ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
11.1 Organic Compounds
11.1.1 General Characteristics of Organic Compounds
 Carbon Backbone: Organic compounds primarily consist of carbon

atoms bonded to each other, forming the backbone of the molecule.
 Covalent Bonding: Carbon atoms form strong covalent bonds with
other carbon atoms and other elements like hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, etc.
 Isomerism: Organic compounds often exhibit isomerism, which
means they have the same molecular formula but different
structural arrangements.
 Combustibility: Most organic compounds are combustible,
meaning they react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
water.
 Low Melting and Boiling Points: Generally, organic compounds
have lower melting and boiling points compared to inorganic
compounds.
 Solubility: Many organic compounds are insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents.
11.1.2 Diversity and Magnitude of Organic Compounds
The diversity of organic compounds is vast due to the ability of carbon

atoms to form chains of various lengths and to bond with other elements
in different ways. This leads to a huge number of possible compounds,
each with unique properties.
11.1.3 Sources of Organic Compounds
 Natural Sources: Organic compounds are found in living

organisms, such as plants and animals. Examples include
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
 Fossil Fuels: Petroleum, coal, and natural gas are rich sources of
organic compounds, including hydrocarbons.
 Synthetic Sources: Organic compounds can be synthesized in
laboratories through various chemical reactions.
11.1.4 Uses of Organic Compounds in Daily Life
Organic compounds are essential to our daily lives. They are used in
various applications, including:
 Food: Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are vital nutrients.

 Medicine: Many drugs and medications are organic compounds.
 Clothing: Synthetic fibers like polyester and nylon are organic
polymers.
 Fuels: Petroleum-based fuels like gasoline and diesel power
vehicles.
 Plastics: A wide range of plastic products are made from organic
polymers.
 Cleaning Products: Soaps, detergents, and cleaning agents often
contain organic compounds.
11.2 Classification of Organic Compounds
11.2.1 Acyclic and Cyclic Compounds
 Acyclic Compounds: These compounds have an open-chain

structure.
o Example: Alkanes like methane (CH₄) and ethane (C₂H₆)
 Cyclic Compounds: These compounds have a closed-ring
structure.
o Example: Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂)
11.2.2 Straight-Chain Hydrocarbons
Straight-chain hydrocarbons are characterized by a linear arrangement of

carbon atoms. Some examples up to ten carbon atoms include:
 Methane (CH₄)
 Ethane (C₂H₆)
 Propane (C₃H₈)
 Butane (C₄H₁₀)
 Pentane (C₅H₁₂)
 Hexane (C₆H₁₄)
 Heptane (C₇H₁₆)
 Octane (C₈H₁₈)
 Nonane (C₉H₂₀)
 Decane (C₁₀H₂₂)
11.3 Alkanes and Alkyl Groups
11.3.1 Straight-Chain Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂. The
first ten straight-chain alkanes are listed above.
11.3.2 Alkyl Groups
Alkyl groups are formed by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane.

They are named by replacing the -ane ending with -yl.
 Example: Methane (CH₄) becomes methyl (CH₃-)

11.4 Homologous Series and Isomerism
11.4.1 Homologous Series
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds with the same

functional group and similar chemical properties. Each member differs
from the next by a -CH₂- unit.
11.4.2 Isomerism
Isomerism occurs when two or more compounds have the same molecular
formula but different structural arrangements.
 Structural Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular

formula but different structural formulas.
o Chain Isomerism: Different arrangements of the carbon chain.
11.4.3 Chain Isomerism
Chain isomers have the same molecular formula but different branching
patterns.
11.4.4 Drawing Chain Isomers
You can draw chain isomers by rearranging the carbon atoms in the chain
while keeping the same number of carbon atoms.
11.5 Functional Groups
11.5.1 Functional Group
A functional group is a specific group of atoms within a molecule that is

responsible for its characteristic chemical reactions.
11.5.2 Classification of Organic Compounds Based on Functional

Groups
 Alkane: C-C single bonds

 Alkene: C=C double bond
 Alkyne: C≡C triple bond
 Alkyl Halide: C-X (X = halogen)
 Alcohol: -OH group
 Amine: -NH₂ group
 Ether: -O- group
 Aldehyde: -CHO group
 Ketone: -CO- group
 Carboxylic Acid: -COOH group
 Acid Amide: -CONH₂ group
 Ester: -COO- group
 Nitro Compound: -NO₂ group
11.5.3 Identifying Functional Groups
By examining the structural formula of a compound, you can identify the

functional group present. For example, a compound with a -COOH group is
a carboxylic acid.
11.5.4 Chemical Tests for Functional Groups
 Carboxylic Acids: React with carbonates to produce CO₂ gas.

 Phenols: React with ferric chloride to form colored complexes.
 Amines: React with nitrous acid to produce different products
depending on the type of amine.
 Aldehydes and Ketones: Undergo oxidation reactions with
oxidizing agents like Tollens' reagent and Fehling's solution.

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

11.1 Organic Compounds

11.1.1 General Characteristics of Organic Compounds

 Carbon Backbone: Organic compounds primarily consist of carbon

11.1.2 Diversity and Magnitude of Organic Compounds

The diversity of organic compounds is vast due to the ability of carbon

11.1.3 Sources of Organic Compounds

 Natural Sources: Organic compounds are found in living

11.1.4 Uses of Organic Compounds in Daily Life

 Food: Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are vital nutrients.

11.2 Classification of Organic Compounds

11.2.1 Acyclic and Cyclic Compounds

 Acyclic Compounds: These compounds have an open-chain

11.2.2 Straight-Chain Hydrocarbons

Straight-chain hydrocarbons are characterized by a linear arrangement of

11.3 Alkanes and Alkyl Groups

11.3.1 Straight-Chain Alkanes

11.3.2 Alkyl Groups

Alkyl groups are formed by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane.

 Example: Methane (CH₄) becomes methyl (CH₃-)

11.4.1 Homologous Series

A homologous series is a group of organic compounds with the same

 Structural Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular

11.4.3 Chain Isomerism

11.4.4 Drawing Chain Isomers

11.5 Functional Groups

11.5.1 Functional Group

A functional group is a specific group of atoms within a molecule that is

11.5.2 Classification of Organic Compounds Based on Functional

 Alkane: C-C single bonds

11.5.3 Identifying Functional Groups

By examining the structural formula of a compound, you can identify the

11.5.4 Chemical Tests for Functional Groups

 Carboxylic Acids: React with carbonates to produce CO₂ gas.

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