light behaves as a stream of energy propagated along the direction of rays. The rays are directed
outward from the source of light in straight lines.

2 .1 B e a m o f L i g h t
A beam of light is a collection of these rays. There are mainly three types of beams.
(i) Parallel beam of light : A search light and the headlight of a vehicle emit a parallel beam
of light. The source of light at a very large distance like sun effectively gives a parallel beam.

(ii) Divergent beam of light : The rays going out from a point source generally form a
divergent beam.

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(iii) Convergent beam of light : A beam light that is going to meet (or convery) at a point is
known as a convergent beam. A parallel beam of light of passing through a convex lens
become convergent beam.

3 . REFLECT I ON
When a ray of light is incident at a point on the surface, the surface throws partly or wholly the
incident energy back into the medium of incidence. This phenomenon is called reflection.
Surface that causes reflection are known as mirrors or reflectors.

3 .1 I m p o r t a n t t e rm s r e l a t e d t o r e f l e c t i o n :

A N B i
N O
r
i r
B
Plane Mirror Concave Mirror

Angle of incidence : Angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence. (denoted by i)
Angle of reflection : The angle which the reflected ray makes with the plane normal of the
point of incidence. (denoted by r).
Glancing Angle : The angle which the incident ray makes with the plane reflecting surface is
called glancing angle. It is generally denoted by g. g = 90 ă i.

i
N O
r

B
Convex Mirror

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3 .2 L a w o f Re f l e c t i o n
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflected surface at the point of
incidence lie in same plane
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle reflection, i.e. i = r. These laws hold for all
reflecting surfaces either plane or curved.
Question: Do incident ray and reflected ray differ in terms of frequency, wavelength and speed ?
Solution : None of frequency, wavelength and speed changes due to reflection. However, intensity
and have amplitude (I  A2) usually decreases. However in ray optics we do not consider this change.
Question : What will happen if the ray falls normal to the surface of the mirror ?
Solution : In this case, when i = 0, the ray retraces its path. i.e. r = 0.

C C

Plane Mirror Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

3 .3 Re a l / V i rt u a l Ob j e c t (I m a g e ) :
When a group of incident rays strike a surface, the point from which they diverge or the point
a which they try to converge is known as object. After reflection we get a group of reflected rays. The
point where reflected rays converge or the point from which the reflected rays appear to diverge is
known as the image of the object.
Objects and images may be real or virtual. If the light, after reflection, actually passes through
the point where the image is located, the image is called as a real image; if the light only appears to
come from the point where the image is located, the image is called a virtual image. A real image will
appear on a screen placed at its position while a virtual image will not.
Similarly, if the object is a point where the light energy is actually present, it is a real object.
If the light rays only tend to go towards the point to here the image is located, it is a virtual object.

(Real
object)
O I (Virtual
image)
I (Real image
virtual object)

Convex Mirror
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3 .4 Re f l e c t i o n f r o m a p l a n e s u r f a c e (o r p l a n e m i rr o r)
Almost everybody is familiar with the image formed by a plane mirror. If the object is real, the
image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, of same size and at the same distance from the mirror.
The ray diagram of the image of a point object and of an extended object is as shown below.

B B´
O I
A A´

{Here AB is the object and A B is the image formed.}

Important points :
1. To find the location of image of an object from an inclined plane mirror, you have to see the
perpendicular distance of the object from the mirror.
I

M
O I
M
O
Correct Wrong
OM = MI OM = MI
2. Suppose an object O is placed in front of two plane mirrors M1 and M2. Size of M2 is more
than that of M1. In this case the intensity of the images formed by M2 (i.e., I2) will be more
than that formed by M1 (i.e. I1). This is because I2 is formed from more number of reflected

O I1 O I1

M1 M2

rays. Or we can say it is formed from more light. The same is the case with an image formed
by a lens of large aperture.

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O I1 I2
O

In the figure shown, I2 will be more intense. This is the reason why we choose a lens of large
aperture in telescopes to see the distant objects. You might have heard that the strength of
an observatory is measured from the aperture of its lens. Now, you can think if this is the
case then why donÊt we take a lens of an aperture as large as we wish. Actually some
technical problems arise in casting a lens of large aperture. So we have some limitations in
doing so.
3. Field of view of an object for a given mirror : Suppose a point object O is placed in
front of a small mirror as shown in Fig. (a), then a question arises in mind whether this
mirror will form the image of this object or not or suppose an elephant is standing in front
of a small mirror, will the mirror form the image of the elephant or not. The answer is yes,
it will form. A mirror whatever may be the size of it forms the images of all objects lying
in front of it. But every object has its own field of view for the given mirror. The field of
view is the region between the extreme reflected rays and depends on the location of the
object in front of the mirror. If our eye lies in the field of view then only we can see the
image of the object otherwise not. The field of view of an object placed at different locations
in front of a plane mirror are shown in Fig. (b) and (c).

O I
O

O I
(a) (b) (c)

4. Suppose a mirror is rotated by an angle  (say anticlockwise), keeping the incident ray fixed
then the reflected ray rotates by 2 along the same sense, i.e., anticlockwise.

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R´
N´ iă2
N iă
I R I 
iă

i i X


(a) (b)
In figure (a), I is the incident ray, N the normal and R the reflected ray.
In figure (b), I remains as it is. N and R shift to N´ and R´.
From the two figures we can see that earlier the reflected ray makes an angle i with y-axis
while after rotating the mirror it makes the angle i ă 2. Thus, we may conclude that the
reflected ray has been rotated by angle 2.

H
5. The minimum length of a plane mirror to see oneÊs full height in it is , where H is the
2
height of man. But the mirror (F) reaches the eye at C. Similarly the ray starting from the
foot (E) after reflecting from the lower end (G) also reaches the eye at C. In two similar
triangles ABF and BFC, AB = BC = x (say), Similarly in triangles CDG and DGE,
CD = DE = y (say)
A
X F
B
X
C
(X+Y)
Y
D
G
Y
E
Man
Now, we can see that height of the man is 2 (x + y) and that of mirror is (x + y), i.e., height
of the mirror is half the height of the man.
Note : The mirror can be placed anywhere between the centre line BF (of AC) and DG
(of CE).
6. A man is standing exactly at midway between a wall and a mirror and he want to see the
full height of the wall (behind him) in a plane mirror (in front of him). The minimum length
H
of mirror in this case should be , where H is the height of wall. The ray diagram in this
3
case is drawn in Fig. below.

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In triangles HBI and IBC, HI = IC = x (say), Now, in triangles HBI and ABF,

AF FB A H
 >
HI BI 2x x B
F
I x
AF 2d
or  (x+y) C (x+y)
x d
G K y
or AF = 2x y E
2y >
D J
Wall Man Mirror
d d

Similarly we can prove that DG = 2y if, CK = KJ = y

Now, we can see that height of the wall is 3 (x + y) while that of the mirror is (x + y).

7. Number of images formed between two mirrors inclined at an angle  with each other is
given by :

360
m


Case I : if m is even then n (number of images) = m ă 1.

Case II : if m is odd, then n (number of images) = m ă 1. {if object is on angle bisector}
OR
n = m {other wise}
Case III : if m is rational (fractional) then, n = [m] {where [Ć] is the greatest integer
function}

Ex a m p l e 1
A point source of light S, placed at a distance L in front of the centre of a mirror of width
d, hangs vertically on a wall. A man walks in front of the mirror along a line parallel to
the mirror at a distance 2L from it as shown. The greatest distance over which he can see
the image of the light source in the mirror is
(a) d/2
(b) d S
(c) 2d
d
L
(d) 3d

2L

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Solution :
(d) The ray diagram will be as shown in Fig.
G
HI = AB = d
C
d
DS = CD =
2 A 
H
 D
Since, AH = 2AD
S
d E
 GH = 2CD = 2  d I
2
B
Similarly IJ = d
F
 GJ = GH + HI + IJ
J
= d + d + d = 3d

Ex a m p l e 2
At ray of light is travelling at an angle of 20Ĉ below horizontal. At what angle with horizontal
must a plane mirror be placed in its path so that it becomes vertically upwards after
reflection ?
Solution :
Let us first place the mirror horizontally. The reflected ray now goes at an angle of 20Ĉ above
horizontal as shown.

20Ĉ 20Ĉ

Now, for the reflected rays to be vertical, let us assume that the mirror makes an angle  with
the horizontal.
70
Ĉă
70


Ĉ
ă

20Ĉ



Now, from the figure, if reflected ray is vertical, then 20Ĉ + (70Ĉ ă ) + (70Ĉ ă ) = 90Ĉ
 70Ĉ = 2   = 35Ĉ

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Ex a m p l e 3
A boy is 1.5 m tall and just sees his image in a vertical plane mirror 3 m away. His eyes are
1.4 m from the floor level. Determine the vertical dimension of the mirror.
Solution : A M A´
0.1 m
D
E E´
C

H
1.4m

3m 3m
B R B´
Since a plane mirror forms an image at a distance same as that of object, hence image will be
formed at 3m behind the mirror. Now let AB be the height of boy, the image formed is A B . Now,
1.4
triangles AA E and AEE are congruent, also MD = DC = 0.05 m. Similarly, CH = HR = = 0.70 m.
2
Hence, height vertical dimension is DC + CH = 75 cm.

3 .5 Re f l e c t i o n a t Sp h e r ic a l M i rr o rs
(a) Some important definitions :
(i) Spherical mirrors : A spherical mirror is a part of follow sphere or a spherical surface.
They are classified as concave or convex according to the reflecting surface being concave
or convex respectively.
A A
Incident
Incident Light Light

P
+ve C
C

B B
(a) Concave Mirror (b) Convex mirror
(ii) Centre of currature : The centre C of the sphere of which mirror is a part is called the
centre of curvature of the mirror.
(iii) Pole or Vertex : P, the centre of the mirror surface is the pole.
(iv) Radius of curvature (R) : The distance CP is called the radius of curvature.
Note : All distances are measured from point P. We can see using the rules of sign convention
given earlier that R is positive for convex mirror and negative for concave mirror.

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(v) Principal axis : The line CP joining the pole and the centre of curvature of the spherical
mirror is called the principal axis.
(vi) Focus (F) : If a parallel beam of rays, parallel to the principal axis and close to it, is incident
on a spherical mirror; the reflected rays converge to a point F (in case of a concave mirror)
or appear to diverge from a point F (in case of convex mirror) on the principal axis. The point
F is called the flows of the spherical mirror.

F
P F
P

Concave mirror Convex mirror

(vii) Focal length (F) : Focal length is the distance PF between the pole M
P and flows F along the principal axis.
(viii) Aperture : The line joining the end points of a spherical mirror is
called the operature or linear operature.
Aperture P

SI GN CON V EN T I ON M´
Although a number of books follow different sign conventions, but we will be using the following sign
conventions :
(1) Whenever and wherever possible, the ray of light is taken to travel from left to right.
(2) The distances above principal axis are taken to be positive while below it is negative.
(3) Along the principal axis, distances are measured from the pole and in the direction of light are
taken to be positive while opposite if is negative. This is why in our convention, u (or v) is taken
to be ăve if in front of the mirror and +ve if behind it. +

Light +ve

ă +
P +ve

C F
ă ve
ă ve
ă
3 .5 .1 Pa r a x i a l Ra y s :
Rays which are close to the principal axis and make small angles with it, i.e., they are nearly
parallel to the axis, are called paraxial rays.
Our treatment of spherical mirrors will be restricted to such rays which means we shall consider
only mirrors of small aperture. In diagrams, however, they will be made larger for clarity.
And rays far away from principal axis are called Marginal Rays.

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3 .5 .2 Re l a t io n b e t w e e n f a n d R
A ray AM parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror of
small aperture is reflected through the principal focus F. If C is the A  M

centre of curvature, CM is the normal to the mirror at M because the
P
radius of a spherical surface is perpendicular to the surface. From first C F
law of reflection,
i = r
or AMC = CMF \  (say) f
R
But AMC = MCF (alternate angles)
 CMF = MCF
Therefore, D FCM is thus isosceles with FC = FM. The rays are paraxial and so M is very close
to P. Therefore,
FM  FP
 FC = FP

1
or FP = CP
2

R
f
2

3 .5 .3 Ra y T ra c i n g :
(i) Ray parallel to principal axis after reflection passes through focus.
(ii) Rays parallel to each other but not parallel to principal axis form image on the focal plane.
(iii) Incident Rays passing through C retrace their path.
(iv) The incident and reflected ray make equal angle with principal axis if the ray is incident
at 0. {this is used to locate the position of mirror}.

3 .5 .4 Ru l e s f o r I m a g e Fo r m a t i o n :
(i) A ray parallel to principal axis passes (or appear to pass) through focus after reflection.

P
F P F

Concave mirror
Convex mirror

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(ii) A ray passing through or directed towards focus after reflection from the spherical mirror
becomes parallel to the principal axis.

P
F P F

(iii) A ray passing through or directed towards the centre of curvature, after reflection from the
spherical mirror, retraces its path.

P
C F C

Ć Above rule holds, if incident ray is travelling from left to right else directions just
reverses.

O
F O F

negetive focus positive focus

Ć Distances measured above principal axis are taken to be positive while distances measured
below principal axis are taken to be negative.
notations used :
u:  Distance of the object from pole of spherical mirror.
v:  distance of the image from the pole of the spherical mirror.
f:  focal length of the spherical mirror.
R:  Radius of curvature of the spherical mirror.
Ć All the symbols used are assigned values with proper sign convention. i.e. for concave mirror
f is always negative and so on.

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3 .5 .6 . I m a g e Fo r m a t i o n b y Sp h e r ic a l M ir ro r s
(a) For concave mirror
S.No. Position of Ray-diagram Details of image
object
1. At infinity M Real, inverted,

F very small (m <<ă1),

C P
I at F
M´
2. Between  M Real, inverted
O
and C diminished (m < ă 1),
P
C F between F and C
I
M´
3. At C M Real, inverted,
O
equal (m = ă1),
C P
F
I at C
M´
4. Between F M Real, inverted,
O
and C C enlarged (m > ă 1),
P
F between C and 
I M´
5. At F M Real, inverted,
O
very large (m >> ă 1),
P
C F at infinity
M´
6. Between F M Virtual, erect,
and P enlarged (m > + 1),
C F O P I behind the mirror
M´
(b) For convex mirror
1. At infinity M Virtual, erect,
I
very small (m << + 1),
P F C
at F
M´
2. In front of M Virtual, erect,
mirror diminished (m < + 1),
O P I F C between P and F
M´
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* In case of image formation unless stated object is taken to be real and extended and is represented
by an arrow. Also the mirror is of small size but large radius of curvature and only rays near the
axis are considered (otherwise the image will be distorted).

3 .5 .7 . T h e M i r ro r Fo r m u l a
In figures (a) and (b) a ray OM from a point object O on the principal axis is reflected at M so
that the angle , made by the incident and reflected rays with the normal CM are equal. A ray OP
strikes the mirror normally and is reflected back along PO. The intersection I of the reflected rays MI
and PO in figure (a) gives a real point image of O and in figure (b) gives a virtual point image of
O. Let ,  and  be the angles as shown. As the rays are paraxial, these angles are small, we can

MP MP MP
take   tan   ,  and   .
OP CP IP


M M

  
     
O C I P
O P C
u u
R v
v R
(a) (b)
Now, let us take the two figures simultaneously

Concave Convex
In triangle CMO,  =  +  (the exterior angle) In triangle CMO,
or  =  ă  ... (i)  = +  ... (iv)
In CMI, =  +  (the exterior angle)
  =  ă  ... (ii) In CMI =  + 
From Eqs. (i) and (ii) or  =  ă  ... (v)
2 =  +  ... (iii) From Eqs. (iv) and (v)
Substituting the values of ,  and , we get 2 =  ă  ... (vi)
Substituting the values of ,  and , we get
2 1 1
= + ... (A)
CP IP OP 2 1 1
= + ... (B)
CP IP OP
If we now substitute the values with sign, i.e.,
If we now substitute the values with sign, i.e.,
CP = ă R, IP = ă v and OP = ă u
CP = ă R, IP = ă v and OP = ă u, we get
2 1 1
we get, = + 2 1 1
R v u = +
R v u
1 1 1  R
or +  as f  2 1 1 1  R
v u f   or +  as f  2
v u f  

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Note : Out of u, v and f values of two will be known to us and we will be asked to find the third.
In such type of problems two cases are possible. Case 1 is when signs of all three will be known to us
from the given information. Under this condition substitute all three with sign, then answer (i.e., the
third quantity) will come without sign. Only numerical value of the unknown comes. Case 2 is when
the sign of third unknown quantity is not known to us. Under such situation substitute only the known
quantities with sign. Sign with numerical value will automatically come in the answer.
Power of Mirror
It is defined as,

1
P The unit of power is dioptre.
f (in m)

3 .5 .8 . L i n e a r M a g n i f ic a t i o n
For linear objects, the ratio of the image size (I) to the object size (O) is called linear magnification
or transverse magnification or lateral magnification. If is generally denoted by m.

Height of the image I

m= 
Height of the object O

v f ( f  v)
m = ă  =
u f u f

Note : (a) m will be negative for a real-inverted image of a real object.

(b) m will be positive for a virtual erect image of a real object.

Ex a m p l e 4
An object 5 mm high is placed 30 cm from a convex mirror whose focal length is 20 cm. Find
the position (in cm), size (in mm) and nature of the image.
Solution :
Given
u = ă 30 cm, f = + 20 cm

1 1 1
we know + 
v u f

uf ( 30) (  20)
or v    12 cm
u f  30  20

The image is formed 12 cm behind the mirror, it is virtual.

I v 12
Now, m  O  u    30

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2 2
or, I=  O   5   2 mm
5 5

He the height of the image = 2 mm. The positive sign indicates that the image is erect.

Ex a m p l e 5
A plane mirror is placed 22.5 cm in front a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. Find where
an object can be placed between the two mirrors, so that the first image in both the mirrors
coincide.
M
22.5
IP
X
P
C O F
IC

Solution : M´
As shown in figure, if the object is placed at a distance x from the concave mirror, its distance from
the place mirror will be (22.5 ă x). So, plane mirror will form equal and erect image of object at a
distance (22.5 ă x) behind the mirror.
Now as according to given problem the image formed by concave mirror coincides with the image
formed by concave mirror, therefore for concave mirror.
v = ă [22.5 + (22.5 ă x)] = ă (45 ă x) and u = ă x

1 1 1 45 1
So,   or 
 (45  x) x  10 45 x  x2 10

i.e., x2 ă 45x + 450 = 0 or (x ă 30) (x ă 15) = 0

i.e. x = 30 cm or x = 15 cm
But as the distance between two mirrors is 22.5 cm, x = 30 cm is not admissible. So the object must
be at a distance of 15 cm from concave mirror.

Ex a m p l e 6
Find the distance of object from a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm so that image size
is four times the size of the object.
Solution :
Concave mirror can form real as well as virtual image. Here nature of image is not given in the
question. So we will consider two possible cases.
When image is real : Real image is formed on the same side of object, i.e., u, v and f all are
negative. So let,

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u = ă x, also m = ă 4 for image to be real

v
then v   4 x as  m  4 and f = ă 10 cm
u

1 1 1
Substituting in, + 
v u f

1 1 1
We have  
 4 x x  10

5 1
or 
4 x 10

 x = 12.5 cm Ans.
Note : |x|> |y| and we know that in case of a concave mirror, image is real when object lies
beyond F.
When image is virtual : In case of a mirror image is virtual when it is formed behind the mirror,
i.e., u and f are negative while v is positive. So let
u = ă y, also m = + 4 for image to be virtual
then v = + 4y and f = ă 10 cm

1 1 1
Substituting in, + 
v u f

1 1 1
We have  
4 y y  10

3 1
or 
4 y 10

 y = 7.5 cm Ans.
Note : Here |y|< |f| as we know that image is virtual when the object lies between F and P.

3 .5 .9 L o n g i t u d i n a l M a g n i f i c a t io n
When an object is kept parallel to the principle axis, then let u1, and u2 be the distance of the
end points of the object and let v1, v2 be the ends points of the image formed.
Here, AB is the object and A B is the image formed.

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u2
u1
A´ B´
B A
v2
v1

Note : Please observe that B will be closer to AB as compared to A  .

The point can be seen, as image of the objects closer to the mirror are created farther as compared
to the images of the objects farther from the mirror.

(v2  v1 )
Here, m
(u2  u1 )

dv
also, m {for short objects}
du

So m e I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s :
1. For spherical mirrors

v
m
u
Positive value of m means v and u are of opposite sign. So is u is negative then v is positive and
vice-versa. Thus, if m = + 2 for a real object, it means image is virtual, erect and two times greater
1 1
in size. Similarly m = ă means image is real, inverted and times in size (that of object).
2 2
2. Method of finding coordinates of image of a point object if the coordinates of object
are known : Suppose coordinates of a point object (x0, y0) with respect to the coordinate axes
shown in figure are known to us. The coordinates of image (xi, yi) can be obtained using

1 1 1 1 1 1 
     
x0 xi f v u f  Y

fx0
or xi  ... (i)
x0  f (X0, Y0)

yi v x X
Similarly m    i P
y0 u x0

fy0
or yi  ... (iii)
f  x0

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3. For Concave Mirror

S.No. Position of object Details of image
1. At  At F, real, inverted |m| << 1
2. Between C and  Between F and C, real, inverted, |m| < 1
3. At C At C, real, inverted, |m| = 1
4. Between F and C Between C and  , real, inverted, |m| > 1
5. At F At infinity, real, inverted, |m| >>1
6. Between F and P behind the mirror, virtual, erect |m| > 1

For Convex Mirror

S.No. Position of object Details of images
1. At inifinity At F, virtual, erect, |m| << 1
2. In front of mirror Between P and F, virtual, erect, |m| < 1

4. If an object is placed with its length along the principal axis, then so called longitudianal
magnification becomes,

I  v  v1  dv
mL   2  (for small objects)
O  u2  u1  du

1 1 1
From,   we have
v u f
ă vă2 dv ă uă2 du = 0

2
dv  v
or  
dy u

2
dv  v 
mL     m2
du  u 
or

5. If we differentiate the mirror formula

1 1 1
+ 
v u f
with respect to time, we get

dv du
 v2 .  u2 0 (as f = constant)
dt dt

dv  v2  du
or  
dt  u2  dt
 

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du
Here is the rate by which u is changing. Or it
dt
is the object speed if mirror is stationary. Similarly,
I
dv P
is the rate by which v (distance between image O C F
dt
and mirror) is changing. Or it is image speed if mirror
is stationary. So if at a known values of v and u, the
v
object speed is given, we can find the image speed
u
from the above formula.
Let us take an example for a concave mirror.
Suppose the object is moved from infinity towards focus.
As u is decreasing therefore,

 du 
  dt  = rate of decrease of u (speed of object)
 

 dv 
Therefore,   = rate of increase of v (speed of image)
 dt 

Further v < u (when the object lies between  and C)

 dv   du 
  dt     dt 
   
Hence, as the object is moved towards mirror the image (which is real) will recede from the mirror
with speed less than the speed of object.

 dv   du 
When the object is at C, image is also at C, i.e., v = u or       . Hence, speed of image
 dt   dt 
is equal to the speed of object. When the object lies between C and F. v > u, i.e., image speed is
more than the object speed when object comes inside F image becomes virtual i.e., u and f are
negative while v is positive.

1 1 1
Hence, ă ă
v u f

1 1 1
or  
u v f P
C F
2  du  2  dv 
or u  dt   v  dt   0
   
u v
 dv   v   du 
2
  dt    2    dt 
  u   

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1 du
Now as u is further decreased, v also decreases to keep f constant. So,  is rate with which
dt
 dv 
object is approaching towards mirror and    is rate by which image is approaching towards
 dt 
mirror. Further in this case we know that image is always enlarged or v > u. Therefore, image
speed is more than the object speed. Thus, we may conclude the above discussion as under :

When an object is moved from ă  to F, the image (real) moves from F to ă  and the when
the object is further moved from F to P image (now virtual moves from +  to P.

Note : when the object is either at centre of curvature C or at pole P the two speeds are equal.
When the object is at pole it can be assumed as if the image is forming by a plane mirror due
to the small aperture of the mirror.

1 1
6. Graph between versus : Let us first take the case of a concave mirror. Here, two cases
v u
are possible.
Case 1. When the image is real, i.e., object lies between F and inifinity. In such a situation u,
v and f are negative. Hence, the mirror formula

1 1 1
  becomes
v u f

1 1 1
    1
v u f v
1
f
1 1 1
or again  
v u f
45Ĉ 1
1 1 1 1 u
or   f
v u f

Comparing with y = ă x + c, the desired graph will be a straight line with slope ă1 and slope equal

1
to f .

The corresponding graph is shown in figure

Case 2. When the image is virtual, i.e., object lies between F and P. Under such situation u and
f are negative while v is positive. The mirror formula thus becomes

1 1 1
 
v u f

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1
Comparing it with y = x ă c the desired graph is a straight line with slope + 1 and intercept  .
f

The graph is thus shown in Fig. (a) The two graphs can be drawn in one single graph as in Fig. (b)

1 1
v v
1
f
45Ĉ 1 45Ĉ 45Ĉ 1
1 u 1 u
f f
ă1 ă1
f f

(a) (b)

1 1 1 1
Note : Here and are really the magnitudes of and (i.e., without sign)
u v u v

For a convex mirror image is always virtual, i.e., u is negative while v and f are positive. Hence,
the mirror formula becomes. 1
v
1 1 1
 
v u f
1
Comparing with y = x + c, the desired graph is a straight line of f

1 45Ĉ 1
slope + 1 and intercept f . u

Ex a m p l e 7
A thin rod of length (f/3) is placed along the principal axis of a concave mirror of focal
length f such that its image which is real and elongated, just touches the rod. What is the
magnification?
Solution :
As the image is real and enlarged, the object must be between C and F. Also as the image of one
end coincides with the end itself, i.e., vA = uA,
M
1 1 1 5 f
  2
vA vA f
A B
i.e., vA = uA = ă 2f P
C F 5
B´ A´ f
i.e., the end A is at C. f
3 3
2f
M´

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 QUIZRR 25

Now as the length of the rod is (f/3), its other end B will be at a distance [2f ă (f/3)] = (5/3) f from
P. So if t he dist ance of image of end B fr om P is V B,

1 1 1 5
  i.e. vB   f
vB  (5 / 3) f  f 2

So the size of the image

5 1
vB  vA  f  2f  f
2 2

(vB  v A ) (1 / 2) f 3
and m    Ans.
(uB  u A ) (1 / 3) f 2

Negative sign implies that image is inverted with respect to object and so is real.

Ex a m p l e 8
If a luminous point is moving at a speed V0 towards a spherical mirror, along its axis, show
that the speed at which the image of this object is moving will be given by

2
 f 
Vi     V0
u  f 

Solution :
In case of spherical mirrors

1 1 1
  ... (1)
v u f

1 dv 1 du
or   0 [as f is constant]
v2 dt u2 dt

2
 v  dv du 
or Vi     V0  as dt  Vi and dt  V0 
u  

1 1 1 uf
But from Eq. (1)   i.e. v 
v f u (u  f )

2
 f 
So Vi     V0 Ans.
u  f 

which is the desired result.

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Note : From this result it is clear that in case of concave mirror, i.e., with f  – f if :
u = ă , v= ăf and Vi = 0
u = ă 2f, v = ă 2f and V i = V0
And u = ă f, v= ă  and Vi = ă 
i.e., if the object moves with constant speed V0 towards the mirror from  to F, the image moves
away from the mirror from F to  with speed Vi increasing from 0 to  . The two speeds are equal
when both cross each other at C.

Ex a m p l e 9
An object is placed at right angles to the principal axis of a concave mirror at such a
position that the image formed is half the size of object. The object is now shifted to
another position, displaced relative to the earlier position by x = 10 cm, and the size of
image now becomes one fourth of the object. Find initial distance of object from the pole
of mirror and also the focal length of mirror.
Solution :
Initially, let the distance of object from the pole be ÂxÊ.
 u = ă x
Since the given mirror is concave and the image is diminished, it is also real and inverted so that
I 1
magnification has a negative sign and m    . Further, the description of image implies that the
O 2
object is between C and  so that the image is between F and C.

v 1
m  
u 2 P
x

u x
 v   [ u   x]
2 2

1 1 1
Applying  
v u f

2 1 1
  
x x f

3 1
   ... (1)
x f

On shifting the position of object by 10 cm, size of image becomes one fourth of the object while
in the earlier position, it was half. It implies that the object has been shifted by x = 10 cm away from

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the pole (As mentioned above, object is between C and  so that the image is between F and C. If the
object is shifted away from C towards  , the image is shifted between F and C to towards F. Thus
v
u increases and v decreases resulting in a reduced value of m  as in the present case). Now,
u
distance of object from pole = x + 10
 u = ă (x + 10)

v 1
and m  (diminished image in case of concave mirror
u 4
also implies real and inverted)

u  ( x  10)
 v 
4 4

1 1 1
Using  
v u f

4 1 1
  
x  10 x  10 f

5 1
  ...... (2)
x  10 f

From Eq. (1) and Eq. (2),

3 5

x x  10

 3x + 30 = 5x
or x = 15 cm Ans.
Thus the object, initially, is at a distance 15 cm from the pole.
From Eq. (2),

5 1

x  10 f

5 1
 
15  10 f

 f = ă 5 cm Ans.

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 28 QUIZRR
Ex a m p l e 1 0
Show that for a virtual object, a convex mirror gives (a) real and erect image for u < f and
(b) virtual and inverted image for u > f.
Solution :
(a) Fig. show rays converging towards the point O and intercepted by a convex mirror. O acts as a
virtual object and, as shown, its distance from pole u < f. Rays are reflected from the mirror and
from real image at I (since they actually meet at I).
Using

1 1 1
 
v u f
I P O F C
1 1 1 u f
  
v f u uf

uf
 v ... (1)
u f

Here u is positive (measured from P to O)

f is positive.
Since u < f, v from Eq. (1) is negative.

v
u being positive and v negative, magnification, m   will have a positive value.
u

Hence the image will be erect.

Thus we get a real and erect image.
(b) Fig. shows O as a virtual object with u > f. Here the reflected rays appear to diverge from I so
that I acts as a virtual image of virtual object O. Obviously, distance of object from pole ÂuÊ
(measured from P to O) is positive and u > f.

1 1 1
Using  
v u f

uf P F I C O
v
u f

Both u and f are positive and u > f

 v is positive

v
m =  , both v and u being positive, m will be negative. Hence the image is inverted.
u
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 QUIZRR 29

Ex a m p l e 1 1
A concave mirror of focal length 10 cm and a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm are placed
facing each other 40 cm apart. A point object is placed between the mirrors, on their
common axis and 15 cm from the concave mirror. Find the position and nature of the image
produced by the successive reflections, first at concave mirror and then at convex mirror.
Solution :
According to given problem, for concave mirror,
u = ă 15 cm and f = ă 10 cm

1 1 1 f = +15 f = ă10
So   , i.e., v = ă 30 cm M
v  15  10 M 40 cm
P2 I1 O
i.e., concave mirror will form real, inverted and enlarged image P1
I2 15cm 15cm
I1 of object O at a distance 30 cm from it, i.e., at a distance 40 ă 30
M´ M´
= 10 cm from convex mirror.
For convex mirror the image I1 will act as an object and so for it u = ă 10 cm and f = + 15 cm.

1 1 1
... v   10  15 , i.e., v = + 6 cm Ans.

So final image I2 is formed at a distance 6 cm behind the convex mirror and is virtual as shown
in Fig.

  30   6 
Note : As here m1 =    = ă 2 and m2 =    = +0.6 so m = m1 ï m2 = (ă2)
  15    10 

(+0.6) = ă 1.2, i.e., final image is inverted with respect to object, virtual, 1.2 times of the
object size and is at a distance 6 cm behind the convex mirror.

Ex a m p l e 1 2
Two plane mirrors intersect at an angle . An object is placed on the bisector of the angle
between them. Show the location of the closest four images if :-
(a)  = 30Ĉ and (b)  = 120Ĉ
Solution : 1 S1
S2
(a) a
a

a
30Ĉ
a
S2

1
S1
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Here, S1 is the image of source S in the top mirror and is distance a behind the mirror. Now, this

S1 becomes a source for the bottom mirror, giving image S´1 .

The situation is repeated in the other mirror to give S2 and S´2 .

(b)
S
a
a a
60Ĉ
60Ĉ 60Ĉ
S1 60Ĉ In the case, there is only one image located
a
behind each mirror. No other images appear
because the initial images lie in the planes of
S2
the respective mirrors.

Ex a m p l e 1 3
E
An object ABED is placed in front of a concave mirror beyond B
centre of curvature C as shown in figure. State the shape of
P
the image. A D C F
Solution :
Object is placed beyond C. Hence, the image will be real and it will lie between C and F. Further
u, v and f all are negative, hence the mirror formula will become

1 1 1
  
v u f

1 1 1 u f
or   
v f u uf D´ A´
P
C F
f B´
v E´
or f
1 VAB
u
VED
Now uAB > uED
 vAB < vED

 v
and |mAB| < |mED|  as m   u 
 

Therefore, shape of the image will be as shown in figure.

Also note that vAB < uAB and vED < uED,
So |mAB| < 1 and |mED| < 1

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Ex a m p l e 1 4
It is desired to cost the image of a lamp, magnified 5 times, upon a wall 1.2 m distant from
the lamp. What kind of spherical mirror is required and what is its position ?
Solution :

Concept : To cast the image on a wall, it must be real.

Hence, for a real image v is positive, and u is also positive. Thus the image will be inverted.
v
Now,   5 and we also know that |v ă u| = ă 1.2 {distance between lamp and wall}
u
or 5u ă u = ă 1.2
 u = ă 0.3 m, v = ă 1.5 m
The mirror is thus 0.3 m from the lamp and 1.5 m from the wall.

1 1 1
Also,  u  v  f    f = ă 0.25 m

Thus, the mirror is CONCAVE of radius 0.5 m.

Ex a m p l e 1 5
An object is placed 42 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 21 cm. Light from the concave
mirror is reflected onto a small plane mirror 21 cm in front of the concave mirror. where is the final
image ?
Solution :
Given : u = ă 42 m, f = ă 21 cm.
O
1 1 1
Now,  
u v f 21cm
F
1 1 1 plane
   I
v  21  42 mirror
q
 v = ă 42 cm
{or we could have directly seen the final image would be at 42 cm from the fact that the object
is at centre of curvature, hence the image will also be a centre of curvature}.
Now, use the mirror formula for the plane mirror, with f =  and u = ă 42 ă (ă 21) = ă 21 cm,
since the image produced by the concave mirror alone is the object for the plane mirror.

1 1 1 1 1 1
    
p q f  21 q 

 q = 21 cm.
Hence, the position of the final image I is 21 cm in front of the plane mirror.

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4. REFRA CT ION OF L IGH T
Whenever a ray of light comes from one transparent medium to another, it gets deviated from its
original path while crossing the interface of the two media (except in case of normal incidence). This
phenomenon of deviation or bending of light rays from their original path while passing from one
medium to another is called refraction.
N
A Medium - I
i B
K L
Medium - II
r

N´ C
AB  incident ray BC  refracted ray NBN´  Normal
i  angle of incidence r  angle of refraction KL  interface
l If the refracted ray bends towards the normal with respect to the incident ray, then the
second medium is said to be optically denser as compared to the first medium.

Medium - I
i (Rarer)

Medium - II
r (denser)

l If the refracted ray bends away from the normal, then the second medium is said to be
(optically) rarer as compared to the first medium.

Medium - I
i
(denser)

r
Medium - II
(Rarer)
4 .1 L a w s o f Re f r a c t i o n
(i) The incident ray, there fracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant
for any two given media.

sin i
i.e.  costant  12  Refractive index
sin r
This is called SnellÊs law.
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4 .2 Re f r a c t i ve I n d e x (μ o r n )
(A) Absolute Refractive Index
It is defined as the ratio of speed of light in free space c to that in a given medium v,

c
i.e., ø or n  ...(1)
v

Regarding refractive index it is worth that :

(1) It is a scalar and has no units and dimensions.
(2) If 0 and ø0 are electric permitivity and magnetic permeability respectively of free space
while  and ø those of a given medium, then according to electromagnetic theory

1 1
c and v   
0 0

c 
n =   R  R ... (2)
v 0 0

(3) As in vacuum or free space, speed of light of all wavelengths is maximum and equal to c
so for all wavelengths the refractive index of free space is minium and is

c c
  1
v c

(4) For a given light, denser is the medium, less will be the speed of light and so greater will
be the refractive index, e.g.,
as vglass < vwater, øG > øW
i.e., for a given light refractive index depends on nature of medium [i.e., ø  (1/v)].
(5) For a given medium (other than free space), the speed of light of different wavelengths is
different, i.e. v  and ø = (c/v), ø (1/), i.e., greater the wavelength of light lesser will
be the refractive index, e.g. R > B, so in water or glass øR < øB, i.e., for a given medium
(other than free space) refractive index depends on wavelength of light.
(6) As for light in free space c = f 0 and in a medium v = f 

c 0
  ...(3)
v 

i.e., for a given light and medium refractive index is equal to the ratio of wavelength of light
in free space to that in the medium.

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(B) Relative Refractive Index
When light passes from one medium to the other, the refractive index of medium 2 relative to 1
is written as 1ø2 and is defined as,

2  c / v2  v1
1 2    ...(4)
1  c / v1  v2

while using the concept of relative ø, it must be kept in mind that :

1 v2
(1) 2 1  
2 v1

v1 v2
So that  1 2  2 1    1
v2 v1

1
i.e. 1 2  ...(5)
2 1

(2) Usually ÂøÊ is used for relative refractive index and it implies the refractive index of denser
medium relative to rarer one, i.e.

 D vR
  1
R vD

(3) In lens theory ø is used for the refractive index of material of lens relative to the medium, i.e.,

 lens

 medium
i
1 ø1
and can be greater than, less than or equal to unity.
2 ø2
(4) As according to SnellÊs law
ø1 sin i = ø2 sin r r
the refractive index of medium 2 relative to 1 will be given by

2 sin i
1 2   ...(6)
1 sin r

4 .3 Pri n c i p l e o f Re v e r s ib i l it y o f L i g h t Ra y s
A ray travelling along the path of the refracted ray is reflected along the path of the incident ray.
In the same way, a refracted ray reversed to travel back along its path will get refracted along
the path of the incident ray. Thus, the incident ray and the refracted ray are mutually reversible. This
is called the reversibility of light.

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 QUIZRR 35

sin i
1 2  ... (1)
sin r

similarly, when path is reversed, then

sin r
2 1  ... (2)
sin i

Multiply (1) and (2), we get,

ø ï
1 2
ø = 1
2 1

1
or 1ø2 =
2 1

De v i a t i o n o f r a y d u e t o Re f r a c t i o n
Hence, from the figure we can see that the deviation  = |i ă r|

i i
Rarer Denser
Denser Rarer
r
r
= i = i
ă r ă r
4 .4 Cr it ic a l A n g l e
When a ray of light goes from denser medium to a racer medium, the angle of refraction is greater
than the angle of incidence.
From this statement, we can also observe that, in some cases the angle of refraction can increase
to become 90Ĉ or more than 90Ĉ.
The angle of incidence for which the angle refraction becomes 90Ĉ is called the article angle for
that interface.
It is generally denoted by c.
Let øR be the refractive index of the rarer medium and øD be the refractive index of the denser
medium. Obviously, ør < øD.
sin c 
Hence, from SnellÊs law  r
sin 90 D

1
or sin c =


D
where ø =  is the refractive index of the denser medium with respect to the rarer medium.
R

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 36 QUIZRR
4 .5 T o t a l I n t e r n a l Re f l e c t i o n
While a light ray goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the angle of refraction is greater
than the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction may eventually
become 90Ĉ.

r
Rarer
Denser
i

i<c
refraction

If a ray of light travelling in a denser medium strikes a rarer medium at an angle of incidence
i which is greater than the critical angle C, it gets totally reflected back into the same medium. This
phenomenon is called as total internal reflection.

c
rarer rarer
denser denser
i i i

i=c i>c
total internal
reflection

So m e I l lu s t ra t i o n s o f T o t a l I n t e r n a l Re f l e c t i o n
(1) Shining of air bubble
An air bubble in water shines due to total internal reflection at its outer surface. Here light is
propagating from denser medium (water) to rarer medium (air) and if i > C(49Ĉ) TIR will take
place at the surface of the bubble. This is shown in figure (A)
(2) Sparkling of diamond
The sparkling of diamond is due to total internal reflection inside it. As refractive index for
diamond is 2.5 so C = 24Ĉ. Now the cuttings of diamond are such that i > iC, so TIR will take
place again and again inside it. The light which beams out from a few places in some specific
directions makes it sparkle. Recently developed synthetic rutile (titanium dioxide) displays even
greater brilliance as for it ø ~ 2.9 and so C ~ 20Ĉ.

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-fibre
ptical
Air
O ø1 ø2
ø1 > ø2

Light pipe
(A) (B)

(3) Optical fibre

Now a days total internal reflection is used in fibre optics. In it light through multiple total
internal reflections is propagated along the axis of a glass fibre of radius of few microns in which
index of refraction of core ø1 (= 1.7) is greater than that of surroundings (called cladding) ø2
(= 1.5) as shown in Fig. (B). At present fibre optics is used in telecommunications for propagating
signals from one place to the other as through a single fibre about 300 signals can be transmitted
simultaneously without any interference whereas an electric wire can transmit only one. This is
also used by doctors to visualise internal sites of the body.

4 .6 Sin g l e Re f r a c t i o n f r o m a Pla n e Su r f a c e
Following four results can be drawn after refraction from a plane surface.

D 1 2
C
i
Air Air A
Medium A B Medium
i r x
I øx
r

O I
(a) (b)

O O
øx
x I x
x
Air ø Air
A Medium A Medium

1 2

(c) (d)

In all the four figures, single refraction is taking place through a plane surface. Refractive index
of medium (may be glass, water etc.) is ø. In figures (a) and (d) the ray of light is travelling from denser

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38 QUIZRR
to rare medium and hence, it bends away from the normal. In figures (b) and (c) the ray of light is
travelling from a rare to a denser medium and hence, it bends towards the normal. Now, let us take
the four figures individually.
(a) Object O is placed at a distance x from A. Ray OA, which falls normally on the plane surface,
passes undeviated as AB. Ray OB, which falls at angle r (with the normal) on the plane
surface, bends away from the normal and passes as BC in air. Rays AD and BC meet at I
after extending these two rays backwards. Let BC makes an angle i (> r) with normal.

AB
sin i  tan i  ... (i)
AI

AB
and sin r  tan r  ... (ii)
AO

sin i AO
Dividing Eq. (i) by (ii), we have 
sin r AI

AO  sin i 
or   as  
AI  sin r 

AO x
 AI  
 

If point O is at a depth of d from a water surface, then the above result is also sometimes
written as,

dactual
dapparent 


or the apparent depth is ø times less than the actual depth.

(b) In the absence of the plane refracting surface the two rays 1 and 2 would had met at O.
Proceeding in the similar manner we can prove that after refraction from the plane surface
they will now meet a point I where,
AI = øx (if AO = x)
(c) In this case object is at O, a distance AO = x from the plane surface. When seen from inside
the medium it will appear at I, where
AI = øx
(d) The two rays 1 and 2 meeting at O will not meet at I after refraction from the plane surface.

AO x
Where AI   .
 

Note : In all the four cases the change in the value of x is ø times whether it is increasing or
decreasing. All the relations can be derived for small angles of incidence as done in part (a).

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4 .6 Re f r a c t i o n T h r o u g h A Gla s s Sla b i
AIR
When a light ray passes through a glass slab having parallel
faces, it gets refracted twice before finally emerging out of it. Glass
r
First refraction takes place from air to glass. So,
ø
sin i
 ...(i)
sin r r

The second refraction takes place from glass to air.

AIR
e
1 sin r
So,  ... (ii)
 sin e

From eq. (i) and (ii), we get

sin i sin e
  i = e
sin r sin r

Thus, emergent ray is parallel to incident ray.

If there exists a region of index through which ray has to pass; such that there exists a medium of
same refractive index on the entry and exit of the ray then the ray gets laterally shifted by distance d

Illust rat io n
In the adjacent system what is the angle between incident ray and emergent ray ?
Solution :
Applying SnellÊs law at first interface i
air 1
sin i = sin r1 ..................... (i)
r1
Applying SnellÊs law at 2, 3 & 4 r1 ø1
2
We get r2
r2 ø2
ø1 sin r1 = ø2 sin r2 ........... (ii)
3
ø2 sin r2 = ø3 sin r3 ........... (iii) r3 r3 ø3
ø3 sin r3 = sin e ................... (iv)
4
Combining all the form equation we get
e
sin i = ø1 sin r1 = ø2 sin r2 = ø3 sin r3 = sin e
or sin i = sin e
i = e
 emergent ray is parallel to incident ray. This result is independent of no. of slabs used and
holds as long as incident ray and emergent ray are in same medium.

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4 .7 Sh i f t d u e t o Gla s s Sla b
4 .7 .1 L a t e r a l s h i f t
The perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent ray and the light is
incident obliquely on a parallel sided refracting glass slab is called lateral shift ?
In right-angled triangle OBK, we have
A i
BOK = i ă r AIR
d O Glass
 sin (i ă r) = r
OB
or d = OB sin (i ă r) ... (i) t
In right angled triangle ON´B, we have K
r
ON' t
cos r  or OB  ... (ii)
OB cos r AIR B
From (i) and (ii) we get
C
t
d sin  i  r 
cos r

4 .7 .2 N o r m a l Sh i f t
Here again two cases are possible.
C E M C E
N
M N P

I1 O I A B A B O I

ø ø
D F D F
t t
(a) (b)

(a) An object is placed at O. Plane surface CD forms its image (virtual) at I1. This image acts
as object for EF which finally forms the image (virtual) at I. Distance OI is called the normal
shift and its value is,

 1
OI   I   t
 

This can be proved as under :

Let OA = x

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 QUIZRR 41

Let AI1 = øx (Refraction from CD)

then
BI1 = øx + t

BI1 t
BI   x (Refraction from EF)
 

 OI = (AB + OA) ă BI

 t
= (t + x) ă  x  
 

 1
= 1   t Hence Proved.
 

(b) The ray of light which would had met line AB at O will now meet this line at I after two

 1
times refraction from the slab. Here OI   1   t
 

So m e I l l u s t r a t io n s o f Re f r a c t i o n
(1) Bending of an object
When a point object in a denser medium is seen from a rarer medium it appears to be at a depth
(d/ø).So if a linear object is dipped inclined to the surface of a liquid, (say water) actual depth
will be different for its different points and so apparent depth. Due to this the object appears to
be inclined from its actual position BE as shown in Fig. (A).
(2) Visibility of two images of an object
When an object is in a glass container and is seen from a level higher than that of liquid in the
container as shown in Fig. (B), two images I1 and I2 of object O can be seen simultaneously·
one due to refraction at the upper surface while the other at the side surface.
A
C´
B I2
E´
C
I1
E O
(A) (B)
(3) Twinkling of stars
Stars are self-luminous distant objects, so only a few rays of light reach the eye through the
atmosphere. However, due to fluctuations in refractive index of atmosphere the refraction becomes
irregular and the light sometimes reaches the eye and sometimes it does not. This gives rise to
twinkling of stars. If from moon or free space we look at a star this effect will not take place and
star light will reach the eye continuously.

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 42 QUIZRR
Ex a m p l e 1 6
Monochromatic light falls at an angle of incidence ÂiÊ on a slab of a transparent material,
refractive index of this material being ÂøÊ for the given light. What should the relation between
i and ø be so that the reflected and the refracted rays are mutually perpendicular ?
Solution :
In Fig., r is the angle of reflection and r´ the angle of refraction.
According to the given condition, considering the reflected and the refracted rays to be perpendicular
to each other,
r + 90Ĉ + r´ = 180Ĉ
 r´ = 90Ĉ
or r´ = 90Ĉ ă i [i = r, law of reflection]
According to SnellÊs law,
1 sin i = ø sin r´ i r
sin i = ø sin (90Ĉ ă i)
90Ĉ
sin i = ø cos i r´
ø = tan i
i = tană1 (ø) Ans.

Ex a m p l e 1 7
In Fig. a ray of light falls on a glass plate of thickness 6 cm and
refractive index 1.5 such that it deviates through 30Ĉ due to refraction P Q
at the boundary PQ. Find the lateral displacement of the ray as it
emerges out of the plate. ø = 1.5

S R
Solution :
In Fig. (B)
i = r + 30Ĉ (opposite angles)
r = i ă 30Ĉ
Applying SnellÊs law at the boundary PQ.
1 sin i = ø sin r
sin i = 1.5 sin (i ă 30Ĉ) i
sin i = 1.5 (sin i cos 30Ĉ) P Q

cos i sin 30Ĉ) ø = 1.5

r
 3 y
cos i 
= 1.5  2 sin i  2  S R
 

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 QUIZRR 43

1.5  3 1.5
sin i  sin i  cos i
2 2

or sin i = 1.3 sin i ă cos i

 0.3 sin i = 0.75 cos i
tan i = 2.5
i = tană1 (2.5) = 68.2Ĉ

 cos i 
 
Lateral displacement y = t sin i  1  2 2 
   sin i 

Here ø = 1.5, t = 6 cm, i = 68.2Ĉ

 cos68.2 
 
 y = 6 sin 68.2Ĉ  1 
 (1.5)  sin 68.2 
2 2

y = 3.83 cm Ans.

Ex a m p l e 1 8

 4
In a tank, a 4 cm thick layer of water     floats on a 6 cm thick layer of an organic
 3
liquid (ø = 1.48). Viewing at a normal incidence, how far below the water surface does the
bottom of tank appear to be ?
Solution :

d1 d2
dAP  
1 2

6 4
= 
1.48 4 / 3
DAP = 7.05 cm Ans.

Ex a m p l e 1 9
B C
An air bubble is trapped inside a glass cube of edge 30 cm. Looking
through the face ABEH, the bubble appears to be at normal distance A
D
12 cm from this face and when seen from the opposite face CDGE,
F
it appears to be at normal distance 8 cm from CDGF. Find refractive E
index of glass and also the actual position of the bubble. H G

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 44 QUIZRR
Solution : In Fig. below :
AH represents face ABEH
DG represents face CDGF
AD represents face ABCD
and HG represents face EFGH
All observations are made from outside the cube. Let O be the actual position of bubble at distance
x from AH. Obviously, its real distance from DG is 30 ă x. I1 is the apparent position of bubble as seen
from the side of AH and I2 its apparent position seen from the side of DG.

A D

I1 I2
L O M
x 30ăx
H G

Objecting being in the denser medium and observer in the rarer.

Actual distance of bubble from refracting surface


Apparent distance of bubble from refracting surface

here ø is refractive index of denser medium (glass) relative to the surrounding rarer maximum (air).
For refraction at AH

LO MO
ø = ø = MI
LI1 2

LO x MO 30  x
LI1 =  MI1 = 
   

but LI1 = 12 cm (given) but MI2 = 8 cm (given)

x 30  x
 = 12 ... (1)  = 8 ... (2)
 

Adding Eqs. (1) and (2)

x 30  x
 = 20
 

 ø = 1.5 Ans.

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 QUIZRR 45

From Eq. (1)

x

= 12

x
or = 12
1.5

 x = 18 cm Ans.
Thus actual position of bubble is at normal distance 18 cm from AH (face ABEH) or at a distance
12 cm from DG (face CDGF).

Ex a m p l e 2 0
A container completely filled with water (ø = 4/3) has a scratch at its bottom. An observer
looks at the scratch from a height 1 m above the surface of water. A small hole is now made
in a wall of the container and very close to its bottom so that water flows out. When the
level of water reduces to half, the hole is closed. It appears to the observer that the scratch
has moved away by a distance 25 cm relative to its initial position. Find the initial level
(height) of water in the container.
Solution :
Initially, let water be filled to a height ÂhÊ m. Actual depth of scratch from the surface is ÂhÊ.
h
However, due to refraction at water-air boundary, it will appear to be so that the observer finds the

h
scratch to be at a distance 1   . When the container is half filled, as shown in Fig. actual depth of

h
scratch below the surface of water is h/2 but, due to refraction, it appears to be to the observer
2

h h
located in air. In this case, the scratch appears to the observer to be at distance 1   .
2 2

Observer Observer
1m 1m

h/ø h/2
h
I h/2ø
h/2
I´
S S
(A) (B)

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 46 QUIZRR
According to the given condition,

h h h
1  = 1   0.25 [25 cm = 0.25 m]
2 2 

h h
  = 0.25
2 2

since ø = 4/3

h 3h
 = 0.25
2 8

h =2m Ans.

Ex a m p l e 2 1 Observer 1
Observer 2
A point source of light is placed at the bottom of a tank filled 
 4
with water     to a depth 4 m. Find apparent depth of the 4m
 3
30Ĉ
source below the surface as viewed by (a) observer 1 and (b)
S
observer 2.
Solution :
(a) Observer 1 receives light rays from the source which fall on the water air boundary at
normal incidence (i  0) and we can use the relation

Actual depth
ø =
Apparent depth

Actual depth 4
Apparent depth =   3m Ans.
 4/3

(b) The relation used in (a) is not valid for observer 2 since incidence (i = 30Ĉ) is much away
from the normal.
In this situation, apparent depth can be expressed as,

dAC   cos  
dAP   
  2  sin2  
 

Here  is the angle of vision at the surface, i.e. the angle of refraction as light passes from
water to air.
Applying SnellÊs law,

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 QUIZRR 47

1 sin  = ø sin 30Ĉ

4 1 2
sin  =  
3 2 3

 cos  = 1  4/ 9  5/9

3
4  4/3  5/9 
d AP = 4/3  
    4 / 3 2   2 / 32 

dAP = 1.91 m Ans.

Ex a m p l e 2 2
A fish rising vertically to the surface of water in a lake uniformly at the rate of 3 m/s observes
a king-fisher (bird) diving vertically towards the water at a rate of 9 m/s vertically above it.
If the refractive index of water is (4/3), find the actual velocity of the dive of the bird.
Solution :
If at any instant, the fish is at a depth x below the water surface while the bird is at a height
y above the surface, then the apparent height of the bird above the surface as seen by fish will be

dAC 1 y 1
 , i.e.,  or dAP = øy
dAP 2 dAP 
B´
So the total total apparent distance of the bird as seen by fish in water at depth
B
x will be øy
y h
h = x + øy

dh dx dy dy x x
or    , i.e., 9  3   F
dt dt dt dt

dy 6
  4.5 m/s
dt  4 / 3  Ans.

Ex a m p l e 2 3
A vessel having perfectly reflecting plane bottom is filled with water (ø = 4/3) to a depth d.
A point source of light is placed at a height h above the surface of water. Find the distance
of final image from water surface.
Solution :
As shown in Fig., water will form the image of bottom, i.e., mirror MM´ at a depth (d/ø) from its
surface [as d AC/d AP) = (ø1/ø2)]. So the distance of object O from virtual mirror mm´ will be h + (d/ø).

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 48 QUIZRR
Now as a plane mirror forms image behind the mirror at the same distance O
h h
as the object is in front of it, the distance of image I from mm´ will be A C
h + (d/ø) and as the distance of virtual mirror from the surface of water d
d ø
is (d/ø), the distance of image I from the surface of water will be
m m´
M M´
 d d 2d 3  4 (h + d )
ø
 h       h    h  2 d as   3  Ans.
   

Ex a m p l e 2 4
A concave mirror of radius of curvature one metre is placed at the bottom of a tank of
water. The mirror forms an image of the sun when it is directly overhead. Calculate the
distance of the images from the mirror for 80 cm of water in the tank.
Solution :
The focal length of the mirror is f = (R/2) = (100/2) = 50 cm and the sun is at infinity, i.e.
ø = ; so from mirror formula we have

1 1 1
  i.e., v = ă 50 cm
v    50

So when the length of water column in the tank is 80 cm, the image of F
sun will be 50 cm from the mirror as shown in Fig.

Ex a m p l e 2 5
A rectangular block of glass is placed on a printed page lying on a horizontal surface. Find
the minimum value of the refractive index of glass for which the letters on the page are not
visible from any of the vertical faces of the block.
Solution :
The situation is depicted in Fig. Light will not emerge out from the vertical face BC if at it
i > C
or sin i > sin C

1 D C
or sin i  ... (1)

R P
 1
i
as sin C    r
  O
A Paper B


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But from SnellÊs law at O

1 ï sin  = ø sin r
And in OPR,
r + i = 90Ĉ, i.e., r = 90Ĉ ă i
So sin  = ø sin (90Ĉ ă i),
sin 
i.e., cos i = 

sin i  1  cos2 i  1   sin  /  

2
so ... (2)

So substituting the value of sin i from Eq. (2) in (1),

sin 2  1
1  , i.e., 2  1  sin 2 
 2 

Now as (sin2 )max = 1

ø2 > 2, i.e.,   2

so ømin = 2
Alternative Solution : According to theory of prism, light does not emerge from a prism if angle
of prism A > 2C, whatever be the angle of incidence. Now as the angle of prism is the angle between
the faces on which light is incident and from which it emerges, so here A = 90Ĉ. Hence light will not
emerge from vertical faces for all values of , if 90Ĉ > 2C, i.e., 45Ĉ > C

1 1
or sin 45Ĉ > sin C, i.e. 
2 

  2, i.e.,  min  2

Ex a m p l e 2 6

A bulb is placed at a depth of 2 7 m in water and a floating opaque disc is placed over the
bulb so that the bulb is not visible from the surface. What is the minimum diameter of the
disc ?
Solution : R
D A
As shown in Fig., light from bulb will not emerge out of water C
if at the edge of disc, i > C Water
h i > c
or sin i > sin  ..... (1) ø
C

Now if R is the radius of disc and h is the depth of bulb from it.
B

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 50 QUIZRR

R 1
sin i 
2 2 and sin C  
R h

So Eq. (1) becomes

R 1 h
 R
R 2  h2  or 2  1
... (2)

Here h  2 7 m and ø = (4/3)

2 7
So R min  6m
16 / 9   1
So diameter of disc = 2R = 2 ï 6 = 12 m Ans.
Note : Here it is worthy to note that :
(i) If there had been no opaque disc, only that light will emerge out of the water which was
initially confined in the cone of angle of vertex  = 2C.
(ii) Further in accordance with principle of reversibility, a fish or diver inside the water will see
the whole outer would confined in a circular patch whose angular size at the eyeÊs of
2
observer is 2C = 2 sină1 (1/ø) while linear size 2 R = 2h /   1 .  
5. PRI SM -T H EORY
5 .1 Pr i s m
Prism is a transparent medium bounded by any number of
A A
 A

A
(A) (B) (C) (D)

surfaces in such a way that the surface on which light is incident and the surface from which
light emerges are plane and non-parallel.

Principal
section of A A
A
a prism 45Ĉ

C 90Ĉ 45Ĉ 90Ĉ
B C B C B
Equilateral Right-angled Right-angle
prism isosceles prism prism
(A) (B) (C)

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Generally equilateral, right-angled isosceles or right-angled prisms are used.

With reference to prism here it is worth noting that :
(1) Angle of prism or refracting angle of prism means the angle between the faces on which
light is incident and from which it emerges. In Fig. 1, A is the angle of prism.
(2) Angle of deviation means the angle between emergent and incident rays, i.e., the angle
through which incident ray turns in passing through a prism. It is represented by  in Figs.
(1) (B), (2) (B, C) and (3) (A).

A A= 0 A
i1 = r2
t i1 =r i 2 i2
den  Em
c i i i2 er i1 1
In ray 1 raygent i1 r1 r2
r1 r2
ø2 = ø1
B C = 0 B C
(A) (B) (C)
(3) If the faces of a prism on which light is incident and from which it emerges are parallel, then
the angle of prism will be zero and as incident ray will emerge parallel to itself, deviation
will also be zero, i.e. the prism will act as a transparent plate.
(4) If ø of the material of the prism is equal to that of surroundings, no refraction at its faces
will take place and light will pass through it undeviated, i.e.  = 0 [Fig. 3 (C)].

5 .2 Co n d i t i o n o f N o e m e r g e n c e
The light will not emerge out of a prism for all values of angle of incidence if at face AB for i1
= max = 90Ĉ, at face AC
r 2 > C ... (1)
Now from SnellÊs law at face AB, we have
1 ï sin 90Ĉ = ø sin r1
i.e. r1 = sină1 (1/ø) A
or r 1 = C ...(2)
So from Eqs. (1) and (2) i1 P r1 r2 R
r1 + r2 > 2C ... (3) 
However, in a prism Q
r1 + r2 = A* ... (4) B C
So from Eqs. (3) and (4)
A > 2C ... (5)
or sin(A/2) > sinC
i.e. ø > [cosec (A/2)] ... (6)
i.e., a ray of light will not emerge out of a prism (whatever be the angle of incidence) if A > 2C,
i.e. if ø > cosec (A/2).

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5 .3 Co n d i t i o n o f Gra zi n g Em e r g e n c e
If a ray can emerge out of a prism, the value of angle of incidence i1 for which angle of emergence
i2 = 90Ĉ is called condition of grazing emergence. In this situations as the ray emerges out of face AC,
i.e. TIR does not take place at it,
r < ...(1) A
2 C
But as in a prism
i1 P 
r2 R
r1 + r2 = A r1  i2
So r1 = A ă (< C) Q
i.e., r 1 > A ă C ...(2) B C
Now from snellÊs law at face AB, we have
1 sin i1 = ø sin r1
which in the light of Eq. (2) gives
sin i1 > ø sin (A ă C)
i.e., sin i1 > ø [sin A cos C ă cos A sin C]

i.e., sin i1   (sin A)


1  sin    cos A sin 
2
C

C


i.e., sin i1   (2  1) sin A  cos A  [as sin C = (1/ø)]

 

or i1  sin 1 

 2

 1 sin A  cos A 


or  i1 min  sin 1 

 2

 1 sin A  cos A 

...(3)

i.e., light will emerge out of a prism only if angle of incidence is greater than (i1)min given by Eq. (3).
In this situation deviation will be given by  = (i1 + 90Ĉ ă A) with i1 given by Eq. (3).

5 .4 De v i a t i o n Pro d u c e d b y Pri s m
A
If light is incident on face AB of a prism of prism angle A, at an angle
of incidence i1 and emerges from face AC at an angle of emergence i2 as R
P i2
shown in Fig., the angle of deviation  will be i1
 r
r1 2
 = (i1 ă r1) + (i2 ă r2) Q
i.e.  = (i1 ă r2) ă (i1 ă r2) ...(1) B C
Now as in PQR
r1 + r2 +  = 180Ĉ

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and in quadrilateral PQRA

A + 90Ĉ +  + 90Ĉ = 360Ĉ
i.e., A +  = 180Ĉ
So r1 + r2 +  = A + , i.e., r1 + r2 = A ...(2)
Substituting the value of (r1 + r2) from Eq. (2) in (1), we have
 = [i1 + i2 ă A] with (r1 + r2) = A ...(3)
This is the required result and holds good if emergent ray exists.
The following few situations are worth considering :
(a) Deviation by a prism of small angle
If angle of prism A is small, r1 and r2 (as r1 + r2) and hence i1 and and i2 will also be small. Since
for small angles in sin  = . SnellÊs law at first and second surfaces of prism gives respectively :
i 1 = ør1 and ør2 = i2
So that, (i1 + i2) = ø(r1 + r2)
= øA [as r1 + r2 = A ...(4)
So for small angle of prism, Eq. (3) reduces to
 = øA ă A, i.e.  = (ø ă 1)A ...(5)
Note : Assuming the prism to be in the position of minimum deviation has been established that
for small angle of prism m = (ø ă 1) A. However, the formula = (ø ă 1) A is valid for all positions
of the prism provided the angle of prism A is small (say < 10Ĉ).
(b) Maximum deviation
Deviation will be maximum when angle of incidence i1 is maximum, i.e. i1 = 90Ĉ; so Eq. (3)
reduces to :
max = 90Ĉ + i2 ă A ...(6)
However, when i 1 = 90Ĉ, 1 sin 90Ĉ = ø sin r1
i.e., r1 = sină1 (1/ø) or r1 = C

A A

 Q
i2 P  R
P i1 i2
i1 = 90Ĉ r 
r1  2 r1 r2
60Ĉ Q
60Ĉ
B C B C
(A) (B)
Maximum-deviation Minimum - deviation

and as in a prism
(r1 + r2) = A, r2 = (A ă C)

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So at surface AC,
ø sin r2 = 1 sin i2
i.e., sin i2 = ø sin (A ă C)
or i 2 = sină1 [ø sin (A ă C) ... (7)
So Eq. (6) gives maximum deviation while (7) angle of emergence in condition of maximum
deviation i.e., i1 = 90Ĉ. This situation is reverse of grazing emergence, i.e., case (C), and may also
be viewed as deviation at grazing incidence.
(c) Minimum deviation
 = (i1 + i2) ă A
Theory and experiment show that  will be minimum when
i1 + i2 = i (say) ... (8)
But when i1 + i2 = i, SnellÊs law at faces AB and AC respectively gives
1 sin i = sin r1 and ø sin r2 = 1 sin i
i.e., sin r1 = sin r2 or r1 = r2 (say) ...(9)
So in the light of Eqs. (8) and (9), (3) reduces to
min = (2i ă A) with r = (A/2) ...(10)
In this situation angle of emergence (or incidence) will be obtained by applying SnellÊs law, i.e.,
ø sin r = sin i
or i = sină1 [ø sin (A/2)] [as r = (A/2)] ...(11)
Here it is worth noting that in the situation of minimum deviation :
(1) Angle of incidence is equal to angle of emergence and is given by
i = sină1 [ø sin (A/2)]
(2) Angle of refraction inside the prism is equal to half the angle of prism, i.e.,
r = (A/2) = (A/2)
(3) As r1 = r2, (90Ĉ ă r1)= (90Ĉ ă r2), so that AP = AR, and if the prism is equilateral [or
isosceles with AB = AC], the ray inside the prism will be parallel to its base.
(4) As from Eq. (10), i= (m + A/2) with r = (A/2)

sin i sin  A  m  / 2

ø =  ...(12)
sin r sin  A / 2 

I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s
The deviation produced by a prism depends on angle of incidence, i1, angle of prism A, ø of the
material of the prism and wavelength of light . So
(1) For a given A, material of prism and light, as angle of incidence increases, angle of deviation
first decreases, reaches a minimum and then increases, as shown in Fig. (A).
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ø, and 
 A = constt. A

i -  curve I
v
ht
m lig
ite
Wh R

i1 = i2 i B V
C
(A) (B)

(2) For a given material of prism, light and angle of incidence, as angle of prism increases, angle
of deviation also increases,
i.e.   A
e.g., deviation in 60Ĉ prism will be more than in 30Ĉ prism.
(3) For a given angle of incidence, angle of prism and light, as material of prism is changed,
deviation will also change. Greater the ø or the prism, greater will be the deviation as,
  (ø ă 1)
e.g., ø of flint glass is more than that of crown glass, so F > C, for same i1, A and .
(4) For a given angle of incidence, angle of prism and material of prism, if wavelength of light
is changed, deviation will also change as ø of a prism is different for different wavelengths.
With increases in wavelength deviation decreases, i.e., deviation for red is least while maximum
for violet [Fig. (B)]. (This is discussed in detail in the next section).

5 .5 Di s p e r s i o n o f L i g h t
When white light passes through a prism it splits up into constituent colours. This phenomenon
is called dispersion and arises due to the fact that refractive index of a prism is different for different
wavelengths. So different wavelengths in passing through a prism are deviated through different
angles and as (ø ă 1), violet is deviated most while red least giving rise to display of colours known
as spectrum [Fig. (B)]. Rainbow, the most colourful phenomenon in nature, is primarily due to the
dispersion of sunlight by rain-drops suspended in air.
In case of dispersion of light the angle between the extreme rays is a measure of dispersion and
is called angular dispersion. So
Angular dispersion  = (Vă R) ...(13)
and the ratio of dispersion to mean deviation is called dispersive power  i.e.,

  V  R
 =  ...(14)
 

But as for a prism  = (ø ă 1)A,

 V  R d   V  R  
 =     Y   ...(15)
   1    1   2 

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From expressions (14) and (15) it is clear that :
(1) Dispersive power like refractive index has no units and dimensions and depends on the
material of the prism.
(2) As for a given prism dispersive power is constant,
  
i.e., dispersion of different wavelengths will be different and will be maximum for violet and
minimum for red

V B G Y OR VB G Y O R

Prism - spectra Grating - spectra

(A) (B)
(as deviation is maximum for violet and minimum for red), i.e., in the spectrum of white
light produced by a prism spread of violet is most while least for red, (However, in grating
spectra spread of violet is least while of red most).
(3) As for a given prism
  
a single prism produces both deviation and dispersion simultaneously, i.e., a single prism
cannot give deviation without dispersion or dispersion without deviation.
However, if two prisms are combined together we can get deviation without dispersion or
vice-versa. So if two prisms of prism angles Aand A´ and refractive indices ø and ø´ are
placed together,
 = 1 + 2 = (ø ă 1) A + (ø´ ă 1) A´
and  = 1 + 2 = (øV ă øR) A + (ø´V ă ø´R) A´
(a) For deviation without dispersion

  V  R 
 = 0Ĉ, i.e., A '   '   ' A ...(16)
 V R

i.e., the two prisms must be placed with their prism angles in opposite directions so that condition
given by Eq. (16) may be satisfied. In this situation

 V  R 
A
 = (ø ă 1) A ă (ø´ ă 1)
  'V   'R 

   V  R    '  1 
i.e.  = (ø ă 1) A 1   
    1   'V   'R  

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  V  R  A
But as 1 = (ø ă 1) A, =
   1

  ' V   'R  ,
and 1 =  = 1[1 ă (/´)] ...(17)
  '  1
usually ´>, so  is in the same direction as produced by the first prism [Fig. (A)].
A
A  Flint V
 ht
Flint
te lig
Whi R R
ht 1  ´
lig
hit
e  ´ CrownV
W Crown A´
A´ Dispersion without deviation
Deviation without dispersion (B)
(A)

The prism which produces deviation without dispersion is called Âachromatic prismÊ.
(b) For dispersion without deviation

   1 A
 = 0, i.e. A´ = ...(18)
  '  1
In this situation,

   1 A
 = (øV ă øR) A ă (ø´V ă ø´R) ï
  '  1
   V   R    ' V   'R  
i.e.  = (ø ă 1)A    1  
     '  1 
or  =  [ ă ´] ...(19)
If ´ > , the resultant dispersion is negative, i.e., opposite to that produced by the first prism.
The prism which produces dispersion without deviation is called Âdirect vision prismÊ.

Ex a m p l e 2 7
Find the minimum and maximum angle of deviation for a prism with angle A = 60Ĉ and
ø = 1.5.
Solution : Minimum deviation :
The angle of minimum deviation occurs when i = e and r1 = r2 and is given by

 A  m 
sin  
ø =  2     = 2 sină1 (ø sin A/2) ă A
A m
sin / 2

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Substituting ø = 1.5 and A = 60Ĉ, we get
 m = 2 sină1 (0.75) ă 60Ĉ = 37Ĉ
Maximum Deviation : The deviation is maximum when i = 90Ĉ or e = 90Ĉ that is at grazing
incidence or grazing emergence.
Let i = 90Ĉ

1  1 
 r1 = C  sin  

 r  sin 1  /   42
2
3

 r2 = A ă r1 = 60Ĉ ă 42Ĉ = 18Ĉ

sin r2 1
Using sin e   , we have

 sin e = ø sin r2 = 1.5 ï sin 18Ĉ = 0.462

 e = 28Ĉ
 Deviation = max = (i + e) ă A = (90Ĉ + 28Ĉ) ă 60Ĉ = 58Ĉ

Ex a m p l e 2 8
Calculate the dispersive power of crown and flint glass-prism from the following data :
For crown glass øV = 1.522; øR = 1.514 an d f or f l i n t gl ass μV = 1.522; øR = 1.514
Solution :
For crown glass øV = 1.522; øR = 1.514

 V  R 1.522  1.514
øy = 
2 2

 øy = 1.518
Hence, the dispersive power of crown glass

 V  R 1.522  1.514

y 1.518  1

W = 0.01544
For flint glass øV = 1.662; øR = 1.644

 V  R 1.662  1.644
 ø=  = 1.6
2 2

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Ex a m p l e 2 9
Find the angle of a prism of dispersive power 0.021 and refractive index 1.53 to form on
achromatic combination with the prism of angle 4.2Ĉ and dispersive power 0.045 having
refractive index 1.65. Also calculate the resultant deviation.
Solution :
W = 0.021; ø = 1.53; W´ = 0.045; ø´ = 1.65
A´ = 4.2Ĉ
For no dispersion
W + W´´ = 0
or W (ø ă 1)A + W (ø´ ă 1)A´ = 0

W ' A '   '  1 0.045  4.2  1.65  1 

or A = ă  = ă 11.4Ĉ
   1 0.021  1.53  1

Net deviation =  + ´ = (ø ă 1)A + (ø´ ă 1)A´

= ă 11.04Ĉ (1.53 ă 1) + 4.2Ĉ (1.65 ă 1) = ă 3.12Ĉ

6 . Re f r a c t io n f r o m Cu r ve d Su r f a c e s
If the boundary between two transparent media is not plane and an object O in medium of
refractive index ø1 forms an image I in medium of refractive index ø2 as shown in Fig., then from
SnellÊs law at the boundary AB
DA
ø1 sin i = ø2 sin r i r
ø1  ø2
 y 
and as for small angles,
O P R C I
sin  = tan  =  u v
the above equation reduces to B
ø1 ï i = ø2 ï r ...(1)
But in OCD i = ( + )
while in ICD,  = (r + )
So substituting the values of i and r from these in Eq. (1), we get
ø1 ( + ) = ø2( ă )
or ø1  + ø2 = (ø2ă ø1)

y y y
1   2   2  1  
or
     v =
 R 

2 1

 2  1 
or = ...(2)
v u R

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This is the desired result. If we compare it with mirror formula,

1 1 1
 
v u f

We find that here

v  (v/ø2) and u  (ă u/ø1)
So transverse magnification in this case

m
I

 v / 2   1 . v
...(3)
O   u / 1  2 u
While using Eqs. (2) and (3) keep in mind that :
(1) These are valid for all single refracting surfaces-convex, concave or plane. In case of plane
refracting surface
R  , so Eq. (2) reduces to

2 1 u 1
 0 i.e., 
v u v 2

dAC 1
or 
dAP 2

(2) The rules for signs for a single reflecting surface are same as for spherical mirrors.
(3) If object or image itself is present at a refracting surface, refraction at that surface is not
considered.

Ex a m p l e 3 0
An object O is stuck on the surface of a transparent solid sphere of
radius 20 cm. Find refraction index of the sphere such that rays from
the object after refraction from the opposite side emerge as a parallel O
beam, as shown. Also prove that refractive index has the same value,
in the given situation, for any value of radius of sphere.
Solution :
For refraction at a spherical surface

2 1 2  1
 
v u R

u is the distance of object from the pole of refracting surface; it may be inferred as the normal
distance of object from the refracting surface.

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v is the distance of image from the pole of refracting surface; it may be inferred as the normal
distance of image from the refracting surface.
ø1 is the refractive index of the medium in which the object is located so that light is refracted
while passing from medium of refractive index ø1 to medium of refractive index ø2.
R is the radius of curvature of the refracting surface.
In this problem,
ø 2 = 1 (air)
u = ă 40 cm (object is at distance 2R from
the refracting surface)
and v =

1 1 1  1
 
   40  =
 20

 ø1 = 2
Thus refractive index of the sphere is 2.
In general, for any radius of the sphere, say R.

1  1  1

   2R  =  R

1 1  1
 =
2R R

or ø1 = 2 Ans.
Therefore, in the given situation, refraction index of sphere will be 2 for any value of radius.

Ex a m p l e 3 1
A mark on the surface of a glass sphere (ø = 1.5) is viewed from a diametrically opposite
position. It appears to be at a distance 10 cm from its actual position. Find the radius of
sphere.
Solution :
As the mark is viewed from the diametrically opposite position, refraction takes place at side II
of the surface (the mark being on side I as shown).

10 cm I II

I C P
Mark

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Here ø 1 = 1.5, ø2 = 1
u = ă 2R

2 1 2  1
Using  =
v u R

1

1.5 1  1.5
v   2R  = R

1 0.5 1.5 0.5

   = 
v R 2R 2R

or v = ă 4R
negative sign indicates that the image is formed to the left of refracting surface as shown in Fig.
Further, it is given that the image of mark is at a distance 10 cm from the object.
Hence 4R = 2R + 10
R = 5 cm Ans.

Ex a m p l e 3 2
The slab of a material of refractive index 2 has a curved surface A C
APB of radius of curvature 10 cm and a plane surface CD. On ø = 2 ø = 4/3
ø=1
the left of APB is air and on the right of CD is water with 15cm O
P I
refractive indices as given in the figure. An object O is placed Left Right
B D
at a distance of 15 cm from the pole P as shown. What is the 20 cm
30 cm
distance of final image of O from P as viewed from the left ?
Solution :
In case of refraction from a curved surface, we have

2 1

 2  1 
=
v u R

Here ø 1 = 2; ø2 = 1
R = ă 10 cm and u = ă 15 cm

1 2 12
  v = ă 30 cm
So v   15   10 , i.e.,

i.e., the curved surface will form virtual image I at a distance of 30 cm from P. Since, the image
is virtual there will be no refraction at the plane surface CD (as the rays are not actually passing
through the boundary), the distance of final image I from P will remain 30 cm.

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Ex a m p l e 3 3
A
An air bubble in glass (ø = 1.5) is situated at a distance 3 cm from a
ø = 1.5 ø=1
convex surface of diameter 10 cm as shown in Fig. 3.6. At what
distance from the surface will the bubble appear ? CO I P
Solution :
3cm
In case of refraction from curved surface
5cm
2 1   2  1 
 
v u R

Here ø1 = 1.5; ø2 = 1;R = ă 5 cm and u = ă 3 cm

1 1.5  1  1.5
  ,
So
v   3   5 i.e., v = ă 2.5 cm Ans.

i.e., the bubble will appear at a distance 2.5 cm from the curved surface inside the glass.

Note : If the surface had been plane, i.e, R  , it would yield

1 1.5  1  1.5 
  , i.e. v = ă 2 cm.
v   3 

Ex a m p l e 3 4
A glass sphere (ø = 1.5) of radius 20 cm has a small air bubble 4 cm below its centre. The
sphere is viewed from outside and along a vertical line through the bubble. Find the
apparent depth of the bubble below the surface of sphere.
Solution : Here u = ă 24 cm
ø 1 = 1.5 P

ø2 = 1
20 cm
2 1 2  1
Using  =
v u R C
4 cm
O
1 1.5 1  1.5
 =
v  24  20

1 1 15
= 
v 40 24

 v = ă 26.67cm I
negative sign have indicates that the direction from P to I is opposite to the direction of incident
light as shown. Hence, the bubble appears to be at a depth 26.67 cm from the surface of sphere.
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Ex a m p l e 3 5
A quarter cylinder of radius R and refractive index 1.5 is placed on
a table. A point object P is kept at a distance of mR from it. Find
the value of m for which a ray from P will emerge parallel to the P
table as shown in the figure. mR R
Solution :
For refraction at plane surface,

2 1 2  1
 =
v u R

Here u = ă mR,
P1
ø 2 = 1.5, P
mR R
ø 1 = 1, R =  1.5mR
 v = 1.5 mR
For curved surface, P1 acts as an object. For this surface,
given ø1 = 1.5, ø2 = 1.0, u = ă (1.5 mR + R), v = 

2 1 2  1
...  =
v u R

1 1.5 1  1.5

 1.5m  1 R = R

1.5 1
 1.5m  1
= or 3 = 1.5 m + 1
2

4
m = Ans.
3

Ex a m p l e 3 6
A glass sphere (ø = 1.5) of diameter 50 cm has a small air bubble. Looking from outside
along a diameter, the bubble appears to be at distance 10 cm from the surface. Find the
apparent position of the bubble when it is viewed from the diametrically opposite position.
Also find the actual position of the bubble.
Solution :
Looking from outside, say from the left, and along the diameter P1P2, the bubble which is actually
at O, appears to be at I1 such that P1I1 = 10 cm.

2 1 2  1
Using  
v u R

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I
II

I2 P1 I1 O C P2

For refraction at side I of the surface

ø 1 = 1.5
v = ă 10 cm
R = ă 25 cm (diameter of sphere is 50 cm)

1 1.5 1  1.5
   =
10 u  25

1.5 1 1
or =  
u 10 50

 u = ă 12.5 cm
Hence the bubble is actually at a distance 12.5 cm from P1.
For refraction at side II of the surface
Looking from outside, this time from the right, let us apply the relation for refraction at side II.
Distance of bubble (O) from P2 = 50 ă 12.5 = 37.5 cm
ø 1 = ă 37.5 cm
R = ă 25 cm
ø 1 = 1.5
ø2 = 1

1 1.5 1  1.5 1 1 1.5

  or  
v   37.5   25 v 50 37.5

 v = ă 50 cm Ans.
Thus the image will be formed 50 cm left of P2 which implies that it forms at P1 (diameter =
50 cm, given). Hence I2 in the figure will coincide with P1.

7 . T H I N L EN SES
A lens is one of the most familiar optical devices for a human being. A lens is an optical system
with two refracting surfaces. The simplest lens has two spherical surfaces close enough together that
we can neglect the distance between them (the thickness of the lens). We call this a thin lens.

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Biconvex Plano-convex Convex meniscus

Lenses are of two basic types convex which are thicker in the middle than at the edges and
concave for which the reverse holds.
Figure shows examples of both types bounded by spherical or plane surfaces.

Biconcave Plano-concave Concave meniscus

As there are two spherical surfaces, there are two centres of curvature C1 and C2 and
correspondingly two radii of curvature R1 and R2.
The line joining C1 and C2 is called the principal axis of the lens. The centre P of the thin lens
which lies on the principal axis, is called the optical centre.
Incident light
R1 > 0
R2 < 0
C2 R2 P C1

R1

(a) Converging thin lens

Incident light R1 < 0

R2 > 0
C2 R2 P C1

R1

(b) a diverging thin lens

Principal Focus : A lens has two surfaces and hence two focal points. First focal point is an
object point on the principal axis for which image is formed at infinity

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F1 F1

(A) (B)

while second focal point is an image point on the principal axis for which object lies at infinity.

F2 F2
O O
f f
(A) (B)
Focal length (f) : f is defined as the distance between optical centre of a lens and the point where
the parallel beam of light converges or appears to converge.
Aperture : In reference to a lens, aperture means the effective diameter of its transmitting area.
So the brightness, i.e., intensity of image formed by a lens which depends on the light passing through
the lens will depend on the square of aperture, i.e.
I  (Aperture)2

7 .1 Sig n Co n v e n t i o n
It is same as explained in case of mirror, i.e.,
(1) Whenever and where ever possible, rays of light are taken to travel from left to right.

Convex lens Concave lens

R1 O R2 R1 R2
C2 F C1 C1F O C2

R1 (= OC1) = Positive R1 (= OC1) = Negative

R2 (= OC2) = Negative R2 (= OC2) = Positivve
f ( = OF) = Positive f ( = OF) = Nagative
(A) (B)
(2) Transverse distances measured above the principal axis are taken to be positive while those
below it negative.
(3) Longitudinal distances are measured from optical centre are taken to be positive if in the
direction of light propagation and negative if opposite to it, i.e., according to our convention
in case of A :

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(i) To calculate an unknown quantity the known quantities are substituted with sign in a given
formula.
(ii) In the result sign must be interpreted as there are number of sign conventions and same
sign has different meaning in different conventions.

7 .2 Ru l e s f o r I m a g e Fo r m a t i o n
In order to locate the image formed by a lens graphically following rules are adopted :
(1) A ray passing through optical centre proceeds undeviated through the lens.
(2) A ray passing through first focus or directed towards it, after refraction from the lens,
becomes parallel to the principal axis.
(3) A ray passing parallel to the principal axis after refraction through the lens passes or
appears to pass through F2.
Only two rays from the same point of an object are needed for image formation and the point
where the rays after refraction through the lens intersect or appear to intersect is the image of the
object. If they actually intersect each other the images is real and if they are near to intersect the image
is said to be virtual.

7 .3 I m a g e Fo r m a t i o n b y L e n s
The image formed by a lens depends on the position of object and nature of lens. This all in a
tabular form is given below :
(a) For Convergent or Convex Lens
S.No. Position of Object Ray-Diagram Details of Image
1. At infinity Real, inverted
F2 Diminished (m << 1)
F1 At F

2. Between  and 2 F Real, inverted

I Diminished (m < ă 1)
O
Between F and 2 F

3. At 2 F Real, inverted
I
Equal (m = ă 1)
O
At 2F

4. Between 2F and F Real, inverted

F 2F I Enlarged (m > ă 1)
2F O F
Between 2F and 

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5. At F Read. inverted
O F 2F Enlarged, (m >> ă 1)
2F F At infinity

6. Between F and O Virtual, erect

F Enlarged (m > + 1)
I 2F FO Between  and object
on same side

(b) For Divergent or Concave Lens

S.No. Position of Object Ray-Diagram Details of Image
1. At infinity Virtual, erect
Diminished (m << + 1))
I F
At F

2. In front of lens Virtual, erect

Diminished (m < + 1)
OFI Between F and optical
centre

7 .4 Fo r m u l a e
In case of image formation by a lens, the incident ray is refracted twice, at first and second surface
respectively. The image formed by the first surface acts as object for the second. So from the formula
for refraction at curved surface. ø2
ø1 ø1
2 1

 2  1 
=
v u R
O R1 R2
u v
For first surface

L M

 L  M 
= ...(1)
v1 u R1

while for second surface as,

u  v1; ø1 = øL and ø2 = øM

M L  M  L 
  ...(2)
v v1 R2

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So adding Eqs. (1) and (2), we have

1 1   1 1 
 M    =  L   M    
v u  R1 R 2 

1 1  1 1 
or  =    1   
v u  R1 R 2 

L
with ø = ...(3)
M

Now if object is at infinity, image will be formed at the focus, i.e., for u = ă , v = f so that above
equation becomes

1  1 1 
f
=    1    ...(4)
 R1 R 2 

which is known as Lens-makerÊs formula and in its light Eq. (3) for a lens becomes

1 1 1
 = f ...(5)
v u

which is known as the Lens-formula.

In case of lenses, transverse magnification is given by

I v
m =  ...(6)
O u

1
D
while power* P =
 f in m

100
dioptre
=  in cm 
f ...(7)

7 .5 I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s
(1) For real extended objects if the image formed by a single lens is erect (i..e., m is positive)
it is always virtual. In this situation if the image is enlarged the lens is converging (i.e.,
convex) with object between focus and optical centre [Fig. (A)] and if diminished the lens
is diverging (i.e., concave) with image between focus and optical centre [Fig.(B)].

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I FO O F I

(A) (B)

(2) For real extended object, if the image formed by a single lens is inverted (i.e., m is negative)
it is always real and the lens is convergent, i.e. convex. In this situation if the size of image
is :
smaller than object object is equal to object object is at larger than object object
between  and 2F image is 2F image is at 2F is between C and F and
between F and 2F image between C and 

I O 2F
O 2F F F 2F 2F F F I 2F F F 2F

(A) (B) (C)

(3) In case of inverted image formed by a lens the inversion is true, i.e., left is turned right and
up, down as shown in Fig. (A).

A B

B A
Object Lens Image
(A) (B)

(4) As every part of a lens forms complete image, if a portion (say lower half) is obstructed (say
covered with black paper) full image will be formed but brightness, i.e. intensity will be
reduced (to half) [Fig. (B)].
(5) If an object is moved at constant speed towards a convex lens from infinity to focus, the
image will move slower in the beginning and faster later on, away from the lens. This is
because in the time the object moves from infinity to 2 F, the image will move from F to 2F
and when the object moves from 2F to F, the image will move from 2F to infinity. At 2F the
speed of object and image will be equal. In case of lens, speed of image

2
 f 
Vi  V0  
u  f 

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where V0 is the speed of object (u and f are to be substituted with proper sign).
(6) In case of sun-goggles, the radii of curvature of two surfaces are equal with centre on same
side, i.e.,
R1 = R2 = R

1 1 1
So =    1    = 0
f  R R 

i.e., f =  and P = (1/f) = 0

This is why sun-goggles have no power or infinite focal length. Same is true for a transparent
sheet but with the difference that here R1 = R2 = .
(7) If the two radii of curvatures of a thin lens are not equal, the focal length remains unchanged
whether the light is incident on first face or the other. This is because if we substitute R1
and R2 with proper sign in lens-makers formula, we always have

R1 R2 R2 R1

f f

(A) (B)

1  1 1 
=    1   
f  R1 R 2 

(8) If an equi-convex lens of focal length f is cut into two equal parts by a horizontal plane AB
Fig. B], then as none of ø, R1 and R2 will change, the focal length of each part will be equal
to that of initial lens, i.e.,

1  1 1  2    1
=    1    
f R R  R

However in this situation as light transmitting area of each part becomes half of initial, so
intensity will be reduced to half and aperture to 1 / 2   times of its initial value [as I 
2
(Aperture) ]. C
f
f´ f´
R ø R A B

f f
D
(A) (B) (C)

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However, if the same lens is cut into two equal parts by a vertical plane CD [ Fig. (C)], the
focal length of each part will become

1  1 1     1 1
f'
=    1     
R  R 2f

i.e., f´ = 2f
i.e., focal length of each part will be double of initial value. In this situation as the light
transmitting area of each part of lens remains equal to initial, intensity and aperture will
not change.
(9) If a lens is made of a number of layers of different refractive indices as shown, ø1
for a given wavelength of light will have as many focal lengths or will form as ø2
many images as there are øÊs as,
ø1
1 ø2
    1
f ø1

(10) As focal length of a lens depends on ø, i.e., (1/f)  (ø ă 1), the focal length of a given lens
is different for different wavelengths and maximum for red and minimum for violet whatever
be the nature of lens.
V
White light White light R
R
V F FR Fv
V v FR
R
fv R
fv
fR fR V
(A) (B)
(11) If a lens of glass (ø = 3/2) is shifted from air (ø = 1) to water (ø = 4/3) then as :

1 3 / 2  1   3 / 2 
  1 K and   1 K
fA  1  fW   4 / 3  

 1 1 
with K    
 R1 R 2 

fW  8   K 
       i.e., f = 4f
fA K   2  W A

i.e., focal length of a lens in water becomes 4 times of its value in air and so power one-
fourth [as P = 1 (1/f)].

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(12) If a lens is shifted from one medium to the other, depending on the refractive index of the
lens and medium, the following three situations are possible :
(a) øM < øL but øM increases : In this situation ø = (øL/ øM) will remain greater than unity
but will decrease and as (1/f) (ø ă 1), (1/f) will decrease, i.e., f will increase (without
change in nature of lens) as explained in point (11).
(b) øM = øL. In this situation ø = (øL/øM) = 1, so that (1/f)  (ø ă 1) = 0, i.e., f = , lens
will neither converge nor diverge but will behave as a plane glass plane.
øL øL
øM øM øM øM

øL = øM
(A) (B)
(c) øM > øL : In this situation ø = (øL/øM) < 1, so in lens-makerÊs formula sign of f and
hence nature of lens will change, i.e., a convergent lens will behave as divergent and
vice-versa [Fig.].

øL øM øL
øM
øM
øM

(A) (B)

Qu e s t io n I :
In case of a thin lens of focal length F if an object is placed at a distance x 1 from first focus
and its image is formed at a distance x 2 from the second focus, show that x 1x 2 = f 2
Answer :
As in case of thin lens the distance of either foci from the optical centre is f,

u = (f + x1) u v
x1 f f x2
and v = (f + x2) O F1 F2 I
Substituting these values of u and v in lens-formula with proper sign

1

1 1  x1  x2  2 f   1
 f  x2    f  x1  = f
or
 f  x1  f  x2  f
i.e. fx1 + fx2 + 2f2 = f2 + fx1 + fx2 + x1x2
or x1x2 = f2
Note : Formula x1x2 = f2 is called NewtonÊs formula.

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Qu e s t io n I I :
A thin converging lens of focal length f is placed between an object and a screen fixed at
a distance D apart. Show that if D > 4f, there are two positions of the lens at which a sharp
image of the object is formed on the screen.
Answer :
If the object is at a distance μ from the lens, the distance of image from the lens v = (D ă u). So
from lens-formula,

1 1 1
 =
v u f

1 1 1

we have
 D  u  u =
f

i.e. u2 ă Du + Df = 0

1
so that u = D DD  4 f   ...(1)
2 

D
x
D
O I2
u u1
O Object Lens Screen v1
u2
v2 I1
(A) (B)
Now there are three possibilities :
(a) If D < 4f; u will be imaginary, so physically no position of lens is possible.
(b) If D = 4f : In this situation u = D/2 = 2f. So only one position is possible and in this situation,
v = D ă u = 4f ă 2f = 2f (= u)
(c) If D > 4f : In this situation both the roots of Eq. (1) will be real, i.e.,

1
u1 = D  D D  4 f  
2 

1
and u2 =  D  D  D  4 f   ...(2)
2

So if D > 4f : there are two positions of lens at distances u1 and u2 from the object for which
real images is formed on the screen.

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Note : This method is called ÂDisplacement methodÊ and is used to determine the focal length
of convergent lens. In case of displacement method :
(i) If the distance between two positions of the lens is x

x = u 2 ă u1 = D  D  4 f  [From Eq. 2]

i.e., x2 = D2 ă 4Df so f = (D2 ă x2)/4D ...(3)

(ii) The image distances corresponding to two positions of lens will be

1
v1 = D ă u1 = D ă D  DD  4 f 
2 

1
= D DD  4 f   = u
2  2

1
and v2 = D ă u2 = D  D DD  4 f 
2 

1
= D  D  D  4 f    u1
2 

i.e., for two positions of the lens object and image distances are interchangeable.
(iii) As x = u2 ă u1 and D = v1 + u1 = u2 + u1 [as v1 = u2]
i.e., u1 (= v2) = (D ă x)/2 and u2 (= v1) = (D + x)/2
So the magnification for two positions of the lens will be respectively,

I1 v1  D  x
 m1 = = u = D  x
O 1  

I2 v2 D  x
and m2 = = u =   ...(4)
O 2 D  x

And hence :

(a) m1 ï m2 = (I1I2/O2) = 1, i.e., O  I1I 2 ...(5)

2
m1 I1  D  x   D  x D  x
(b) =     ...(6)
m2 I2  D  x   D  x  D  x

 D  x D  x 4Dx
(c) m1 ă m2 =  D  x    D  x   2 2
    D x

which in the light of Eq. (3) yields

x x
m1  m2  , i.e., f  ...(7)
f m1  m2

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Ex a m p l e 3 7
Diameter of a plano-convex lens is 6 cm and its thickness at the centre is 3 mm. What is
the focal length of the lens if the speed of light in the material of lens is 2 ï 108 m/s ?
Solution :
According to lens-makerÊs formula,

1  1 1  L
    1    with  
f R
 1 R 2  M

As the lens is plano-convex, i.e., R1 = R and R2 =  [or R1 =  and R2 = ă R]

1    1 R
 or f    1
f R   ...(1)

Now as speed of light in the medium of lens is 2 ï 108 m/s.

c 3  108
    1.5 ...(2)
v 2  108
y
And if r is the radius and y is the thickness of lens (at the centre), the radius A
of curvature R of its curved surface in accordance with Fig. will be given by R
r
O
2 2
R = r + (R ă y) 2 B
Răy
C
r2  6 / 2
2
i.e. R   15 cm ...(3)
2 y 2  0.3

So substituting the values of ø and R from Eqs. (2) and (3) in (1),

15
f   30 cm
1.5  1  Ans.

Ex a m p l e 3 8
A glass convex lens of refractive index (3/2) has got a focal length equal to 0.3 m. Find the
focal length of the lens if it is immersed in water of refractive index (4/3).
Solution : As according to lens-makerÊs formula,

1  1 1  L
f
=    1    with  
M
 R1 R 2 

1   3 / 2 
So =   1 K
fA  1 
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1  3 / 2 
and =   1 K
fW   4 / 3  

 1 1 
with K =   
 R1 R 2 

fW  8  K 
i.e., =   4
fA K   2 

so f W = 4 ï 0.3 = 1.2 m Ans.

Ex a m p l e 3 9
A plano-convex lens has a thickness of 4 cm. When placed on a horizontal table with the
curved surface in contact with it, the apparent depth of the bottom-most point of the lens
is found to be 3 cm. If the lens is inverted such that the plane face is in contact with the
table, the apparent depth of the centre of the plane face of the lens is found to be (25/8) cm.
Find the focal length of the lens.
Solution :
In case of refraction from a curved surface,

2 1 2  1
 
v u R

So when curved surface is in contact with the table, refraction will take place at plane surface.

1  1 4
So  = , i.e.,  ...(1)
3   3

3 cm I 4 cm 25/8 cm 4 cm
O O
(A) (B)
And when plane surface is on the table, refraction will take place at curved surface.

1

 4 / 3 1   4 / 3
So =
  25 / 8    4   R

8 1 1
i.e.,   = or R = 25 cm ...(2)
25 3 3R
Now the lens is thick; as it has thickness 4 cm, there are two possibilities :
(a) If the plane surface faces the incident parallel beam of light [Fig. (A)] : In this situation
refraction will take place only on the curved surface with

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u = ă , v = f; ø1 = (4/3); ø2 = 1 and R = ă 25 cm

2 1 2  1
So from  
v u R

1  4 / 3 1   4 / 3
we have  
f  25

F I

75cm 72cm
100cm
(A) (B)

i.e., f = + 75 cm. So the focal length, i.e., distance of focus from plane surface = 4 + 75 =
79 cm
(b) If the curved surface faces the incident parallel beam of light [Fig. 3.35 (B)] : In this
situation from refraction at curved surface, we have

4 / 3 1  4 / 3  1
  , i.e., v1 = 100 cm
v1  25

So the distance of I from plane surface will be 100 ă 4 = 96 cm. The image I will act as
virtual object for plane surface so that

1  4 / 3 1   4 / 3
  , i.e., f = 72 cm
f 96 

i.e., in this situation focal length is 72 cm, i.e., focus will be at a distance of 72 cm from the
plane surface.
Note : Calculating focal length of the lens by using lens-makerÊs formula.

1  1 1 
    1    which gives f = 75 cm
f R
 1 R 2

is not proper as the lens is thick and so its focal length will depend on the fact that whether
the plane or curved surface faces the incident parallel beam. Further more, if curved surface
faces the incident light, u for plane surface will not be v of curved surface [but v ă 4) as
is taken here in case (b)]. So lens-makerÊs formula is not valid here.

Ex a m p l e 4 0
A converging beam of light forms a sharp image of a screen. A lens is placed in the path
of the beam, the lens being 10 cm from the screen. It is found that the screen has to be
moved 8 cm further away from the lens to obtain a sharp image. Find the focal length and
nature of lens.

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Solution :
As shown in Fig., in this problem object O is virtual while image I real, so that
u = 10 cm and v = (10 + 8) = 18 cm
and hence from lens formula,

1 1 1
  10cm 8cm
v u f
I
O
1 1 1
we have   u
18 10 f v
S S´
which on simplification gives

0
f    22.5 cm
4

i.e., the lens is diverging (i.e., concave) of focal length 22.5 cm. Ans.

Ex a m p l e 4 1
An object 25 cm high is placed in front of a convex lens of focal length 30 cm. If the height
of image formed is 50 cm, find the distance between the object and the image.
Solution :
As object is in front of the lens, it is real and as

I v 50
m    2
O u 25

there are two possibilities :

(a) If the image is inverted (i.e., real)

v
m   2, i.e. v = ă 2u
u

So from the lens-formula

f = 30
1 1 1
 =
v u f 2F F F 2F I

1 1 1
we have  =
 2u u 30 45cm 90cm

3 1
i.e.,  =
2u 30

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i.e., u = ă 45 cm
So v = ă 2u
= (ă 2)(ă 45)
= 90 cm
As in this situation object and image are on opposite sides of lens, the distance between object and
image d 1 = u + v = 45 + 90 = 135 cm. Ans.
(b) If the image is erect (i.e., virtual)

v
m = 2
u
15cm
i.e., v = 2u
So from lens-formula, we have I O
30cm
1 1 1
 =
2u u 30

i.e., u = ă 15 cm
So v = 2u = 2 (ă 15) = ă 30 cm
As in this situation both image and object are in front of the lens, the distance between object and
image d 2 = v ă u = 30 ă 15 = 15 cm. Ans.

Ex a m p l e 4 2
A point object O is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a convex lens (focal length 20 cm)
cut into two halves each of which is displaced by 0.05 cm as shown. Find the position of
the image. If more than one image is is formed, find their number and distance between
them.
L1
O 2 ï 0.05cm

L2
30cm
f = 20 cm
Solution :
Considering each part as separate lens with u = ă 30 cm and f = 20 cm, from lens-formula.

1 1 1
 =
v u f

1 1 1
we have  = i.e., v = 60 cm
v  30 20

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So each part will form a real image of the point object O at 60 cm from the lens as shown in Fig. (B).
As there are two pieces, two images are formed. Now in similar triangles OI1I2 and OL1L2
I1
L1
O
Q P
L2
I2
u = 30cm v = 60cm

I1I2 OP  u  v
= 
L1L 2 OQ u

90
i.e., I1I 2 =   2  0.05   0.3 cm
30

So the images formed are 0.3 cm apart.

Ex a m p l e 4 3
A convex lens is kept 50 cm above the bottom of an empty tank. A coin is placed at the
bottom of tank and its image is formed 25 cm above the lens. A liquid is now filled in the
200
tank to a depth 40 cm. In this situation, image of the coin is formed cm above the lens.
7
Find the refractive index of liquid.
Solution :
In Fig. , the tank is empty.
u = ă 50 cm
v = 25 cm
using lens-formula,

1 1 1
 = f
v u

1 1 1
 = f 50 cm
25 50

50
 f= cm
3

When a liquid is filled in the tank to a depth 40 cm, apparent position of the coin shifts towards
the lens by

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 1
40  1   cm
 

Hence distance of object from the lens now becomes

 1 40
50 ă 40  1   = 10 
  

In this case,

 40 
u =   10   cm
  

200
v= cm (given)
7

50
f= cm (calculated earlier)
3

1 1 1
Using  =
v u f

50ă40 1 ă 1
7 1 ø
 Apparent 50cm
200  40  = 3 position 40cm
 10   50
   of coin
40 1 ă 1
ø
1
40 = 3  7  1
or 10  50 200 40


40
 10  = 40


ø = 1.33 Ans.

Ex a m p l e 4 4
(a) A screen is kept at a distance 1 m from an object. A converging lens between the object
and the screen, when placed at any of the two positions which are 60 cm apart, forms
a sharp image of the object on the screen. Find focal length of the lens.
(b) In the two positions of the lens, lateral size of the image is 4 cm and 9 cm. Find the
size of the object.
Solution :
This problem is based on ÂDisplacement MethodÊ which is commonly used to determine the focal
length of a converging lens.

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D2  x2
(a) f 
4D

D is distance between the object and the screen.

x is distance between the two positions of lens for which sharp image of the given object is
obtained on the screen
here D = 1 m = 100 cm
x = 60 cm

100 2   60 2
 f =
4  100

or f = 16 cm Ans.
(b) Size of the object can be obtained from the relation

O  I1I 2

I1, I2 lateral size of image in the two positions of lens

 O  4  9  6 cm Ans.

8. COM B I N A T I ON OF L EN SES A N D M IRRORS

When several lenses or mirrors are used co-axially, the image formation is considered one after
another in steps. The image formed by the lens facing the object serves as an object for the next lens
or mirror, the image formed by the second lens (or mirror) acts as an object for the third, and so on.
The total magnification in such situations will be given by

I I1 I2
m =    ...
O O I1

i.e. m = m1 ï m2 ï ...
In case of two thin lenses in contact if the first lens of focal length f1 forms the image I1 (of an
object O) at a distance v1 from it,

1 1 1
  ...(1)
v1 u f1

Now the image I1 will act as an object for second lens and f1 f2
if the second lens forms image I at a distance v from it, then
O
I I1
u v
v1

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1 1 1
  ...(2)
v v1 f2

So adding Eqs. (1) and (2), we have

1 1 1 1
 = 
v u f1 f2

1 1 1 1 1 1
or  = with F  f  f
v u F 1 2

i.e., the combination behaves as a single lens of equivalent focal length F given by

1 1 1
= f  f or P = P1 + P2 ...(3)
F 1 2

Note : If the two thin lenses are separated by a distance d, F is given by

1 1 1 d
   so P = P1 + P2 ă P1P2d
F f1 f2 f1 f2

Here it is worthy to note that :

(1) If two thin lenses of equal focal length but of opposite nature (i.e., one convergent and other
divergent) are put in contact, the resultant focal length of the combination will be

1 1 1
  = 0
F f f

i.e., F =  and P = 0
i.e., the system will behave as a plane glass plate.
(2) If two thin lenses of same nature are put in contact, then as

1 1 1
 
F f1 f2

1 1 1 1
 and 
F f1 F f2

i.e. F < f1 and F < f2

i.e., the resultant focal length will be lesser than smallest individual.
(3) If two thin lenses of opposite nature with different focal lengths are put in contact, the
resultant focal length will be of same nature as that of the lens of shorter focal length but
its magnitude will be more than that of shorter focal length.

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(4) If a lens of focal length f is divided into two equal parts as shown in Fig. (A) and each part
has a focal length f´ then as

1 1 1
  i.e., f´ = 2f
f f' f'

L2 L2 L2

L1 L1 L1
(A) (B) (C)

i.e., each part will have focal length 2f.

Now if these parts are put in contacts as in Fig.(B) or (C) the resultant focal length of the
combination will be

1 1 1
  , i.e., F = f (= initial value)
F 2f 2f

(5) If a lens of focal length f is cut in two equal parts as shown in Fig. (A), each part will have
focal length f. Now if these parts are put in contact as shown in Fig. (B), the resultant focal
length will be
L2 L2 L2

L1 L1 L1
(A) (B) (C)

1 1 1
  , i.e., F = (f/2)
F f f

However if the two parts are put in contact as shown in Fig. (C), first part will behave as
convergent lens of focal length f while the other divergent of same focal length (being
thinner near the axis); so in this situation

1 1 1
  , i.e., F =  or P = 0
F f f

Qu e s t io n I I I :
A plane glass plate is constructed by combining a plano-convex and a plano-
concave lens of different materials as shown in Fig. Will it act as a lens ? If so,
what will be its focal length and nature ?

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Answer :
As øC and øD are refractive indices of convergent and divergent lens respectively and R the
radius of curvature of common interface, then by lens-makerÊs formula,

1 1 1   C  1
=  C  1     ...(1)
fC   R  R

1  1 1
and =  D  1    
fD  R 

  D  1 
= ...(2)
R

Now as the lenses are in contact,

1 1 1    D 
=   C
F fC fD R

R
i.e.,
 C D
F =  

As øC  øD, the system will act as a lens. The system will behave as convergent lens if øC > øD(as
its focal length will be positive) and as divergent lens if øC < øD (as F will be negative).

Ex a m p l e 4 5
Two plano-concave lenses of glass of refractive index 1.5 have radii of curvature of 20 and
30 cm. They are placed in contact with curved surfaces towards each other and the space
between them is filled with a liquid of refractive index (4/3). Find the focal length of the
system.
Solution :
As shown in Fig, the system is equivalent to combination of three thin lenses in contact,

1 1 1 1
i.e., =  
F f1 f2 f3

But by lens-makerÊs formula,

1 3  1 1 
=  2  1   
f1      20 

1
= 
40

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1 4  1 1 
=   1   
f2  3  20 30 

5
=
180

1 3  1 1 1
=   1   
f3  2   30   60

1 1 5 1 1  9  10  6
So    , i.e.  or F = ă 72 cm.
F 40 180 60 F 360

i.e., the system will behave as a divergent lens of focal length 72 cm. Ans.

Ex a m p l e 4 6
In the given figure, L is a lens such that a parallel beam of light incident on it, after
refraction, converges to a point at a distance ÂxÊ from it and M is a mirror such that a
parallel beam of light incident on it, after reflection, converges to a point at distance y from
it. An object of size 2 cm is kept as shown. Find the nature, position and size of the image
that will be seen by an observer looking towards the mirror through the lens.
M
L

2x 2(x + y)
Solution :
It is given that a parallel beam incident on the lens, after refraction, converges to a point at
distance x from the lens. This implies that focal length of the lens is ÂxÊ.
It is also given that a parallel beam incident on the mirror, after reflection, converges to a point
at distance ÂyÊ from it. This implies that the mirror is a concave of focal length ÂyÊ.
Obviously, the object O is kept at 2F of lens L. Hence its image I1 forms on the other side at 2F,
i.e., at distance 2x right of the lens. The image will be real, inverted and magnification of this image

v 2x
m1    1.
u  2x

Image I1 of O formed by lens L acts as object for the mirror. Its distance from the pole of mirror
will be 2(x + y) ă 2x = 2y. This implies that it will be at the centre of curvature of the concave mirror
(y being the focal length of mirror). Therefore, the concave mirror forms a real, inverted (relative to I1)

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L M
O I2

2x
I3 I1
2x 2y

image I2 at the same position. Magnification of I2 (relative to I1), m2 = ă 1. Finally, I2 acts as object
for the lens. Its distance from the lens is 2x. Hence, it is at 2F of the lens (x being the focal length of
lens). Therefore, the lens will form a real and inverted image of I2 at 2F on the other side, i.e., to its
left. Obviously, I3 will be at the same position as of the object.

L M
I2
O

I3
I1
2x 2x 2y

Magnification of I3 (relative to I2) = ă 1.

Total magnification = m1 ï m2 ï m3
= ă1 ï ă 1ï ă 1
= ă 1
Thus the final image is real and inverted and of the same size (2 cm). Ans.

Ex a m p l e 4 7
A convex lens ÂAÊ of focal length Âf 1Ê and a concave lens ÂBÊ of focal length Âf 2Ê are kept along
the same axis with a distance ÂdÊ between them. For what value of ÂdÊ does a parallel beam
of light incident on A leave B as a parallel beam ?
Solution :
A parallel beam incident on the convex lens A, after refraction, will converge towards its focus.
If the concave lens B is so placed that the point of convergence of rays, which is the focus of lens A,
A B

FA FB

d f2
f1

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also becomes the first principal focus of lens B, then the rays leaving B will form a parallel beam. In
the other words, the lens B intercepts the rays which are converging towards its focus so that the rays
after refraction become parallel. This is shown in the given figure.

1 1 1
Applying t he r elat ion v  u  f for relation at B.

The point FA or FB acts as virtual object for the image to form at .

 u = f1 ă d
v =
f = ă f2

1 1 1
 
  f1  d  =
f2

 f1 ă d = f2
or d = f1 ă f2
Therefore, in the given situation, the two lenses have to be kept at a separation that is equal to
the difference of their focal lengths.

Ex a m p l e 4 8
A concave lens of focal length 20 cm is placed 15 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius
of curvature 26 cm and further 10 cm away from the lens is placed an object. The principal
axis of the lens and the mirror are coincident and the object is on this axis. Find the
position and nature of the image.
Solution :
The lens will from the image I1 of the object O at distance v from it such that

1 1 1 20
  i.e., v cm
v  10  20 3

i.e., at a distance (20/3) cm in front of the lens. So the distance of this image I1 from the mirror
will be 15 + (20/3) = (65/3) cm.
The image I1 will act as an object for the mirror and hence, the mirror will form image I2
(of object I1) such that

1 3 1
  i.e., v = ă 32.5 cm
v 65  13
M
I3 I2O I1 L

10cm 15cm
140cm

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i.e., the mirror will form image I2 at a distance of 32.5 cm in front of it. However, as the lens at
a distance of 15 cm from the mirror, the image I2 will act as an object for the lens again u = 32.5 ă
15 = 17.5 cm, so that

1 2 1
  i.e., v = 140 cm
v  35  20

i.e., final image I3 is at a distance of 140 cm in front of the lens and as here
m = m1 ï m2 ï m3

   20 / 3    65 / 2 140  
i.e., m =     1    8
   10    65 / 3  35 / 2  

Final image will be inverted, real and 8 times of the object.

Ex a m p l e 4 9
Consider a co-axial system of two thin convex lenses of focal length f each separated by a
distance d. Draw ray diagrams for image formation corresponding to an object (a) d < f (b)
(c) f < d < 2f (d) d = 2f and (e) d > 2f.
Indicate the nature of the combination (concave, convex or plane) in each case.
Solution :
In case of two thin lenses separated by a distance d, we have

1 1 1 d
= f  f  f f
F 1 2 1 2

For f 1 = f, f2 = f, f

1 1 1 d F
= f  f  2 F1
F f

d<f
f2
i.e., F =
2f  d

So (a) If d < f : F will be positive and < f, so the system will behave as convex lens of focal
length < f
(b) If d = f : F =f, i.e., the system will behave as convex lens of focal length f

F
d=f
f < d < 2f
(B) (C)

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(c) If f < d < 2f : F will be positive and > f, so the system will behave as convex lens of focal
length > f as shown in Fig.(C).
(d) If d = 2f : F will be infinite, i.e., the system will behave as a plane glass plate of infinite
focal length [Fig.(D)].

F
d = 2f d > 2f
(D) (E)

(e) If d > 2f : F will become negative, i.e., the system will behave as concave lens as shown in
Fig. (E).

Ex a m p l e 5 0
Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths f 1 and f 2 are separated by a y
f2
horizontal distance d (d < f 1 and d < f 2) and their centres are displaced f1
by a vertical separation  as shown in Fig. 3.67 (A). Taking the origin
O 
of co-ordinates O at the centre of first lens, what would be the x and
y co-ordinates of the focal point of this lens system for a parallel beam d
of rays coming from left ?
Solution :
As the incident beam is parallel, first lens L1, in absence of second lens L2, will form the image
I1 at its focus, i.e., at a distance f1 from O. This image I1 will act as an object for second lens and so
for second lens u = (f1 ă d). If the second lens forms image I2 of I1 at a distance v from it,

y
L1 L2
´
O
I2 y 
I1
v
d u
f1

1 1 1 f2  f1  d 
  v
v  f1  d  f2 , i.e.,  f1  f2  d  ...(1)

So the x co-ordinate of final image I2 from O,

f2  f1  d 
x =d + v= d +
 f1  f2  d 

d  f1  d   f1 f2
= ...(2)
 f1  f2  d 

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Also as for the second lens

I v
m 
O u

[here I = ´; O = ; u = (f1 ă d) and v is given by Eq. (1)]

' f2  f1  d 
So =
  f1  f2  d  f1  d 

f2
´ =  f  f  d
i.e.,
1 2 

 f2 
 y =    '   1  
  f1  f2  d  

 f1  d 
=   ...(3)
  f1  f2  d  

Eqs. (2) and (3) are the desired results.

9. L EN S WI T H ON E SI L V ERED SU RFA CE
If the back surface of a lens is silvered and an object is placed in front of it then :
(1) First, light will pass through the lens and it will form the image I1.

R1 A A
R2 A
= + +
O O I1 I2 I1 I2 I3

(A) (B) (C) (D)

(2) The image I1 will act as an object for silvered surface which acts as curved mirror and forms
an image I2 of object I1.
(3) The light after reflection from silvered surface will again pass through the lens and lens will
form final image I3 of object I2.
In such situation power of the silvered lens will be
P = PL + PM + PL

1 1  1 1 
with PL = where f     1   R  R 
fL L  1 2

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1 R2
and PM =  where fM 
fM 2

So the system will behave as a curved mirror of focal length F given by

1
F= 
P

To make this all clear we now consider the case of a silvered plano-convex lens under
following circumstances.
(A) When the plane surface is silvered and the object is in front of curved surface :
In this situation

1  1 1     1
=    1    
fL R  R


and FM = = 
2

1    1
So PL = f =
L R

1 1
and PM =  f = 0
M 

and hence power of system

P = PL + PM + PL = 2PL + PM

   1  0  2    1 
i.e., P = 2 ...(1)
R R

1 R
F = P   2  1
So
  ...(2)

i.e., the lens will behave as a concave mirror of focal length [R/2(ø ă 1)].

O O

(A) (B)

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(B) When the curved surface is silvered and the object is in front of plane surface :
In this situation

1 1 1     1
fL
=    1   
  R  R

 R
and FM =
2

1    1 1 2
So PL = f = and PM =  
L R fM R

and hence power of system

P = PL + PM + PL = 2PL + PM

2    1 2 2
i.e., P =   ...(3)
R R R

1 R
So F =   ...(4)
P 2

i.e., the lens will be equivalent to a converging mirror of focal length (R/2ø).

Ex a m p l e 5 1
A pin is placed 10 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 20 cm, made of material
having refractive index 1.5. The surface of the lens farther away from the pin is silvered
and has a radius of curvature 22 cm. Determine the position of the final image. Is the image
real or virtual?
Solution :
As radius of curvature of silvered surface is 22 cm, so

R  22
fM     11 cm = ă 0.11 m
2 2

1 1 1
and hence PM =  f    0.11  0.11 D
M

Further as the focal length of lens is 20 cm, i.e., 0.20 m, its power will be
given by : I O
10cm
1 1
PL = f  0.20 D 11cm
L

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Now as in image formation, light after passing through the lens will be reflected back by the
curved mirror through the lens again
P = PL + PM + PL = 2PL + PM

2 1 210
i.e., P =   D
0.20 0.11 11

So the focal length of equivalent mirror

1 11 110
F  m= cm
P 210 21

i.e., the silvered lens behaves as a concave mirror of focal length (110/21) cm. So for object at a
distance 10 cm in front of it,

1 1 21
  i.e., v = ă 11 cm
v  10 110

i.e., image will be 11 cm in front of the silvered lens and will be real.

1 0 . M ICROSCOPE
It is an optical instrument used to increase the visual angle of near objects which are too small
to be seen by naked eye.

1 0 .1 Co n s t r u c t i o n
It consists of two convergent lenses of short focal lengths and apertures arranged co-axially. Lens
(of focal length f0) facing the object is called objective or field lens while the lens (of focal length fe)
facing the eye, eye-piece or ocular. The objective has a smaller aperture and smaller focal length than
eye-piece. The separation between objective and eye-piece can be varied.

1 0 .2 I m a g e Fo r m a t i o n
The object is placed between F and 2F of objective, so the image IM formed by objective (called
intermediate image) is inverted, real, enlarged and a distance greater than 2f0 on the other side of the
lens. This image IM acts as object for eye-piece and is within its focus. So eye-piece forms final image
I which is erect, virtual and enlarged with respect to
intermediate image IM. So the final image I with fo L fe
u v ue
respect to object is inverted, virtual enlarged and at a
Fo Fe
distance D to from eye on the same side of eye-piece h
Fo IM h´ 
as IM.

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1 0 .3 M a g n i f y in g Po w e r (M P)
Magnifying power of an optical instrument is defined as :

Visual angle with instrument 

MP  
Max. visual angle for unaided eye 0

If the size of object is h and least distance of distinct vision is D

h h'
0  and  
D ue

 h '   D   h'   D 
So MP =          
 ue   h   h   ue 

But for objective

I v
m = 
O u

h' v
i.e., =  [as u is ă ive]
h u

vD
So, MP =   
u  ue 

with length of tube L = v + ue ...(1)

Now there are two possibilities :
(b1) If the final image is at infinity (Far point)
This situation is called normal adjustment as in this situation eye is least strained or relaxed. In
this situation as for eye-piece v = ,

1 1 1
  i.e., ue = fe = maximum
   ue fe

Substituting this value of ue in Eq. (1), we have

vD
MP     with L = v + f ...(2)
u  fe  e

A microscope is usually considered to operate in this mode unless stated otherwise. In this mode
as ue is maximum, MP is minimum for a given microscope.

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(b2) If the final image is at D (Near point)
In this situation as for eye-piece v = D

1 1 1 1 1 D
  , i.e.,  1  
 D  ue fe ue D  fe 

Substituting this value of ue in Eq. (1), we have

v D
MP =  1  
u fe 

feD
with L = v f D ...(3)
e 
In this situation as ue is minimum MP is maximum and eye is most strained.
In case of microscope as f0 is small and object is close to objective u ~ f0. Also as intermediate
image is in front of eye lens which has very short focal length, length of tube.
L = v + ue  v [as ue << v]
So for normal adjustment, i.e., from Eq. (2)

L D
MP   ...(4)
f0 fe

1 0 .4 I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s :
(1) As magnifying power is negative, the image seen in a microscope is always truly inverted,
i.e., left is turned right with upside down simultaneously.
(2) As intermediate image is between the two lenses, crosswire (a measuring device) can be
used. So with microscope measurements can be made along with observations.

v D
(3) As m  and m  , Eq. (1) gives MP = m ï m
u ue

i.e., magnifying power of a microscope is equal to the product of longitudinal magnification

of objective and angular magnification of eye-piece.
(4) If final image is at least distance of distinct vision

1 1 1 v D  D
  i.e., me  e   1    m
 D  ue fe ue ue  fe 

So MP = m ï m = m ï me = Linear magnification

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(5) For a microscope MP is minimum when final image is at  and maximum when final image

vD v D
is at least distance of distinct vision D, i.e.,  MP min   u f and  MP max   1  
e u fe 

(6) For a given microscope MP for normal setting remains practically unchanged if field and eye
lens are interchanged as MP ~ [LD/f0fe].
(7) As the aperture of both the lenses in a microscope is small, the defects of images particularly
spherical aberration is minimum.
(8) As MP for normal setting is (LD/f0fe), so to have large MP, f0 and fe must be as small as
practically possible. This is why in a microscope both the lenses have small focal lengths.
(9) Out of f0 and fe, f0 is taken to be smaller, so that field of view may be increased and objective
being closer to object may collect more light to increase brightness of the image. This also
ensures that intermediate image is in front of eye lens within its focus.
(10) While working with a microscope the eye must be close to eye-piece, i.e, persons wearing
specks should take off their specks (if possible) otherwise MP will be adversly affected. This
is because if eye is at a distance d from the eye-piece, the distance of final image from eye-
piece will be D´ = (D ă d) and hence MP will become

LD' L  D  d   d
MP1   MP 1    MP
f0 fe f0 fe  D 

(11) In reference to a microscope, the minimum distance between two lines at which they are just
distinct is called limit of resolution and reciprocal of limit of resolution is called resolving
power which for a microscope varies inversely with wavelength, i.e.,

1 1
RP *  
x 

Smaller the limit of resolution of higher the resolving power, more details of object will be
visible in the image. In case of microscope RP is increased by decreasing the wavelength of
light used and we have ultra-microscope and electron-microscope.
Note : In case of electron-microscope it has been shown that wavelength of electron

 150 / V  Å where V is the accelerating voltage; so RP of electron microscope will be

5
proportional to V and can be upto about 10 times that of optical microscope.

Ex a m p l e 5 2
A compound microscope has a magnifying power 30. The focal length of its eye-piece is 5
cm. Assuming the final image to be at the least distance of distinct vision (25 cm), calculate
the magnification produced by objective.

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Solution :
In case of compound microscope,
MP = m ï m ...(1)
And in case of final image at least distance of distinct vision,

 D
m = 1   ...(2)
 fe 

So from Eqs. (1) and (2),

 D
MP = m 1 + 
 fe 

Here, MP = ă 30; D = 25 cm and fe = 5 cm

 25   30
So  30  m 1   , i.e., m  5 Ans.
 5  6

Negative sign implies that image formed by objective is inverted.

Ex a m p l e 5 3
A compound microscope has an objective of focal length 2 cm and an eye-piece of focal
length 5 cm. If an object is placed at a distance of 2.4 cm in front of the field lens, find the
magnifying power of the instrument and length of the tube if (a) final image is at infinity
(b) final image is at least distance of distinct vision (= 25 cm).
Solution :
As object is at a distance of 2.4 cm in front of field lens of focal length 2 cm, field lens will form
its image at distance v such that

1 1 1
 = i.e., v = 13 cm
v  2.4 2

v 12
so that m =  5
u  2.4

(a) If final image is at infinity (Far point)

1 1 1
For eye-piece,   i.e., u = ă 5 cm
 ue 5 e

and m = (D/fe) = (25/5) = 5

So, MP = m ï m = ă 5 ï 5 = ă 25

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and L = v + ue = 12 + 5 = 17 cm
In this situation eye is said to be relaxed and for a given microscope MP is minimum while length
of tube maximum.
(b) If final image is at D (Near point)

1 1 1  25
For eye-piece,  25  u  5 , i.e., ue    4.17 cm
e 6

and m = [1 + (D/fe)] = [1 + (25/5)] = 6

So MP = m ï m = ă 5 ï 6 = ă 30
and L = v + ue = 12 + 4.17 = 16.17 cm
In this situation eye is said to be strained and for a given microscope MP is maximum while length
of tube is minimum.

D  25
Note : In case (b) me  u   25 / 6  6  m
e  
So here MP = m ï m = m ï me = linear magnification

Ex a m p l e 5 4
A compound microscope is used to enlarge an object kept at a distance 0.03 m from its
objective which consists of several convex lenses in contact and has focal length 0.02 m.
If a lens of focal length 0.1 m is removed from the objective, find out the distance by which
the eye-piece of the microscope must be moved to refocus the image.
Solution :
If initially the objective forms the image at distance v1,

1 1 1
 = i.e., v1 = 6 cm
v1  3 2

Now as in case of lenses in contact

1 1  1 1 1
=   ... or  
F f1 f2 F f1 F'

1 1 1
with =   ...
F f2 f3

So if one of the lenses is removed, the focal length of the remaining lens system

1 1 1 1 1
= F  f  2  10 i.e., F´ = 2.5 cm
F' 1

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This lens will form the image of same object at a distance v2 such that

1 1 1
  i.e., v2 = 15 cm
v2  3 25

So to refocus the image, eye-piece must be moved by the same distance through which the image
formed by the objective has shifted, i.e., 15 ă 6 = 9 cm away from the objective.

Ex a m p l e 5 5
The focal lengths of the objective and the eye-piece of a compound microscope are 2.0 cm
and 3.0 cm respectively. The distance between the objective and the eye-piece is 15.0 cm.
The final image formed by the eye-piece is at infinity. Find the distance of object and image
produced by the objective, from the objective lens.
Solution :
As final image is at infinity, the distance of intermediate image from eye lens ue will be given by

1 1 1
  i.e., ue = ă fe = ă 3 cm
  ue fe

and as the distance between the lenses is 15.0 cm, the distance of intermediate image (formed by
objective) from the objective will be
v = L ă ue = L ă fe = 15 ă 3
= 12 cm
and if u is the distance of object from objective,

1 1 1
  i.e., u = ă 2.4 cm
12 u 2
So object is at a distance of 2.4 cm in front of objective.

1 1 . T EL ESCOPE
It is an optical instrument used to increase the visual angle of distant large objects such as a star,
a planet or a cliff, etc.
Astronomical telescope consists of two converging lenses. The one facing the object is called
objective or field lens and has large focal length and aperture while the other facing the eye called eye-
piece or ocular has small focal length and aperture. The distance between the two lenses is adjustable.

fo L fe
u= v = fo ue
0 0 Fe Fo 
Fo y IM
Field
lens Eye
lens

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As a telescope is used to see distant objects, in it object is between  and 2F of objective and hence
image formed by objective is real, inverted and diminished and is between F and 2F on the other side
of it. This image (called intermediate image) acts as an object for eye-piece and by shifting the position
of eye-piece, it is brought within its focus. So final image I, with respect to intermediate image, is erect,
virtual, enlarged and at a distance D to  from the eye. This is turn implies that final image with
respect to object is inverted, enlarged and a distance D to  from the eye.

1 1 .1 M a g n i f y in g Po w e r (M P)
Magnifying power of a telescope is defined as,

Visual angle with instrument 

MP  
Visual angle for unaided eye 0

But from Fig.

y y
0  and  
f0  ue

 f 
So, MP =  0
0  ue 

with length of tube L = (f0 + ue) ...(1)

Now there are two possibilities :
(d1) If the final image is at infinity (Far point)
This situation is called normal adjustment as in this situation eye is least strained or relaxed. In
this situation as for eye-piece v = ,

1 1 1
  i.e., ue = fe
   ue fe

So substituting this value of ue in Eq. (1), we have

MP = ă (f0/fe) and L = (f0 + fe) ...(2)
Usually, a telescope operates in this mode unless stated otherwise. In this mode as ue is maximum,
for a given telescope MP is minimum while length of tube maximum.
(d2) If the final image is at D (Near point)
In this situation as for eye-piece, v = D

1 1 1 1 1  f 
 = i.e.,  1  e
 D  ue fe ue fe  D

So substituting this value of ue in Eq. (1), we have

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f0  fe 
MP =  1  D 
fe  

feD
with L = f0  f  D ...(3)
e 
In this situation ue is minimum, so for a given telescope MP is maximum while length of tube
minimum and eye is most strained.
In case of a telescope, if object and final image are at infinity and total light entering the telescope
leaves it parallel to its axis as shown in Fig.,

D d

fo fe

f0 Aperture of objective
=
fe Aperture of eye-piece

f0 D
i.e., MP =  ...(4)
fe d

1 1 .2 I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s
(1) As magnifying power is negative, the image seen in astronomical telescope is truly inverted,
i.e., left is turned right with upside down simultaneously. However, as most of the astronomical
objects are symmetrical this inversion does not affect the observations.
(2) For given telescope, magnifying power is minimum when final image is at infinity (Far
point) and maximum when it is at distance of distinct vision (Near point), i.e.,

f  f  fe 
 MP min    0  and  MP max   0 1  D 
 fe  fe  

(3) In a telescope, if field and eye lenses are interchanged MP will change from (f0/fe) to (fe/f0),
i.e., it will change from m to (1/m), i.e., will become (1/m2) times of its initial value.
(4) As MP for normal setting as (f0/fe), so to have large MP, f0 must be as large as practically
possible and fe small.
(5) If an astronomical telescope, the convergent eye-piece is replaced by a divergent lens which
is placed in such a way that rays from objective are directed towards its focus final image

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IM

fe
fo
Galilean telescope
will be erect, enlarged and virtual. This telescope is also used to see distant terrestial objects
and is called Galilean telescope and for it

f0
MP  with L = f0 = fe
fe

In this telescope as intermediate image is outside the tube, the telescope cannot be used for
making measurements.

Qu e s t io n V :
How does magnifying power vary with change in length of tube for a given telescope ?
Answer : For a telescope,
|MP| = (f0/ue) with L = (f0 + ue)
and as for a given telescope f0 is constant, with increase in length of tube L, ue (distance of
intermediate image from eye-piece) will increase [from a minimum value Dfe/(D + fe) to the maximum
fe] and hence magnifying power will decrease.

Note : Similarly, in case of microscope as

v D
MP   with L = v + ue
u ue

and as for a given microscope, with increase and hence MP will decrease.

Ex a m p l e 5 6
An astronomical telescope has an angular magnification of magnitude 5 for distant objects.
The separation between the objective and eye-piece is 36 cm and the final image is formed
at infinity. Determine the focal length of objective and eye-piece.
Solution :
In case of astronomical telescope if object and final image both are infinity,
MP = ă (f0/fe) and L = f0 + fe
So here ă (f0/fe) = ă 5 and f0 + fe = 36
Solving these for f0 and fe, we get
So here f 0 = 30 cm and fe = 6 cm Ans.

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Ex a m p l e 5 7
A telescope has an objective of focal length 50 cm and an eye-piece of focal length 5 cm.
The least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm. The telescope is focused for distinct vision on
a scale 2 m away from the objective. Calculate (a) magnification produced and (b) separation
between objective and eye-piece.
Solution :
As objective has focal length 50 cm and object is 2 m from it, it will form the image of object at
a distance v such that

1 1 1 200
  i.e., v  cm
v  200 50 3

v  200 / 3  1
with m0   
u  200 3

and as focal length of eye-piece is 5 cm and it forms as image 25 cm in front of it, the distance
of object (image formed by objective) from it will be

1 1 1 25
 = i.e., ue   cm
 25 ue 5 6

25
me =   25 / 6  6
with
 
and hence
(a) Magnification m = m0 ï me = (ă 1/3) ï 6 = ă 2, i.e., final image is inverted, virtual, double
of object and is at a distance of 25 cm in front of eye lens.
(b) As distance of intermediate image (which is between the two lenses), from objective is (200/
3) cm while from the eye-lens is (25/6) cm, so separation between the objective and eye-piece,

200 25 425
L    70.83 cm Ans.
3 6 6

Ex a m p l e 5 8
A Galilean telescope consists of an objective of focal length 12 cm and eye-piece of focal
length 4 cm. What should be the separation of the two lenses when the virtual image of a
distant object is formed at a distance of 24 cm from the eye-piece ? What is the magnifying
power of telescope under this condition ?

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Solution :
As object is distant, i.e., u = ă , so

1 1 1
  i.e., v = f0 = 12 cm
v   f0

i.e., objective will form the image IM at its focus which is at a distance of 12 cm from O.
Now as eye-piece of focal length ă 4 cm forms image I at a distance of 24 cm from it,

1 1 1 24
  i.e., ue   4.8 cm
 24 ue  4 5

i.e., the distance of IM from eye lens EA is 4.8 cm. So the length of tube
L = OA ă EA = 12 ă 4.8 = 7.2 cm
Now by definition :



tan 

 AB / EA   OA
MP =
0 tan 0  AB / OA  EA

f0 12 10
So, MP =    2.5 Ans.
ue 4.8 4

fo =12cm
I
fe
fo
o ue
O  A
o  IM
L=7.2cm
24cm B

OPTICS