Let us remember the words and the concepts we have been using in the science course up to

now:
● Light: Light is a form of energy which gives the sensation of vision when it falls on
the retina of the eye.
● Ray of light: The straight line path along which light travels is called a ray of light.
Light rays start from each point of a source and travel along a straight line until they
strike an object or a surface separating two media.
● Beam of light: A group of rays of light is called a beam of light.
● Parallel beam of light: If all the rays of light in the group are parallel to each other
then the beam is said to be a parallel beam of light.
● Converging beam of light: If the rays of light in the group come closer to each other
i.e. converge to a point, then the beam is said to be a converging beam of light.
● Diverging beam of light: If the rays of light in the group move away from each other
i.e. diverge, then the beam is said to be a diverging beam of light.
● Transparent medium: A medium through which light can pass freely over a large
distance is called a transparent medium. Glass and still water are some examples of
transparent objects.
● Opaque medium: A medium through which light cannot pass is called an opaque
medium. Wood and metals are some examples of opaque objects.
● Real image: If the rays of light after reflection from a mirror actually meet at a point, i.
e. the reflected beam is a converging beam, then the image is said to be real image.
● Virtual image: If the rays of light after reflection from a mirror do not actually meet at
a point but meet on producing backwards i.e. the reflected beam is a diverging beam,
then the image is said to be a virtual image.

Introduction
Nature has endowed the human eye (retina) with the sensitivity to detect electromagnetic
waves within a small range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation
belonging to this region of the spectrum (wavelength of about 400 nm to 750 nm) is called
light. It is mainly through light and the sense of vision that we know and interpret the world
around us.
In order to see, we need light and normal eyes. When light from an object enters our eye we
see an object. But every object does not emit light then how do we see those objects?

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To find an answer to this we need to study what happens to light when it strikes a
surface.

Reflection of Light
When light falls on a surface, it partly bounces back, partly absorbed by the surface and
the remaining part is transmitted through the surface.
The phenomenon of bouncing back of light from the surface of a material is called
reflection of light.

Light from a source cannot be seen by us, as it travels from a source to the surface
which it illuminates. But its direction is given by rays.
The ray of light which strikes the surface is called incident ray.
The ray of light which bounces back /reflected from the surface is called reflected ray.

Point of incidence is the point on the surface where the ray strikes the surface.
A normal at the point of incidence is the perpendicular to the tangent drawn on the
surface at that point.

Regular and diffused reflection

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Example: - A ray of light strikes on a plane mirror, if the angle of incidence is i, what will be
the angle by which this ray of light will be deviated?
Solution: - It will be deviated by (180-2i) degree.

Reflection from Plane and Spherical Surfaces

We are familiar with the laws of reflection.
The angle of reflection (i.e., the angle between reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting
surface or the mirror) equals the angle of incidence (angle between incident ray and the
normal).
Also that the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.
These laws are valid at each point on any reflecting surface whether plane or curved.
However, we shall restrict our discussion to the special case of curved surfaces, that is,
spherical surfaces.
The normal in this case is to be taken as normal to the tangent to surface at the point of
incidence. That is, the normal is along the radius, the line joining the center of curvature of
the mirror to the point of incidence.

Reflection from a plane mirror: -

Commonly used looking mirrors are plane mirrors. These plane mirrors are pieces of glass
with a silver coating on their back.

Check the plane containing the incident ray normal and the reflected ray

Properties of image formed by plane mirror: -

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Similarly if we take a large glass hollow sphere whose surface is very smooth and we silver
its inner surface and cut a small portion of it. It will also reflect light following laws of
reflection of light. We will see that the characteristics of the image formed by these mirrors
will be different from those formed by the previous type of mirrors.
The mirrors formed are called spherical mirrors.

Thus a spherical mirror is a part of a hollow glass sphere whose one of the two surfaces
is polished.
If we choose to make a mirror from a sphere, we can have Spherical mirrors of two types.
● Concave mirror
● Convex mirror.
Concave mirror: - It is a part of a hollow glass sphere whose inner surface is polished.
The reflecting surface of concave mirror is on the hollow side.
Convex mirror: It is a part of a hollow glass sphere whose outer surface is polished.
The reflecting surface of the convex mirror is on the outer side of the sphere.

Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors

● Pole: - The geometrical center of the surface
of the mirror is called its pole. It is marked as
point (p) in the diagram.

● Centre of curvature: - It is the center of the

hollow sphere of which the mirror is a part. It
is marked as point (C) in the diagram.

● Radius of curvature: - It is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.

● Principal axis: - The line joining the pole and the center of curvature of the mirror is
called its principal axis.

● Aperture of a mirror:- The diameter of the circular cross section of the sphere, used to
form the spherical mirror is called its aperture

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The vertical plane passing through the focus point and perpendicular to the principal
axis is called the focal plane of the given spherical mirror.

Relation Between Radius Of Curvature And Focal Length:-

Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror. Consider a ray of light parallel to the principal
axis striking the mirror at M. CM is normal to the mirror at the point M. Let θ be the angle of
incidence. Let MD be drawn perpendicular from M on to the principal axis.
In the diagram, we have

∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = θ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2θ

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ = 𝐶𝐷
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛2θ = 𝐹𝐷

For small angles, tan θ is nearly equal to the ∠ θ itself,

(Provided angle is measured in radians)
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
θ= 𝐶𝐷
𝑎𝑛𝑑 2θ = 𝐹𝐷

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝐹𝐷
= 2 𝐶𝐷

Or DF = DC/2
For small angle θ, the point D is very close to the point P and we can take

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DF = PF and DC = PC
Thus, PF= PC/2
Or f = R/2
Or focal length is equal to half the radius of curvature
This relation is true for convex mirrors also; this can be proved in the same way using the ray
diagram given below.

For convex mirror

PF= F and PC = R
Let C be the centre of curvature of the given convex mirror. Consider a ray of light parallel
to principal axis striking the mirror at M. CM is normal to the mirror at the point M. Let θ be
the angle of incidence. Let MD be the perpendicular dropped from M onto the principal axis.
We have:

∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = θ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2θ

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ = 𝐶𝐷
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛2θ = 𝐹𝐷

For small angles, tan θ is nearly equal to angle θ

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
θ= 𝐶𝐷
𝑎𝑛𝑑 2θ = 𝐹𝐷

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝐹𝐷
= 2 𝐶𝐷

Or DF = DC/2
For small values of angle θ, the point D is very close to the point P
Thus PF= PC/2
Or f = R/2

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Image Formation by A Concave Mirror:-
Case 1:- When the object is placed at infinity

Position of the image: At focus

Nature of the image: real and inverted
Size of the image: highly diminished

18
Case 2: When the object is place beyond the centre of curvature

Position of the image: Between focus point and centre of curvature

Nature of the image: real and inverted
Size of the image: diminished

Case 3:- When the object is placed at the centre of curvature

Position of the image: at centre of curvature

Nature of the image: real and inverted
Size of the image: same size as the object

Case 4:- When the object is placed between the focus point and the centre of curvature:

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Position of the image: beyond centre of curvature
Nature of the image: real and inverted
Size of the image: enlarged

Case 5:- object is placed at focus point:

Position of the image: at infinity

Nature of the image: real and inverted
Size of the image: highly enlarged

Case 6:- When object is placed between the focus point and the pole of the mirror:

Position of the image: behind the mirror

Nature of the image: virtual and erect
Size of the image: enlarged

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These results have been summarised in the table below:
Position of the object Position of the image Nature and size of the
image
At infinity At focus Real, inverted and highly
diminished
Beyond centre of curvature Between focus and centre of Real, inverted and
curvature diminished
At centre of curvature At centre of curvature Real, inverted and of the
same size as the object
Between focus and centre of Beyond centre of curvature Real, inverted and enlarged
curvature
At focus At infinity Real, inverted and highly
enlarged
Between pole and focus Behind the mirror Virtual, erect and enlarged

Image formation by a convex mirror:-

Case 1:- When the object is placed at infinity

Position of image: at focus point

Nature of image: virtual and erect
Size of image: highly diminished

Case 2:- when object is placed between infinity and pole

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Position of image: between focus and pole
Nature of image: virtual and erect
Size of image: diminished

These results have been summarised in the table below:

Sign Conventions
● All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
● Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken to be positive.
● Distances measured in the direction opposite to the incident rays are taken to be
negative.
● All distances measured upwards with respect to the principal axis, are taken to be
positive.
● All distances measured downwards with respect to the axis are taken to be negative.

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The Cartesian Sign Convention
With a commonly accepted convention, it turns out that a single formula for spherical mirrors
and a single formula for spherical lenses can handle all different cases.

Example:
If one half of the reflecting surface of a concave mirror is covered with black paper, how
would the image of an object, placed in front of the mirror be affected?
Solution:
Now light will be reflected only from only half of the surface of the mirror, hence the
brightness of the image formed will be reduced to half its earlier value. However a complete
image will still be formed and there would be no change in position or nature of the image
formed.
(We have to remember that we would be now effectively having a mirror of half of the
aperture of the earlier mirror.)

Example:
How is the focal length of a concave mirror affected if it is placed in water?
Solution:
The focal length of the concave mirror will not change as the incident and the reflected light
would still be propagating in the same medium

Example:
Why is a concave mirror preferable to a plane mirror for shaving?

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Solution:
A concave mirror forms an erect and enlarged image when the object is placed between the
pole and the focus point of the mirror. A plane mirror, however, forms an image of the same
size as the object; hence a concave mirror can provide a better view during shaving.

Example:
Why is a convex mirror used as a rear view mirror in vehicles?
Solution:
The convex mirror is used as a rear view mirror because it gives a wider field of view of the
traffic behind the vehicle. This is because it forms a virtual, erect and diminished image of an
object, irrespective of the distance of the object.

Mirror Formula
The relation between object distance (u) the image distance (v), and the focal length (f)
of the mirror is called mirror formula.
Let us try to obtain this formula.
● Concave mirror
When image is real
Let us consider an object AB placed beyond the center of curvature of the mirror. (Using the
same method we can derive the formula for any other position of the object)
As shown in the ray diagram, a real, inverted and diminished image A’B’ is formed between
F and C of the mirror.
For a small aperture mirror point M will be Close to point M, thus MP will be a straight line.
Two right angled triangles A'B'F and MPF are similar triangles.

Therefore
' ' '
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐹
𝑃𝑀
= 𝐹𝑃

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As PM =AB
' ' '
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐹
So 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐹𝑃

Triangle A'B'P and triangle ABP are also similar triangles

' ' '
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑃
𝐴𝐵
= 𝐵𝑃
' ' ' ' ' '
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐹 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑃
Comparing equations 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐹𝑃
and, 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐵𝑃

We get
' '
𝐵𝐹 𝐵𝑃
𝐹𝑃
= 𝐵𝑃

As all distances are to be measured from pole, so

B'F = PB' – PF
Hence we write
(𝑃𝐵'−𝑃𝐹) = 𝑃𝐵
'

𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐵

Using sign conventions, we can write

PF= - f, PB = - u, PB’ = - v
Hence we get
(−𝑣+𝑓) −𝑣
−𝑓
= −𝑢

Or
𝑣 𝑓 𝑣
𝑓
− 𝑓
= 𝑢

Solving this we get

1 1 1
𝑣
+ 𝑢
= 𝑓

Magnification (m):-
Magnification is the ratio of size of the image to the size of the object i.e.

'
ℎ
M= ℎ
where h’ is the height of the image and h is height of the object.

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From the ray diagram, we get from similar triangles A’B’P and triangle ABP
' ' '
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐵
𝐴𝐵
= 𝑃𝐵

Using sign convention

'
−ℎ −𝑣
ℎ
=− −𝑢

NOTE: Magnification ‘m’ is negative if the image is real but positive when the image is
virtual.
● When image is virtual:-

Mirror formula can also be derived using this diagram. The steps to be followed are exactly
the same as given above. In fact, the same derivation can be used for this also.
● For convex mirror:-
The following ray diagram can be used for it. The derivation will remain the same.
Also using the sign convention, the formula, connecting u, v, and f, is again the same.

To find the values of image distance (v) for various values of (u) and to find the focal
length (f ) of a concave mirror-

Example:
An object, 4cm high is placed at a distance of 100 cm from a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 40cm. Find the nature, position and the size of the image.
Solution:

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Concave mirror
We have, here, as per sign convention
f = - 40/2 cm = -20cm
u = - 100 cm
v=?
Object size, h = 4 cm
Image size, ℎ' = ?

Using
1
𝑓
= ( ) +( ),
1
𝑢
1
𝑣

We get

( )= ( )+
1
−20
1
−100
1
𝑣

( ) = ( )– ( )
1
𝑣
1
100
1
20

= −( )= − ( )
4 1
100 25

v = - 25 cm
As v is negative so the image formed is a real and inverted image.

Also 𝑚=
ℎ‫י‬
ℎ
= – ( )
𝑣
𝑢

( )=
ℎ‫י‬
4
− ( −
25
−100 )
4
ℎ‫= י‬ − 4
𝑐𝑚 = − 1𝑐𝑚

As ℎ‫ י‬is negative so the image is formed below the principal axis, thus the image is inverted
Example:
Find the positions of the object, placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm, in
order to get an image three times in height as compared to the height of the object.
Solution:
In the case of concave mirrors, magnified images could be real or virtual.
Case 1: Real image
Here m = -3 f = −10 cm

use 𝑚 = − ( ) 𝑣
𝑢

− 3= − ( ) 𝑣
𝑢

𝑣 = 3𝑢

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1
𝑓 ( )+ ( )
=
1
𝑢
1
𝑣

( )= +
1
−10
1
𝑢
1
3𝑢

4
= 3𝑢

40
𝑢 = − 3𝑐𝑚
= − 13. 3𝑐𝑚

Case 2: virtual image

m = + 3, f = −10 cm

3 = − ( ) 𝑣
𝑢

𝑣 = − 3𝑢
1
𝑓
= ( )+ ( )
1
𝑢
1
𝑣

( )= 1
−10
1
𝑢
+ (− ) 1
3𝑢

2
= 3𝑢

20
𝑢 = − 3
𝑐𝑚 = − 6. 67𝑐𝑚

Example:
A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Find the
location and magnification of the image. Describe what happens as the needle is moved
farther from the mirror.
Solution:
Given h = 4.5 cm u = - 12 cm f = +15 cm

Using
1
𝑓
= ( )+ ( )
1
𝑢
1
𝑣

1
15
= ( )+ 1
−12
1
𝑣

1 1 1 9
𝑣
= 15
+ 12
= 60

3
= 20

20
𝑉 = 3
𝑐𝑚

Also, 𝑚 = − ( ) 𝑣
𝑢
20
5
= − 3
−12
= 9

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