KEY POINTS

1 A polynomial in x has terms in positive integer powers of x and may

1
also have a constant term.
2 The order of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x which
appears in the polynomial.
3 The factor theorem states that if (x − a) is a factor of a polynomial

1.3 The modulus function

f(x) then f(a) = 0 and x = a is a root of the equation f(x) = 0.
Conversely if f(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of f(x).
4 The remainder theorem states that f(a) is the remainder when the
polynomial f(x) is divided by (x − a).
5 The modulus of x, written |x|, means the positive value of x.
6 The modulus function is
● | x | = x, for x % 0
● | x | = −x, for x " 0.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now that you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
■ divide a polynomial by a linear or quadratic expression and find the
quotient and remainder
■ understand and use the

■ factor theorem

■ remainder theorem

■ use the factor and remainder theorems to solve problems involving

polynomials including
■ finding unknown coefficients of a polynomial

■ solving a polynomial equation

■ solve equations and inequalities involving the modulus sign

■ know that

■ | x | = | −x |

■ |a − b| = |b − a|

■ | x |2 = x2

■ |x − a|$b ⇔ a − b $ x $ a + b

■ | x | # a ⇔ x " −a or x # a

■ sketch the graph of y = | ax + b |.

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 The graph of ln y against x is a straight line passing through the points

2
(2, 1.60) and (5, 2.92), as shown in the diagram.
Find the values of A and p correct to 2 significant figures.
Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics
9709 Paper 21 Q2 June 2015

KEY POINTS

2.6 The exponential function

1 A function of the form ax is described as exponential.
2 y = loga x ⇔ ay = x.
3 Logarithms to any base
Multiplication: log xy = log x + log y
⎛ ⎞
Division: log ⎜ xy ⎟ = log x − log y
⎝ ⎠
Logarithm of 1: log 1 = 0
Powers: log xn = n log x
⎛ ⎞
Reciprocals: log ⎜ 1 ⎟ = −log y
⎝y ⎠
1
Roots: log n x = n log x
Logarithm to its own base: loga a = 1
4 Logarithms may be used to discover the relationship between the
variables in two types of situation.
● y = kx ⇔ log y = log k + n log x
n

Plot log y against log x: this relationship gives a straight line where n is
the gradient and log k is the intercept.
● y = ka ⇔ log y = log k + x log a
x

Plot log y against x: this relationship gives a straight line where log a is
the gradient and log k is the intercept.
5 logex is called the natural logarithm of x and denoted by ln x.
6 e = 2.718 281 828 4… is the base of natural logarithms.
7 ex and ln x are inverse functions: elnx = x and ln(ex) = x.
1
8 ∫ x dx = ln| x | + c

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 3.1 Reciprocal trigonometrical functions
3 As well as the three main trigonometrical functions, there are three more
which are commonly used. These are their reciprocals − cosecant (cosec),
secant (sec) and cotangent (cot), defined by
cosec θ = 1 ;
sin θ
sec θ = 1 ;
cos θ
1
(
cos θ
cot θ = tan θ = sin θ . )
Each of these is undefined for certain values of θ. For example, cosec θ is
3 TRIGONOMETRY

undefined for θ = 0°, 180°, 360°, … since sin θ is zero for these values of θ.
Figure 3.2 shows the graphs of these functions. Notice how all three of the
functions have asymptotes at intervals of 180°. Each of the graphs shows one
of the main trigonometrical functions as a red line and the related reciprocal
function as a blue line.

y y

1 1 y = cos x

–360º –180º 0 180º 360º x –360º –180º 0 180º 360º x

–1 y = sin x –1

y = cosec x y = sec x

y = tan x

–360º –180º 0 180º 360º x

–1

y = cotx

▲ Figure 3.2

58
 KEY POINTS
1
1
sec θ = cos θ ;
1 1
cosec θ = sin θ ; cot θ = tan θ 3
2 tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ; 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ
3 Compound-angle formulae
● sin(θ + φ) = sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ

● sin(θ − φ) = sin θ cos φ − cos θ sin φ

3.5 The general solutions of trigonometrical equations

● cos(θ + φ) = cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ

● cos(θ − φ) = cos θ cos φ + sin θ sin φ

tan θ + tan φ
● tan(θ + φ) = (θ + φ) ≠ 90°, 270°, ...
1 − tan θ tan φ
tan θ − tan φ
● tan(θ − φ) = (θ − φ) ≠ 90°, 270°, ...
1 + tan θ tan φ
4 Double-angle and related formulae
● sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

● cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1

2 tan θ
● tan 2θ =
1 − tan 2 θ θ ≠ 45°, 135°, ...
1
● sin2 θ = 2(1 − cos 2θ )
1
● cos2 θ = 2(1 + cos 2θ )
5 The r, α formulae

}
● a sin θ + b cos θ = r sin(θ + α )
where r = a 2 + b 2
● a sin θ − b cos θ = r sin(θ − α ) a
cos α = r
● a cos θ + b sin θ = r cos(θ − α )

● a cos θ − b sin θ = r cos(θ + α ) sin α = br

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 KEY POINTS
1 y = kxn ⇒
dy
= knxn−1 where k and n are real constants.
4
dx
dy dy du
2 Chain rule: = × .
dx du dx
dy du dv
3 Product rule (for y = uv): =v +u .
dx dx dx

4.7 Parametric differentiation

du dv
dy v dx − u dx
4 (
Quotient rule for y = : )
u
v dx
=
v2
.
dy
5 = 1
dx d x
dy
6 d (ln x ) = 1
dx x
d (e x ) = e x
7
dx
d (sin kx ) = k cos kx
8
dx
d (cos kx ) = −k sin kx
dx
d (tan kx ) = k sec 2 kx
dx
9 An implicit function is one connecting x and y where y is not the
subject. When you differentiate an implicit function:
dy
● differentiating y2 with respect to x gives 2 y
dx dy
● differentiating 4x3y2 with respect to x gives 12x2 ×y2 + 4x3 ×2 y
dx
● the derivative of any constant is 0.

10 In parametric equations the relationship between two variables is

expressed by writing both of them in terms of a third variable or
parameter.
11 To draw a graph from parametric equations, plot the points on the
curve given by different values of the parameter.
dy
dy dt
12 = provided that dx ≠ 0.
dx dx dt
dt

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 KEY POINTS
1
∫ kx dx = kxn+ 1 + c
n
n +1 5
2
∫ e dx = e + c
x x

∫ e dx = 1a e + c
ax + b ax + b

5.4 Numerical integration

∫ x dx = ln | x | + c
1
3

∫ ax1+ b dx = 1a ln | ax + b | + c
∫ cos(ax + b)dx = a sin(ax + b) + c
1
4

∫ sin(ax + b)dx = − a cos(ax + b) + c

1

∫ sec (ax + b)dx = 1a tan(ax + b) + c

2

5 (Paper 2: Pure Mathematics 2 only) You can use the trapezium

rule, with n strips of width h, to find an approximate value for a
definite integral as
A ≈ h ⎣⎡y 0 + 2( y 1 + y 2 + ... + y n − 1 ) + y n ⎦⎤
2
In words this is
Area ≈ 21 × strip width × [ends + twice middles].

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
■ extend the idea that integration is the reverse of differentiation to integrate

■ e ax +b

■
1
ax + b
■ sin(ax + b )
■ cos(ax + b )
■ sec 2 (ax + b )
and related sums, differences and constant multiples
■ use integration in cases where the process is the reverse of the chain rule
■ use trigonometrical identities in carrying out integration
■ (Paper 2: Pure Mathematics 2 only) understand and use the
trapezium rule to estimate the value of a definite integral
■ (Paper 2: Pure Mathematics 2 only) use a sketch graph to determine
whether the trapezium rule gives an overestimate or an underestimate. 141

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 KEY POINTS
1 When f(x) is a continuous function, if f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs, 6
there will be at least one root of f(x) = 0 in the interval [a, b].
2 When an interval [a, b] containing a root has been found, this interval
may be reduced systematically by decimal search or interval bisection.
3 Fixed-point iteration may be used to solve an equation f(x) = 0.
You can sometimes find a root by rearranging the equation f(x) = 0
into the form x = F(x) and using the iteration xn+1 = F(xn ).

6.3 Problems with the fixed-point iteration method

4 Successive iterations of xn+1 = F(xn ) may fail to converge if the
gradient of F(x) is not very steep for values of x close to the root.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now that you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
■ find an interval in which the root of an equation lies, using
change-of-sign methods
■ know circumstances under which change-of-sign methods fail
■ rearrange an equation in the form f(x) = 0 into the form x = F( xn )
■ carry out a fixed-point iteration of an equation in the form
xn +1 = F( xn ), to find the root of an equation to a given degree of
accuracy
■ understand that a particular rearrangement of f(x) = 0 may produce an
iterative formula that fails to converge.

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 KEY POINTS
1 The general binomial expansion for n ! " is 7
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x +….
2! 3!
In the special case when n ! $, the series expansion is finite and
valid for all x.
When n " $, the series expansion is non-terminating (infinite) and
valid only if | x | " 1.

7.4 Using partial fractions with the binomial expansion

( )
n
2 When n " $, (a + x)n should be written as a n 1 + x before
a
obtaining the binomial expansion.
3 When multiplying algebraic fractions, you can only cancel when the
same factor occurs in both the numerator and the denominator.
4 When adding or subtracting algebraic fractions, you first need to find
a common denominator.
5 The easiest way to solve any equation involving fractions is usually to
multiply both sides by a quantity which will eliminate the fractions.
6 A proper algebraic fraction with a denominator which factorises can
be decomposed into a sum of proper partial fractions.
7 The following forms of partial fraction should be used.
px 2 + qx + r A B C
≡ + +
(ax + b )(cx + d )(ex + f ) ax + b cx + d ex + f
px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C
≡ +
(ax + b )(cx 2 + d ) ax + b cx 2 + d
px 2 + qx + r A B C
≡ + +
(ax + b )(cx + d )2 ax + b cx + d (cx + d )2

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now that you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
■ find and use the binomial expansion (1 + x)n, where n is a rational
number and | x | " 1
■ adapt the standard binomial expansion for cases in which the constant
term is not 1
■ know the condition for a binomial expansion to be valid
■ express algebraic fractions as partial fractions when the fraction has a
denominator of the form
■ (ax + b)(cx + d )(ex + f )

■ (ax + b)(cx2 + d )

■ (ax + b)(cx + d )2.

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 4 The diagram shows the curve y = x 2 e 2 − x and its maximum point M.

8
y
M

O x

(i) Show that the x coordinate of M is 2.

8.7 General integration

2
(ii) Find the exact value of ∫
x 2 e 2 − x dx .
0
Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics
9709 Paper 31 Q9 June 2015
2
5 The integral I is defined by I = ∫ 0
4t 3 ln(t 2 + 1)dt.
(i) Use the substitution x = t 2 + 1 to show that
5
I = ∫
1
(2x − 2) ln x d x.
(ii) Hence find the exact value of I.
Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics
9709 Paper 31 Q7 June 2011

KEY POINTS
1 You can differentiate tan−1 x by using either
implicit differentiation, or
●

dy
● = 1
dx dx
dy
kx n +1
∫
2 kxn dx =
n + 1 + c where k and n are constants but n ≠ −1.
3 Substitution is often used to change a non-standard integral into a
standard one.
4 ∫ ex dx = ex + c
∫ e dx = 1a e
ax + b ax + b +c
1
5 ∫ x dx = ln | x | + c
∫ ax1+ b dx = 1a ln | ax + b | + c
f ′(x )
6 ∫ f(x ) dx = ln | f(x) | + c

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 ∫ cos(ax + b) dx = 1a sin(ax + b) + c
8
7

1
∫ sin(ax + b) dx = − a cos(ax + b) + c
∫ sec (ax + b) dx = 1a tan(ax + b) + c
2

8 ∫x 2 + k2
=
k ()
1 dx 1 tan − 1 x
k
+ c
8 FURTHER CALCULUS

9 Using partial fractions often makes it possible to use logarithms to

integrate the quotient of two polynomials.
10 Some products may be integrated by parts using the formulae
u dv dx = uv − v du dx
∫ ∫
dx dx

[ ] ∫
b dv b
∫ u − v du dx
b
u dx = uv
a dx a a dx

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now that you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
■ differentiate tan −1 x

■ extend the idea of ‘reverse differentiation’ to include the integration of

1
x2 + a2
■ use integration by substitution in cases where the process is the reverse
of the chain rule (either by inspection or by writing down the working
for the substitution)
■ use integration by substitution in other cases, finding a suitable
substitution for both definite and indefinite integrals
k f ′( x )
■ use
∫f( x )
dx = k lln | f(x) |++ c
■ use partial fractions in integration

■ use trigonometrical relationships in integration

■ use the method of integration by parts including when more than one
application of the method may be required to integrate ln x.

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 9
INVESTIGATION
Cooling
Investigate the coffee cooling problem introduced on page 217.You will
need to make some assumptions about the initial temperature of the coffee
and the temperature of the room.
What difference would it make if you were to add some cold milk to the
coffee and then leave it to cool?

9.2 Solving differential equations

Would it be better to allow the coffee to cool first before adding the milk?

KEY POINTS
1 A differential equation is an equation involving derivatives such as
dy d 2y
and
dx d x2
2 A first-order differential equation involves a first derivative only.
3 Some first-order differential equations may be solved by separating
the variables.
4 A general solution is one in which the constant of integration is left
in the solution, and a particular solution is one in which additional
information is used to calculate the constant of integration.
5 A general solution may be represented by a family of curves, a
particular solution by a particular member of that family.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now that you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
■ formulate first-order differential equations using information about
rates of change
■ solve a first-order differential equation using separation of variables

■ find the general solution of a first-order differential equation

■ find the particular solution of a first-order differential equation

■ solve problems using differential equations and interpret the solution.

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 KEY POINTS
10 1 A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.
2 A scalar quantity has magnitude only.
⎯→
3 Vectors are typeset in bold, a or OA, or in the form⎯→OA. They are
handwritten either in the underlined form a, or as OA.
10 VECTORS

4 The length (or modulus or magnitude) of the vector a is written as a

or as |a|.
5 Unit vectors in the x, y and z directions are denoted by i, j and k,
respectively.
6 A vector may be specified in
● magnitude−direction form: (r, θ ) (in two dimensions)

●
x
()
component form: x i + y j or y (in two dimensions)

⎛ x⎞
x i + y j + z k or ⎜ y ⎟ (in three dimensions).
⎝ z⎠
⎯
→
7 The position vector OP of a point P is the vector joining the origin
to P.
⎯→
8 The vector AB is b − a, where a and b are the position vectors of A
and B.
9 The angle between two vectors, a and b, is given by θ in
a⋅b
cos θ =
|a||b|
where a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 (in two dimensions)
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (in three dimensions).
⎯
→
10 The position vector OP of a point P is the vector joining the origin
to P.
⎯
→
11 The vector AB is b – a, where a and b are the position vectors of A
and B.
12 The vector r often denotes the position vector of a general point.
13 The vector equation of the line through A with direction vector u is
given by
r = a + λu.
14 The vector equation of the line through points A and B is given by
⎯→ ⎯→
r = OA + λ AB
= a + λ(b − a)
= (1 − λ)a + λb.

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 KEY POINTS
1 Complex numbers can be written in the form z = x + iy with i2 = −1. 11
x is called the real part, Re(z), and y is called the imaginary part,
Im(z).
2 The conjugate of z is z* = x − iy.
3 To add or subtract complex numbers, add or subtract the real and

11.8 Complex numbers and equations

imaginary parts separately.
(x1 + iy1) ± (x2 + iy2) = (x1 ± x2) + i(y1 ± y2)
4 To multiply complex numbers, multiply out the brackets and simplify.
(x1 + iy1)(x2 + iy2) = (x1x2 − y1y2) + i(x1y2 + x2y1)
5 To divide complex numbers, multiply top and bottom by the
conjugate of the bottom.
x 1 + iy 1 ( x 1x 2 + y 1y 2 ) + i(x 2 y 1 –x 1y 2 )
=
x 2 + iy 2 x 22 + y 22
6 The complex number z can be represented geometrically as the point
(x, y). This is known as an Argand diagram.
7 The modulus of z = x + iy is | z | = x 2 + y 2 .
This is the distance of the point z from the origin.
8 The distance between the points z1 and z2 in an Argand diagram is
| z2 − z2 |.
9 The principal argument of z, arg z, is the angle θ, −π < θ < π,
between the line connecting the origin and the point z and the
positive real axis.
10 The modulus−argument or polar form of z is z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ),
where r = | z | and θ = arg z.
11 x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
2 + y2 y
r= x tan θ =
x
12 To multiply complex numbers in polar form, multiply the moduli and
add the arguments.
z1z2 = r1r2[cos(θ 1 + θ 2) + i sin(θ 1 + θ 2)]
13 To divide complex numbers in polar form, divide the moduli and
subtract the arguments.
z 1 r1
[cos(θ 1 − θ 2) + i sin(θ 1 − θ 2)]
z 2 = r2
14 eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ, e–iθ = cos θ – i sin θ
15 A polynomial equation of degree n has n roots, taking into account
complex roots and repeated roots. In the case of polynomial equations
with real coefficients, complex roots always occur in conjugate pairs.

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