GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES • Wavelength (λ): The distance between any two successive

WAVE MOTION - A wave motion is any periodic disturbance crests or troughs. SI unit is a metre (m).
through a medium which transfers energy from one point to another • Wave speed/velocity (v): Distance travelled by the crest or any
without the transfer of matter as whole. point on the wave in one second. Measured in meter per
seconds (m/s).
DESCRIPTION OF TERMINOLOGY USED IN WAVE Relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength gives an
equation called WAVE EQUATION
Displacement Vs Distance graph v = fλ
Where v = wave speed in m/s
f = frequency in Hz
λ = wavelength in metres
• Wave fronts: Lines drawn to represent the positions of the
crests or peak on a wave. Wave fronts are always perpendicular
to the direction of the wave travel. The distance between
wavefronts represents a wavelength, thus two wavefronts = 1
Displacement Vs Time graph
wavelengths.
Types of wave fronts
a. Circular wave fronts: a circular wave that move outwards
from the source. Circular waves can be produced by a
single point source.

• Amplitude (a): Maximum displacement from an equilibrium.

SI unit is a metre (m).
• Period (T): Time taken to produce one complete wave or
cycle. SI unit: second (s). Period = Total time taken/No. of b. Straight wave fronts are used for straight water waves and
complete waves (cycles) or T = 1/f are parallel. Straight waves can be produced using a
• Frequency (f): Number of complete waves generated in one vibrating bar or a ruler.
second. Its SI unit is hertz (Hz). The frequency of wave is the
same as that of the source. Frequency = No. of complete
waves (cycles)/Total time taken Then note that: F = 1/T,
which means 1 Hz = 1/s
 TYPES OF WAVES 3. Water waves are produced with a frequency of 4 Hz, by hitting
1. Transverse wave: A wave in which the displacement or the water surface with the tip of a pencil. If the waves travel 20
vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the direction of m in 10 s, calculate.
the wave travel. a) The speed of the wave?
b) The wavelength of the wave?
4. Fig 6.0 shows a transverse wave at a certain instant. The
vertical arrows indicate the direction of motion of some
individual points on the wave at a particular instant.

2. Longitudinal wave: A wave in which the displacement

particles is parallel to the direction of the wave travel (in the
same direction as the direction of the wave travel).
Fig. 6.0
On the diagram draw arrows to show
a) The direction of energy flow
b) wavelength
c) Amplitude
5. The diagram below shows waves being produced in a ripple
tank by a wave machine.

Wavelength is equal to the distance from the centre of one

compression (or rarefaction) to the centre of the next.
a. How many water waves are shown in the diagram?
b. If the above waves were produced in 2.5 s what is their
EXERCISE
frequency?
c. If the wavelength of the water waves is 5 cm calculate their
1. How is a wave produced? Give two examples of different ways
speed.
of producing waves.
2. What is the difference between the longitudinal and transverse
waves? Give two examples for each.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT TYPES OF IMAGES

The bouncing back of light rays is called reflection. The ray that a. Virtual image is an image formed where imaginary rays or
moves towards the surface is the incident ray while the one that extended rays appears to cross each other after reflection or
bounces back is called the reflected ray. refraction. Virtual image is always upright or erect.
b. Real image is an image formed where actual rays cross each
other reflected or refracted. Real image is always inverted.

FORMATION OF IMAGES BY PLANE MIRRORS

When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror,
a. Draw incident rays from the object to the mirror.
b. Draw reflected rays at an angle i=r
c. Then extended backwards the reflected to locate the image
position.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
d. The image will be formed where the imaginary rays meet.
1. The incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie on the same
plane.
2. The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r (i =
r)
3. A ray along the normal (where i = 0) will be reflected along its
own path, i.e., back along the normal.

TYPES OF REFLECTION FORMATION OF IMAGES BY CURVED/SPHERICAL

MIRRORS
a. Regular reflection, reflection taking place on smooth surface
and parallel light rays are reflected in direction only. Ray diagram for curved mirror
b. Diffuse reflection, a reflection that takes place on rough surface a. An incident ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected
and parallel light rays are reflected in range of different through the principal focus.
directions. b. An incident ray through the centre of curvature is reflected
along its own path.
c. An incident ray through the principal focus is reflected parallel
to the principal axis.
CONCAVE MIRROR: Mirror that curve inwards reflected light rays EXERCISE
such that reflected rays converge at focal point in front a mirror. Its
reflecting surface is curving inwards. 1. For each of the following cases find the angle of incidence and
the angle of reflection

CONVEX MIRROR: Mirror that curve outwards reflected light rays

such that reflected rays diverge at focal point behind a mirror. Its 2. On the diagrams below, use two incident rays to locate the
reflecting surface is curving outwards. image of the object seen by the observer.
a.

Definition of terms
a. Centre of curvature C is the centre of the sphere of which the b. Write three characteristics of each image formed by mirrors
mirror appears to be part of. It is in front of a concave mirror above.
and behind for a convex mirror. c. State uses of each mirror.
b. Radius of curvature r: the distance from the centre of 3. A girl holding a ball of diameter 30 cm stands 1 m in front of a
curvature to the pole P (centre of the mirror) large flat mirror. Where and how large is the image of the ball?
c. Principal axis: is the line joining the pole P to the centre of 4. A boy walks towards a plane mirror with a speed of 0.5 m/s.
curvature C. Does the boy’s image appear to move towards or away from
d. Focal length f: is the distance from the principal focus to the him? At what speed does the image move?
centre of the mirror P 5. Is the image formed by a periscope upright or inverted?
Focal length = half the radius of curvature
f = r/2
WATER WAVES AND THE RIPPLE TANK The formed waves will be seen as bright and dark patches on the
screen beath the tray.
Structure of a ripple tank
EFFECTS OF DEPTH ON THE SPEED OF WATER WAVES
The speed of water wave is related to the water depth rather than its
period or frequency since the frequency is determined by the source of
the water wave in this case.
REFRACTION OF WATER WAVES

When water wave moves from shallow to deep.

a. The speed and wavelength increase.

b. The water wave is refracted away from the normal line.

It consists of shallow tray of water with transparent base, a lamp When water wave moves from deep to shallow
directly above the tray and white screen beneath the tray to capture the
image of shadows formed when water wave is produced by vibrating
dipper connected to a motor (vibration generator).

It is used to demonstrate the wave properties of water waves such as

reflection, refraction, and diffraction of waves.

FORMATION OF WATER WAVES IN RIPPLE TANK a. The speed and wavelength decrease.
a. Straight waves can be produced by vibrating a straight dipper. b. The water wave is refracted towards the normal line.
b. Circle waves can be formed by vibrating spherical dipper.
DIFFRACTION OF WATER WAVES EXERCISE
Diffraction of water wave is when wave spread out as they pass
through a gap or an obstacle. 1. Roy and Sally spent time on a beach watching the incoming
waves. The diagram shows wavefronts as they approach
Diffraction vs wavelength for similar gape size shallow water. The waves travel slower in shallow water.

Short wavelength, less diffraction. Long wavelength, more diffraction.

Diffraction vs gape size for similar wavelength

a. On the diagram, draw an arrow showing the wave direction and
the refracted wavefronts in the shallow region.
b. Clearly explain why the waves behave as you have drawn them
in the diagram above.
c. State what happens to the frequency and wavelength of the
Same gap, more diffraction. Large gap, less diffraction.
waves as they pass from deep to shallow water.
For very small gap majority of waves is blocked since for the wave to
LIGHT
pass through the gap size should be closer to the size of the wavelength
REFRACTION - The bending of light as it passes from one optical
of the wave.
medium to another of different optical density. Illustration of light ray
REFLECTION OF WATER WAVES AO as it passes through air into glass.

When water waves move from a source towards the ripples tank wall
or obstacle placed at 90° with wave direction they will be reflected on
their own path. The speed and wavelength do not change. When an
obstacle is place at angle not 90° law of reflection will apply as shown
below, but the speed and wavelength will remain the same as well.

O – Point of incidence, NN – Normal (line), AO – Incident ray, OB –

Refracted ray, i – Angle of incidence, r – Angle of refraction
 Angle of refraction = 22°
2. Explain why the emergent ray is parallel to incident ray in case of
refraction of light through a glass-slab.

REFRACTIVE INDEX (n) AND SNELL’S LAW

(a) (b) (c) The refractive index (n) is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle
of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction for any ray that it
a. A ray moving from a denser medium to a less dense medium refracts.
will bend away from the normal. n = Sin(i)/sin(r)
b. A ray moving from a less dense medium to a denser medium
will bend towards the normal. Where n is proportionality constant called the refractive index of the
c. The ray along the normal is not refracted (i = r=0) second medium with respect to the first medium.

Experiments: To show refraction of light Refractive index can also be defined as the ratio of the speed of light
• Place a glass block above a plain sheet of paper and trace its in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium.
outline. n = speed of light in a vacuum(C) /speed of light in a medium (v)
• Direct a thin ray of light from the ray box towards the glass
block. APPARENT AND REAL DEPTH
• Trace the incident and emergent rays onto the plain paper. The depth which the object appears to be is called the APPARENT
DEPTH while the actual depth of the pool is called the REAL DEPTH.
• Remove the glass block and trace the refracted ray by joining
the incident ray to the emergent ray where they enter and leave
the glass block.

EXERCISE
1. Draw a neat welled labelled diagram of refraction through a glass
block, use the information below The ratio of the real depth to the apparent depth is equal to the
Length of glass block = 11.0cm refractive index n of water, calculated as
Width of glass block =6.0cm
n = Real depth/Apparent depth
Angle of incident = 32°
LAWS OF REFRACTION a) When angle of incidence i is less than the critical angle (i < ic)
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie in the the ray is refracted.
same plane. b) When angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle (i = ic)
2. Snell’s law: the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of both reflection and refraction take place with the refracted ray
angle of refraction for a given pair of media is a constant thus running along the boundary of glass and air, which means r =
sin(i)/sin(r) = constant 90°. To find the critical.
Sinic = 1/n
EXERCISE
1. A light ray travelling through air strikes water at an angle of TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
40° to the surface. Given that the refractive index for water is When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (i > ic)
1.33, find the angle of refraction? the ray is totally reflected into the glass. No refracted ray is observed.
2. Use a diagram to explain why a drinking straw appears bent When this happens.
when partially immersed in a glass of water.
3. A pond of water of water (n = 1.33) is 2 m deep. What is the
apparent depth of the pond when a person looks vertically
downwards from above?
4. If the refractive index of water is 1.33, how deep will a pond
really be if it appears to be 6 m when looking vertically
downwards?
5. Calculate the speed of light in media of refractive index 1.5,
knowing that speed of light in vacuum is 3x108 m/s? TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION IN PRISMS
A light ray incident normally on the isosceles prism will undergo total
CRITICAL ANGLE internal reflection if the reflecting surface behave as plane mirror and
Critical angle (ic) the angle of incidence for which angle of refraction the incident angle is 45°. The image size will be the same as the object
is 90°. image.
APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION MIRAGE
a. A right-angled glass used as a reflector in bicycles or cars,
roadside reflectors.
b. Two right angled prisms can be used to turn light through 90°
in a Periscope.
c. Focusing distant objects using a pair of binoculars.
d. OPTICAL FIBRES
These are thin, flexible rods of glass (or transparent plastic). When
It is an optical illusion which results when light ray passes through
light ray is shone into the fibre it bounces from one edge (side) of
multiple layers of air with different density and it bends away from
the optical fibre to the other by total internal reflection. Light can
normal, the light ray will be totally internally reflected as it passes
be transported over large distance with very little loss of light
through. In the process reflection of light produces an image of the sky
intensity.
which will appear as pool of water on the road to an observer driving
along the road.

EXERCISE
1. What will happen to light ray when the incident angle equal
to critical angle?
2. State two necessary conditions necessary for totally internal
reflection to take place?
3. Draw a diagram to show how two right-angled prisms can
be used, in place of two mirrors, in a periscope. Show the
path of the light rays as accurately as you can.
USES OF OPTICAL FIBRE 4. The diagram shows a long block of glass over an object O.
a) Telecommunications: Telephone systems that use optical Light from O reaches the top surface of the glass at X, Y
fibres instead cables are more efficient and much faster. and Z.
b) Endoscope: An instrument doctors use to see inside patients’
bodies by the of help using optical fibres. A very small camera
is attached to one end of an optical fibre. This end is pushed
down the throat and into the stomach. The other end is attached
to a television near to the patient. The doctor can see pictures a) What is the name given to the bending of the light at X?
of the inside of the stomach on the television screen. b) Fill in the two missing words in the following sentence.
At Z light is ..................... ........................... reflected.
 c) What is the angle marked R called? • Optical centre (c): - Centre of the lens
d) Why is light reflected as shown at Z? • Principal axis: - A straight line through the optical centre at a
5. a. What advantages do optical fibre cables have over right angle to the lens.
copper cables in communication systems? • Principal focus (F): - A point on the principal axis where
b. Why the core of optical fibre is made of higher refractive parallel rays converge or a point where parallel rays appear to
index than the outer shell (Cladding)? diverge from for a concave lens.
6. Explain why during hot day road looks wet? • Focal length (f): - Distance from the principal focus to the
optical centre.
LENSES – A lens is optical device that bend or refract light ray as it
passes through it to produce an image. They often have spherical THICK CONVEX LENS VS THIN CONVEX LENS
surfaces. There are two types of lenses:
i) Convex/converging lens - When a parallel beam of light
passes through a convex lens the rays bend inwards and
converge or meet at a point known as a principal focus.
ii) Concave/diverging lens - When the rays pass through a
concave lens, they are bend outwards (spread out or diverge).
The point from which the rays appear to diverge it is the
principal focus of the lens.

DEFINING TERMS

RAY DIAGRAM

A converging lens can produce both real and virtual images. The
properties of the image formed depend on the position of the object
from the lens in front of the lens. Two of the following standard rays
maybe used:
Ray 1: A ray through the optical centre passes straight through the
lens without bending (not refracted).
Ray 2: A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the
principal axis after leaving the lens.
Ray 3: A ray through a principal focus F, when it leaves the lens, it is
refracted parallel to the principal axis.

EXERCISE
1. State two difference between convex lens and concave lens in
terms of their structural appearance?
2. Using information provided below to accurately draw ray
diagrams to locate image formed.
Question 1 2 3
Object height (cm) 2.6 2.6 2.6
Object distance (cm) 8.0 5.4 1.5
Focal length (cm) 3.2 3.2 3.2
Under each diagram drawn above answer the following
a. Three characteristics of image formed.
b. Uses of ray diagram.
c. i) What is meant by magnification?
ii) Calculate the magnifications of the image formed?

3. The diagram below shows a converging lens forming a real

image of an illuminated object. State two things that happen to
the image when the object is moved towards F.
i. Name all parts labelled A, B, C, D and E on the diagram
above.
ii. Which part control the amount of light entering the camera?
iii. What is the function of the part labelled C.
iv. Which part of the camera operate as the retina in human
eye?
EXERCISE v. State characteristics of image formed?
1. use the diagram below to answer questions that follow. It’s a
diagram of a camera optical device.
2. Figure below is a slide project image, use it to answer
questions below.

i. State the functions of the concave mirror and condenser

lenses.
ii. What type of a lens is a projections lens?
iii. How is the slide placed on a projector to produce real,
laterally inverted, and erect characteristics of the image?