OVERVIEW OF ROGER’S PERSON-CENTERED new or face challenges for personal

THEORY development.

Carl Rogers, who created client-centered therapy, For humans, the actualizing tendency is best realized
developed a theory of personality based on his work in relationships that provide congruence
with people as a therapist. Unlike Freud, who focused (authenticity), empathy, and unconditional positive
more on explaining behavior, Rogers was more regard. Rogers believed these conditions allow people
interested in helping people improve their lives. He to naturally move toward psychological growth and
cared more about how to help someone grow, rather self-fulfillment. While all living things have a tendency
than figuring out why they acted a certain way. to actualize, humans are unique in their ability to be
self-aware and pursue self-actualization, a higher
Rogers believed that both personal understanding and form of personal growth.
research were important to support his ideas about
therapy and personality. THE SELF AND SELF-ACTUALIZATION

Even though he had a clear theory, Rogers didn't like According to Rogers, infants begin to develop a sense
the idea of theories too much. He preferred helping of self when they start to distinguish between
people over creating theories. In the 1950s, he wrote experiences as "I" or "me." As they grow, they begin to
down his ideas, but he knew they would change over evaluate experiences based on their need for survival
time. However, he never fully updated his theory, and and growth, such as valuing food, sleep, and physical
his final ideas stayed pretty close to what he originally contact, all of which support their actualization.
wrote.
Rogers made a distinction between the actualization
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF PERSON-CENTERED tendency (which refers to the overall drive to grow
THEORY and develop) and self-actualization (the specific drive
to realize one's self-concept). When a person's
Formative Tendency self-concept aligns with their experiences, the two
Rogers believed that everything in the universe, both tendencies are in harmony. However, if there is a
living and nonliving, tends to grow from simple to mismatch—like if a person feels anger but believes
more complex forms. He called this the "formative they should not feel that way—it creates conflict and
tendency." He saw this creative process in nature, tension. Rogers also identified two parts of the self:
where things become more organized over time. For the self-concept (how we see ourselves) and the ideal
example, galaxies form from scattered stars, self (how we wish to be).
snowflakes form from vapor, living organisms develop
from single cells, and human consciousness evolves The Self-Concept
from a basic, unconscious state to a more organized
awareness. The self-concept is how we see ourselves and our
experiences, though this view might not always be
Actualizing Tendency correct. It’s different from the organismic self, which
includes everything about us, even things we might
Rogers introduced the concept of the actualizing not be aware of. For example, we don't usually think
tendency, the drive in all living beings to fulfill their about our stomach unless something goes wrong,
potential. This is the primary motivation for human even though it's part of us. Also, we may reject parts of
behavior, encompassing physical, emotional, ourselves, like being dishonest, if it doesn’t match how
intellectual, and unconscious aspects of the person. we want to see ourselves.
The actualizing tendency has two components:
Once we have a self-concept, it’s hard to change,
1. Maintenance needs: These are basic survival especially when new experiences don’t fit. We might
needs (e.g., food, safety) and the desire to ignore or twist those experiences to make them fit our
preserve one's current state, including view of ourselves. However, change is possible when
resisting change and protecting one's we’re in a supportive environment that makes us feel
self-concept. accepted, helping us to accept parts of ourselves we
previously rejected.
2. Enhancement needs: These involve the desire
for growth, learning, and self-improvement, The Ideal Self
even if it involves discomfort or pain. For
The ideal self is how a person wishes to be, including
example, the willingness to learn something
the positive qualities they aspire to have. When there
is a large gap between the self-concept (how BECOMING A PERSON
someone sees themselves) and the ideal self, it
creates incongruence, which can lead to an unhealthy Rogers said that to become a person, the first thing
personality. Psychologically healthy individuals have a we need is contact with another person, whether it's
small gap between their self-concept and their ideal positive or negative. For example, infants need contact
self, meaning they feel aligned with who they want to with their caregivers to survive.
be.
As we grow, we begin to want to be liked and
AWARENESS accepted by others, which Rogers called positive
regard. When we feel that important people care
Without awareness the self-concept and the ideal self about us, we start to feel good about ourselves.
would not exist. Rogers (1959) defined awareness as
“the symbolic representation (not necessarily in verbal Once we receive enough positive regard from others,
symbols) of some portion of our experience” (p. 198). we develop positive self-regard, meaning we start to
He used the term synonymously with both value ourselves. After that, we no longer need
consciousness and symbolization. constant approval from others. This is similar to
Maslow's idea that we need love and acceptance
Level of Awareness before we can feel good about ourselves, but once we
do, we can feel confident without needing constant
Rogers identified three levels of awareness: praise from others.

1. Ignored or Denied Experiences: Some Eventually, the positive regard we get from others
experiences are below our awareness and helps us build self-esteem, and we can then rely on
either ignored or denied. For example, a ourselves for that sense of worth.
woman walking down a busy street may ignore
many stimuli, or a mother who resents her BARRIERS TO PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH
children may deny these feelings due to guilt,
Conditions of Worth
even though they influence her behavior.

Rogers explained that instead of receiving

2. Accurately Symbolized Experiences: Some
unconditional positive regard (love and acceptance
experiences are fully acknowledged and fit
regardless of behavior), most people receive
well with our self-concept. For instance, a
conditions of worth—they feel loved and accepted
confident pianist may accept praise from a
only when they meet others' expectations. These
friend as part of his self-view without
conditions influence how we evaluate ourselves and
distortion.
our experiences. If we perceive that others accept us
only when we behave in certain ways, we start to
3. Distorted Experiences: Some experiences
believe our worth is conditional.
don’t align with our self-concept, so we distort
them to make them fit. For example, a pianist As we grow, we tend to adopt others' values and
may distrust compliments from a competitor judgments, even if they conflict with our true feelings,
and twist the meaning of the praise, thinking leading to incongruence (a disconnect between our
it's insincere, to protect his self-concept of true self and how we see ourselves based on others'
being someone who doesn’t trust competitors. evaluations). This can cause inner conflict and make
us ignore or distort our own experiences, preventing
Denial of Positive Experiences
us from fully being ourselves and leading to
psychological discomfort.
Rogers noted that people often distort or deny even
positive experiences, such as compliments or praise,
Incongruence
because they may not align with their self-concept.
For example, a student who feels inadequate might Rogers explained that the organism (our true self) and
downplay a high grade by convincing herself that the the self-concept (how we perceive ourselves) may not
class was easy or the teacher wasn’t competent. always align. Actualization refers to the organism's
Compliments can be hard to accept because they natural drive to grow and fulfill its potential, while
may be seen as insincere, or the person may not feel self-actualization is the desire of the self-concept to
deserving of them. Additionally, receiving achieve fulfillment. When these two forces are out of
compliments can feel threatening because they imply sync, it creates psychological incongruence.
the giver has the right to criticize as well.
This incongruence happens when we fail to accurately someone might behave in unpredictable ways
recognize or accept our true experiences because because they no longer have a clear sense of self.
they conflict with our self-concept. This is often
caused by conditions of worth we learned in Rogers saw disorganized behavior as part of a range
childhood, leading to a distorted self-concept. As a of psychological issues, not a fixed category. He
result, we may act in ways that either support our true avoided labels like "neurotic" or "psychotic," instead
self or try to meet others' expectations. describing these behaviors as “defensive” or
“disorganized” to show that psychological problems
Vulnerability arises when we’re unaware of the exist on a continuum.
mismatch between our true self and self-concept,
making our behavior confusing to ourselves and PSYCHOTHERAPY
others. As we become aware of this discrepancy, we
experience anxiety and threat—anxiety is the unease The client-centered approach holds that in order for
we feel when we sense something is wrong, and threat vulnerable or anxious people to grow psychologically,
is the realization that our self-concept is no longer they must come into contact with a therapist who is
congruent with our true experiences. While these congruent and whom they perceive as providing an
feelings are uncomfortable, they can signal a path to atmosphere of unconditional acceptance and accurate
psychological growth by pointing out where our empathy.
self-concept needs to change.
Conditions
Defensiveness
Rogers (1959) identified three essential conditions for
To avoid the discomfort of incongruence between our therapeutic growth:
true experiences and self-concept, we use defense
1. The therapist must be congruent (authentic
mechanisms. Defensiveness involves protecting our
and genuine).
self-concept from anxiety or threat by either denying
2. The therapist must provide unconditional
or distorting experiences that don't fit with it.
positive regard (acceptance without
● Distortion is when we misinterpret an judgment).
experience to make it fit into our self-concept, 3. The therapist must show empathy
even if the true meaning is different. (understanding the client's feelings from their
● Denial is when we refuse to acknowledge an perspective).
experience or prevent it from entering our
Rogers' approach is unique because he believed these
awareness.
three conditions are both necessary and sufficient for
Both defenses serve the same goal: they help maintain therapy to be effective. Of the three, congruence
consistency between our self-concept and our (authenticity) is the most fundamental, as it forms the
experiences, preventing anxiety or discomfort that basis for the other two qualities—unconditional
would arise from confronting incongruence. Distortion positive regard and empathy.
is more common than denial because it’s easier to
Counselor Congruence
reshape experiences to fit our self-view.

For therapy to work, the therapist needs to be genuine

Disorganization
or congruent. This means that a therapist’s feelings
People usually protect their self-concept by using and what they are aware of match up, and they are
defense mechanisms like denial and distortion to willing to express their true feelings honestly. A
avoid facing differences between their experiences congruent therapist doesn’t fake their emotions. If
and how they see themselves. However, when the they feel something, they are aware of it and show it,
difference is too big or obvious, these defenses break whether it’s positive or negative.
down, causing disorganized behavior. This can
Problems can happen if the therapist feels something
happen suddenly or slowly.
but doesn’t realize it, or if they know how they feel but
Disorganized behavior happens when a person acts in don’t express it. Rogers believed that therapists
ways that don’t match their usual self-image, should share their true feelings, even if they are
sometimes showing their true feelings and sometimes uncomfortable, because clients can often tell if the
acting based on a broken self-concept. For example, a therapist isn’t being real.
shy person may suddenly act inappropriately, or
Being congruent doesn’t mean the therapist has to be Rogers (1961) outlined seven stages of personality
perfect in every situation. But the more the client feels change, ranging from defensive to fully integrated.
that the therapist is genuine, the better the therapy Here's a summary of each stage:
will work.
1. Stage 1: The person is unwilling to share
Unconditional Positive Regard anything about themselves, resistant to
change, and denies any problems or emotions.
Unconditional positive regard is the need to feel
accepted and valued by others without any conditions 2. Stage 2: The person discusses external events
or judgments. In therapy, it means the therapist has a and others, but still refuses to acknowledge
warm, accepting attitude toward the client, without their own feelings, viewing them as separate
any reservations or possessiveness. This acceptance from themselves.
allows the client to be themselves and make their own
decisions, free from the therapist’s evaluations or 3. Stage 3: The person begins to talk more about
expectations. themselves but still from a distant perspective,
often focusing on past or future feelings and
The therapist does not judge or evaluate the client’s avoiding present emotions.
behavior, and their positive regard remains constant,
no matter what the client does. This creates a safe 4. Stage 4: The person starts discussing deeper
environment for the client, helping them feel valued feelings, often from the past, but may be
and promoting psychological growth. Unconditional surprised by their present emotions. They
positive regard doesn’t mean being passive or distant, begin questioning their values and
but being actively involved and caring while allowing acknowledge some incongruence between
the client to explore their own path. their self-concept and experiences.

Empathic Listening
5. Stage 5: Significant growth occurs. The person
can express present feelings, begins making
The third important condition for psychological
choices for themselves, and takes more
growth is empathic listening. This means the therapist
responsibility for their decisions.
truly understands how the client feels and
communicates that understanding. The therapist
6. Stage 6: Dramatic growth and
shows they are seeing things from the client's point of
self-acceptance. The person becomes more
view without judging or criticizing.
congruent, accepting and expressing their
When a therapist listens with empathy, the client feels feelings. They rely on their own feelings to
understood and can connect more with their own evaluate experiences and develop
feelings. This helps the client become more self-aware unconditional self-regard. Physical symptoms
and make better decisions. Empathy is different from may ease as well.
sympathy—it's not about feeling sorry for the client,
but about feeling with them. The therapist doesn’t 7. Stage 7: This stage often happens outside
have the same emotions as the client but understands therapy, where the person becomes fully
them deeply, helping the client feel heard and integrated, continuously growing and
supported. confident in their true self. They are
congruent, self-accepting, and capable of
PROCESS empathy for others. Growth continues beyond
therapy.
If the conditions of therapist congruence,
unconditional positive regard, and empathy are
present, then the therapeutic change process will Each stage marks a progression toward a more
begin. Certain lawfulness characterizes the process of authentic, self-aware, and self-actualized individual.
therapy.
Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Change

Rogers (1980) explains that therapeutic change

happens when clients feel unconditionally accepted
Stages of Therapeutic Change
and prized, which helps them realize they are lovable.
Through the therapist's example, they learn to accept
and value themselves, developing unconditional
positive self-regard. As they experience empathic
understanding from the therapist, they become better
able to listen to their own feelings and develop
self-empathy. This leads to greater congruence
between their self-concept and their actual
experiences. Over time, clients internalize these
therapeutic qualities and effectively become their own
therapists.

OUTCOMES

In client-centered therapy, successful therapeutic

change leads to a more congruent client who is less
defensive and more open to experience. This results in
several observable outcomes:
THE PERSON OF TOMORROW
1. Clearer Self-Perception: Clients develop a
more realistic view of themselves and the Rogers, like Maslow, was deeply interested in the
world. concept of the psychologically healthy individual.
2. Improved Problem Solving: They become While Maslow focused on research, Rogers was a
better at solving problems and assimilating psychotherapist concerned with helping individuals
experiences into their self-concept. become more fully functioning. His ideas about the
3. Higher Self-Regard: Clients have a more "fully functioning person" evolved through the years,
positive self-image and realistic expectations with key characteristics described in the 1950s and
of their potential. 1960s. Rogers believed that if a person experiences
4. Reduced Tension and Anxiety: The gap congruence, unconditional positive regard, and
between their ideal self and real self narrows, empathy, they will develop certain traits:
leading to less psychological and physiological
1. Adaptability: These individuals are flexible and
tension.
capable of adjusting to change, essential for
5. Increased Self-Directedness: They rely less on
long-term survival and growth.
others’ opinions and values, becoming more
2. Openness to Experience: They are fully aware
self-directed.
of their emotions and experiences, without
6. Improved Relationships: Clients become more
denying or distorting them.
accepting of others and make fewer demands,
3. Trust in Organismic Self: They trust their inner
fostering healthier and more genuine
feelings and make choices based on personal
relationships.
experience, while also considering others'
7. Broader Application of Growth: Their positive
rights and feelings.
self-regard, empathy, and authenticity extend
4. Living in the Moment: They experience each
beyond therapy, helping them engage in other
moment fully and authentically, without
growth-promoting relationships.
preconceived expectations, appreciating each
Overall, they feel more secure in themselves and less experience as unique.
reliant on denial or distortion, allowing for greater 5. Authentic Relationships: They are genuine
personal growth and improved interactions with with others, not seeking approval from
others. everyone but valuing intimacy and meaningful
connections.
6. Integration: They are whole, with no artificial
boundary between conscious and unconscious
thoughts. They accept both their real and ideal
selves.
7. Trust in Human Nature: They have a basic
belief in the goodness of people, feeling
empathy and channeling emotions like anger
constructively.
8. Richness in Life: They experience life more
deeply, enjoying a fuller, richer existence by
not distorting or blocking their emotions.
These "persons of tomorrow" are self-actualized, living previously ignored and that over time, the gap
authentically, and experiencing life with greater between who they really were and who they wanted to
emotional depth and openness. be would become smaller. He also believed clients
would become more accepting of themselves and
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE others.

Rogers was not just a therapist and personality Method

theorist, but also a scientist, and his scientific
approach influenced his therapy and ideas about In the study at the University of Chicago Counseling
personality. He believed that science starts with Center, the researchers faced the challenge of
personal experience but must be objective and based measuring subtle, subjective personality changes in an
on facts during research. Scientists should be objective way. To do this, they used several tools:
open-minded, creative, self-aware, and willing to
embrace change, much like the "person of tomorrow" 1. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – A
he described. personality test that helps with clinical
diagnoses.
Rogers thought that scientists need to be fully 2. Self-Other Attitude Scale (S-O Scale) –
involved in what they study. For example, researchers Measured anti-democratic trends and
in psychotherapy should have years of experience as ethnocentrism.
therapists. Science begins when a scientist notices 3. Willoughby Emotional Maturity Scale (E-M
patterns or connections, even if they are not clear at Scale) – Compared descriptions of clients'
first, which can later turn into testable ideas. behavior from themselves and close friends.

He believed that while research methods must be To measure changes from the client’s point of view,
precise and objective to avoid bias, the essence of they used the Q sort technique, where participants
science is about exploring new ideas, not just using sorted 100 self-referent statements into nine
rigid methods. When scientists share their findings, categories, ranging from “most like me” to “least like
the communication is influenced by each person's me.” This process allowed for statistical analysis.
own experiences and openness to new ideas.
The study involved 18 men and 11 women, mostly
THE CHICAGO STUDIES university students, who received at least six therapy
sessions. Half of the therapy group had to wait 60
Rogers' approach to research reflected his belief that days before receiving therapy (the "wait group"), while
methodology should not limit the investigation. In his the other half received therapy immediately (the
studies on client-centered therapy, first at the "no-wait group"). Additionally, a control group of
University of Chicago and later with schizophrenic people who were not in therapy was used to account
patients at the University of Wisconsin, Rogers and his for factors like the placebo effect and the passage of
colleagues prioritized the clinical problem over time.
traditional research methods. They did not start with
pre-made hypotheses but instead relied on their The researchers assessed the groups at different
clinical impressions, which were then developed into points: before therapy, immediately after therapy, and
testable hypotheses. Only afterward did they focus on 6 to 12 months later, using various tests to track
creating or finding appropriate tools to test these personality changes.
ideas. In the Chicago Studies, the goal was to explore
both the process and outcomes of client-centered Findings
therapy. The therapists involved, including Rogers and
his colleagues, ranged in experience, but all adhered The study found that after therapy, the therapy group
to a client-centered approach. had a smaller gap between their real self and ideal self,
and they kept this improvement over time. The
Hypotheses "normal" control group, however, had a higher level of
self-congruence at the start but showed no real
Rogers' research focused on the idea that everyone change by the end.
has the ability to understand themselves and grow
toward being their best self. He believed that this The therapy group also changed more in how they saw
growth would happen if the therapist created a themselves than in how they viewed the "average
supportive environment. Rogers predicted that during person," indicating that therapy helped them grow
therapy, clients would start to accept feelings they had personally, not just intellectually.
When it came to behavior changes, friends of the
therapy group didn't notice much difference in
behavior. However, those clients who improved the
most in therapy were seen as more mature by their
friends. Before therapy, clients thought they were less
mature than their friends did, but after therapy, they
rated themselves similarly to how their friends rated
them. The control group showed no change in
maturity.