A TECHNICAL REPORT

ON

STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME

AT

NIGERIAN NAVY COLLEGE OF ACCOUNT AND FINANCE

BY
ADAH, FAVOUR TABI
16/186145001

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR,
CALABAR.

FROM
AUGUST, 2023-JANUARY, 2024

IN PARTIAL FULILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (B.ENG)

February, 2024

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 CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that Adah, Favour Tabi with Registration Number: 16/186145001 of
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University
of Calabar, Calabar. Did his Industrial Training at Nigerian Navy College of Account

and Finance, Owerrinta, Abia State.

Adah, Favour Tabi ………………………

(Student) Signature/Date

Engr. Raymond Rowland Ana ………………………

(Head of Department) Signature/Date

Dr. Imo M. Obot (Rev. Father) ………………………

(SIWES Coordinator) Signature/Date

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 DEDICATION
The SIWES report is dedicated to God Almighty

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am most grateful to God for His wisdom and guidance throughout my SIWES program.
To the ITF (Industrial Training Funds), the Management, the department for giving me this
opportunity to partake in this program. I gained a lot of knowledge during this period and I
am happy for that. May God Almighty continue to bless you all.
To my sponsors that God Almighty strengthen you all.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
CHAPTER ONE: NTRODUCTION
1.1 About Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme 1
CHAPTER TWO: ABOUT CCTV
2.1 CCTV System Design 2
2.2 Defining System Requirements 3
2.3 CCTV System Design Considerations 5
CHAPTER THREE: WORK EXPERIENCE
3.1 Components of CCTV Systems 13
3.2 Cameras 14
3.3 Lenses 20
CHAPTER FOUR: CONTROL OF EQUIPMENT
4.1 Transmission 23
4.2 Wired Transmission 23
4.3 Conclusion 25
4.4 Recommendation 25

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 ABOUT STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME
(SIWES)
SIWES was established by ITF (Industrial Training Funds) in the year 1973 to solve the
problem of lack of adequate proper skills for employment of tertiary institution graduates by
Nigerian Industries. The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was
founded to be a skill training programme to help expose and prepare students of universities,
polytechnics and colleges of education for the industrial work situation to be met after
graduation. This scheme serves as a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of
work and further helps in the application of knowledge. The scheme provides students with
the opportunity of acquainting and exposing themselves to the experience required in
handling and managing of equipment and machinery that are usually not made available in
their institutions.
1.1.1 Objectives of SIWES
1. Provides the avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to gain industrial
skills and experiences in their course of study.
2. Prepare the students for the industrial work situation they’re likely to meet after
graduation.
3. Expose students to work method and techniques in handling equipment and
machinery that may not be available in their institutions.
4. Provides students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in actual work
situations, bridging the gap between theory and practice.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.1 CCTV SYSTEM DESIGN
CCTV systems provide surveillance capabilities used in the protection of people, assets, and
systems. A CCTV system serves mainly as a security force multiplier, providing surveillance
for a larger area, more of the time, than would be feasible with security personnel alone.
CCTV systems are often used to support comprehensive security systems by incorporating
video coverage and security alarms for barriers, intrusion detection, and access control. For
example, a CCTV system can provide the means to assess an alarm generated by an intrusion
detection system and record the event.
A CCTV system links a camera to a video monitor using a direct transmission system. This
differs from broadcast television where the signal is transmitted over the air and viewed with
a television. New approaches within the CCTV industry are moving towards more open
architecture and transmission methods versus the closed circuit, hard-wired connection
systems of the past.
CCTV systems have many components with a variety of functions, features, and
specifications. Key components include cameras, lenses, data distribution, power, and
lighting, among others. CCTV technologies continuously undergo feature refinements to
improve performance in areas such as digital equipment options, data storage, component
miniaturization, wireless communications, and automated image analysis.
The components, configuration options, and features available in today’s CCTV market
create a complex set of purchasing options. It is the intent of this handbook to provide
information on the capabilities and limitations of CCTV components that will aid an agency
procuring a new CCTV system or upgrading an existing one.
Following a sound design process enables organizations to make purchasing decisions that
result in the procurement and installation of a CCTV system that meets functional and
operational requirements. As CCTV is part of a multi-layered security approach, a system
design should begin with a comprehensive needs assessment to ensure security risks and
mitigation plans are identified. Clear requirements, a comprehensive site survey, and proper
equipment selection and installation must all be considered when designing a CCTV system.
2.2 Defining System Requirements
In order for an organization to properly implement a CCTV system, site-specific
characteristics need to be assessed by a knowledgeable multidisciplinary team of personnel.
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This team is critical to identifying key functional and operational requirements. Functional
requirements consist of determining the area of surveillance, such as a perimeter area or an
access point. Operational requirements define what information a CCTV system will be
expected to provide given the existing operating conditions.
2.2.1 Multidisciplinary System Design Team
Organizations should begin by establishing a team of people with relevant knowledge to help
guide the CCTV system design process. The system design team should be involved in all
phases of the project to include: needs assessment, requirements development, system design
and layout, procurement, installation, and final check-out of the system. Personnel should be
included from varied internal disciplines such as security, facility maintenance and
management, and those who work directly with assets on-site or in controlled monitoring
environments. The team may opt to consult with external subject matter experts, such as
electricians, systems engineers, and information technology (IT) professionals.
2.2.2 Needs Assessment
A thorough risk and needs assessment should be conducted to identify locations or assets that
will benefit from CCTV surveillance as part of an overall security approach. Organizations
can enhance the security of facilities and critical infrastructure most effectively by defining
their overall goals and objectives for CCTV systems in terms of the requirements within their
operational environment.
A needs assessment gathers and analyzes four sets of requirements: functional, operational,
infrastructure, and video retention.
1. Functional requirements: Define camera coverage needs such as surveillance of
perimeters, parking lots, and storage areas; surveillance of approaches to, and spaces
within, buildings or other structures; and surveillance of waterfronts;
2. Operational requirements: Define the capabilities of the CCTV system components that
will enable it to provide the expected information under all operating conditions.
Conditions to consider in the operational environments include day and night operations,
lighting, weather conditions, and temperature changes. It is important that operational
requirements are detailed and testable. For example, water front surveillance may demand
that the CCTV system provide a recognizable image, during day or night, of any type of
surface watercraft operating at speeds between 0 and 60knots in wave heights of up to 6
feet while within 500 yards of a pier;

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3. Infrastructure requirements: Define needs for installing or accessing fiber orhard-wire
cables, wireless networks, and power sources, to name a few, necessary to successfully
implement an integrated CCTV system; and
4. Video retention requirements: Define the organization’s video retention and storage
needs.
2.2.3 CCTV Site Survey
A CCTV system’s effectiveness can be enhanced when integrated with access control,
intrusion detection, or duress systems. Successful integration requires a comprehensive site
survey which supports the development of detailed equipment specifications, installation
design, and ultimately a thorough system test.
A site survey should address all aspects of specifying and building a CCTV system and it is
an integral part of defining the requirements for discrete tasks and the role of each piece of
equipment. Whenever possible, CCTV systems should be included in the planning and design
stage of any new asset to ensure all necessary infrastructure requirements are adequately
incorporated into the overall facility or asset design.
The result of a comprehensive survey of the area in which a CCTV system is to be installed
or upgraded provides input to the requirements and design process. Considerations inherent
in a site survey include the number of operators, local and remote operator consoles, layout,
light levels, camera and lens selection and location, and power and data transmission.

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Fig. 2.1. Picture of Survey.
2.2.4 System Layout Considerations
A key input to the design and specification of the layout of an outdoor CCTV system is the
site survey team’s collection and analysis of aerial photographs. Images can be obtained from
a wide variety of sources such as satellite photographs, local government files, privately
contracted aerial photography services, and a host of free web-based mapping applications.
Aerial photographs can provide information regarding on-site distances and blind areas where
outdoor video coverage may be needed. Additionally, aerial photographs and detailed maps
can be used during the design of the system to overlay alarm and video information useful for
planning the dispatch routes of response personnel.
Interior surveys are similar to exterior surveys. Aerial photographs can be replaced with
scaled computer aided drawings or blueprints of the facility being surveyed. These can be
used to mark potential camera site locations to identify the necessary coverage of access
points, critical assets, and desired fields of view. A camcorder is often used to determine
camera positions and evaluate video images from proposed camera locations.
An important factor in the design and layout of a CCTV system is the location of its
transmission hubs. Transmission routes channeled through a primary transmission hub could

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lead to a single point of failure in which an outage of one transmitter could disable the
transmission of data from other camera sites.
2.3 CCTV System Design Considerations
System design considerations include factors such as lighting, power, transmission, and cost.
These factors are important in the design and layout of a CCTV system. In addition to these
factors, camera types, lenses, monitors, multiplexers, and other components are also
important considerations, and are discussed in Section 3.
Selection of the CCTV components is an iterative process that takes place in conjunction with
the design phase. Section 3 contains more details on common component features and
specifications that should be considered when selecting equipment for a CCTV system.
2.3.1 Lighting
Lighting strategies, camera selection, and camera location should be considered together in
the design of a CCTV system to ensure optimum performance and to prevent operational
environment conflicts. Light (or illumination) levels, both natural and artificial, affect system
requirements at different times of the day for exterior systems. Exterior cameras often require
lenses with automatic apertures to compensate for changes in light levels. Interior cameras
may require internal software to compensate for backlight, which is the contrast between low
interior light levels and high exterior daytime light levels. For example, backlight
compensation allows security personnel to see details of a person moving in front of a
brightly lit window. Artificial lighting can affect the appearance of the image as well as the
operation of the CCTV system.
Types of artificial lights include:
1. Fluorescent: Primarily used for indoor areas in the United States, these lights produce a
60-hertz (Hz) flicker that can interfere with image quality;
2. Incandescent: Include halogen bulbs and are used to illuminate large outdoor areas.
Incandescent lights consume more power than other lighting types and are generally the
most expensive to operate;
3. High-intensity discharge (HID): Include high- and low-pressure sodium and metal-
halide lighting and are the least expensive to operate. Low-pressure sodium lights
produce a yellow light that may distort true color reproduction on video. Metal-halide
lights provide the best color resolution. These types of lights require a few minutes to
reach their full luminance once turned on;

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4. Infrared (IR): Emit light at a much longer wavelength than white lights, and are faintly
visible to the human eye as a red glow or they are not visible at all. IR lighting provides a
longer illumination range than white light and can be used for discrete or covert CCTV
system illumination. IR light can be provided by light emitting diodes(LEDs) and lasers
as well as filters on incandescent bulbs; and
5. LED: Provide high levels of brightness and intensity. These lights are highly efficient,
and generate low levels of radiated heat. As such, they are increasingly used in CCTV
systems.
2.3.2 Power Distribution
A number of considerations must be taken into account when designing the power
distribution system. Therefore, it is prudent to consult licensed engineers and electricians in
the design and installation of a CCTV power distribution system.
Inadequate power is one of the most common problems with CCTV equipment and
can often be the cause of erratic or sporadic equipment behavior. Proper system performance
requires a clean, adequate power source. For example, it is possible for power to fluctuate
considerably on hot days when air conditioning units overload power grids. Therefore,
agencies should plan accordingly and specify power conditioning or backups as needed. The
stability of the input power to CCTV equipment can be determined by taking several readings
of the voltage and current levels over a short time period, or by using a voltage recorder for
long-term monitoring.
An inadequate power system can affect the quality of the video across the entire system.
Placement of power components is an important design consideration. Placing low-voltage
power components near high-voltage lines can induce currents in the low-voltage system,
presenting a hazard to personnel and equipment. Alternatively, placing a power source too far
away can cause power fluctuations and also drive the installation costs up due to the larger
conductor sizes needed to reduce voltage drop over long distances. Therefore, it is advisable
to locate power sources close to CCTV equipment. In addition, uninterruptible power
supplies (UPSs) are beneficial in protecting equipment and conditioning the power. Since
there are many types of UPS products on the market, it is important to find models
appropriate to the application. Determinations about backup power requirements during a
power interruption are also important. For example, some CCTV systems may have
designated primary cameras focused on critical access points with a need for longer term
backup power than secondary cameras such as those within internal corridors.

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Voltage spikes and lightning are common phenomena affecting CCTV systems. Lightning, a
common cause of voltage spikes, may cause failures and disable major pieces of equipment
in buildings. When designing a system, all pieces of electronic equipment should have
sufficient lightning suppression to help reduce damage and failures. Ground loop correctors
help prevent voltage differentials between two or more installations or pieces of equipment
powered by separate power sources (i.e., the ground loop corrector puts the separate pieces of
equipment at the same ground potential).
Components of a CCTV system should ideally have an internal regulated power
supply; however, this feature is often eliminated to reduce cost. This is particularly likely
with low cost cameras. There are power supplies available that distribute individually fused
and regulated feeds for each camera from a central location.
2.3.3 Video Transmission
Selecting the appropriate video transmission media, such as coaxial cable or unshielded
twisted pair (UTP), is one of the most important aspects of designing a quality CCTV system.
A system may include the highest quality hardware components available, but if the video
signal is not transmitted by the proper media, overall performance could be degraded. Many
common problems with video image quality can be avoided by selecting the appropriate
transmission media and following proper installation techniques and procedures.
As CCTV technology has evolved, video transmission has progressed from analog to digital
transmission. New cameras with Internet protocol (IP) capability transmit compressed video
as digital data. A drawback of IP transmissions is that video places a high demand on a
network’s bandwidth, and the tradeoff may be image quality. One potential solution for this
issue is to separate the video stream from the primary network. Section 4 provides a more
detailed discussion on video transmission and IP-based CCTV systems.
2.3.4 Scalability
Scalability of CCTV systems refers to the ability of the system to accommodate additional
components such as cameras, increased video storage, and additional monitors. Large
facilities often implement CCTV systems in stages due to budget limitations or in order to
verify system performance. The ability to easily incorporate hardware and software updates
should be a consideration of a CCTV system design.
2.3.5 Cost
Cost estimates for a CCTV system should cover all aspects of the system’s life cycle
including planning, design, installation, operation, maintenance, and personnel costs. In

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addition, long-term personnel costs, such as initial and refresher training programs should be
included. Hardware and software upgrades should also be a cost consideration.
Using existing CCTV infrastructure such as cameras, camera mounts, and cable runs may
reduce costs. However, as the capabilities of cameras and information handling components
of CCTV advance, replacing old equipment and infrastructure may improve system
performance and be a more cost-effective solution.
2.3.6 Infrastructure
Each camera deployed in a CCTV system requires power and the means to transmit video
data to monitoring and storage systems. These requirements can necessitate modifications to
a facility’s infrastructure, such as installing new poles for mounting cameras. When planning
a CCTV installation, there are four important considerations:
1)To what extent can the system use existing infrastructure?
2)To what extent can the new CCTV system integrate with existing enterprise systems?
3)To what extent can the new CCTV system integrate with or complement other existing or
planned intrusion detection and access control systems?
4)To what extent can the new system operate in parallel with existing systems and which
system will influence operational procedures and response?
Employing existing infrastructure is an important factor in controlling equipment and
installation costs. For example, old coaxial cable systems can be converted to IP systems by
running Ethernet over coaxial cable with a converter module. Analog video and Ethernet can
also be run over telephone lines.
The extent to which a CCTV system integrates with the overall security program will be a
major factor in its effectiveness. Any new installation should operate in parallel with existing
systems until the new system is accepted and the old system upgraded or phased out.
2.3.7 Reliability and Maintainability
Predicting the reliability and maintainability of a new CCTV system is difficult without a
demonstration period. Primary reliability and maintainability considerations include whether
the new system will be able to perform the required functions over time and to what degree
personnel can operate, maintain, and upgrade the system. Several techniques may be used to
improve user confidence in a new installation, including:
Conferring with security and management personnel at other facilities that have implemented
similar systems or used the same vendor;

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 Requesting competing vendors to run trial programs on-site or bench test equipment
prior to installation; and
Installing new equipment on a small scale in order to verify that performance meets
the organization’s needs.
Vendor warranty terms may require that all technicians working on equipment be certified.
Some vendors may require a maintenance contract to ensure they have staff available to
respond within a specific period of time. The support requirements should be understood
prior to purchase and installation of equipment. See Section 9 for more details on vendor
selection considerations.
2.3.8 Annunciation, Assessment, and Response
The role of many CCTV systems in a comprehensive security program is to aid security
personnel. For instance, when a security alarm occurs at a location not currently displayed on
a monitor; the system can alert the operator by automatically switching the display to the
location of the security alarm. The operator can then assess the security alarm visually and
dispatch appropriate response forces.
2.2.9 Requirements and Design Worksheets
Table 2.1 lists basic questions to determine high level CCTV system requirements and to
influence the system design.

Table 2-1. CCTV System Design Worksheet

S/N Basic Questions for Addressing CCTV System Requirements
1 What areas require coverage by the CCTV system?
2 What are the highest value assets that need to be protected? For example:
High-value material property;
Critical infrastructure;
Intellectual property; and/or
Classified material or intelligence information.
3 Where are the sites of greatest vulnerability?

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 4 Does the information technology infrastructure adequately support the number of
cameras?
5 Will the system integrate with an existing physical security system?
6 Will the system integrate with an existing electronic access control system?
7 Does the security budget cover regular maintenance, training, and upgrades to the
system?
8 Does the system’s installer/vendor provide adequate training to operate the system?

A sample checklist containing some of the factors to consider during a site survey is provided
in Table 2.2. This checklist can be used by the design team to record the number and type of
cameras, monitors, and housings as well as address connectivity requirements.

Table 2.2. Sample Site Survey Checklist

Operational Environment Housings

Indoor Dome
Output Weather-Resistant
Tamper-Resistant
Other(e.g., Specialized Housings)
Exposure to:
Water Mounts
Corrosives Wall Ceiling
Explosives Pole Corner
Fire Fences Building Exterior

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Extreme Temperature Display/Monitors

Location of Cameras Size

Access Point: Doors/Gates Split-Screen Displays

Building Exterior Multi-Screen Displays
High-Security Interior Areas Video Walls
High-Security Exterior Zones Recorders
Hallways/Corridors Digital Video Recorders (DVRs)
Parking Lot Network Video Recorders (NVRs)
Perimeter Hybrid DVRs
Other Transmission
Light Levels Wired
Day Night Coaxial Twisted Pair
Lens Fiber Optics Telephone
Wide Angle Category 5
Normal Wireless
Telephoto Laser
Zoom Infrared
Camera Power Radio Frequency
12 Volts Direct Current (DC) Microwave
24 Volts DC IP-Based
120 Volts Alternating Current (AC) Internet Protocol (IP)-Based
Cameras Network Storage
Indoor Direct Attached Storage (DAS)
Fixed Pan-Tilt-Zoom Storage Area Network(SAN)
Outdoor Network Attached Storage (NAS)
Fixed Pan-Tilt-Zoom Other
*Total Number of Cameras

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 CHAPTER THREE
3.1 COMPONENTS OF CCTV SYSTEMS
CCTV uses components that are directly connected to generate, transmit, display, and store
video data. A CCTV system can be as simple as a camera purchased from a retail electronics
store connected to a video monitor. However, larger systems operated by professional
security personnel are comprised of a number of components falling into several basic
categories:
 Cameras;
 Lenses;
 Housings and mounts;
 Monitors;
 Switchers and multiplexers; and

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 Video recorders.
Many features exist within each of these categories that can satisfy an agency’s
operational requirements in the most challenging environments. The most complex CCTV
systems may incorporate hundreds of cameras and sensors integrated into one overall security
network. Figure 3-1 provides a CCTV component diagram example.

Figure 3.1. CCTV Component Diagram Example.

Most new CCTV systems maximize the advantages of digital technologies by utilizing
electronic databases, compact components, and wireless transmission techniques. With larger
quantities of data being collected, it is essential that the system be capable of retaining data in
accordance with the organization’s policies and procedures.
3.2 Cameras
Cameras are an essential component of any CCTV system. Matching the right CCTV
camera to a particular application is increasingly complex due to rapid technological
developments and a greater range of applications. A system’s performance is affected by
many factors beyond those listed in the vendor data sheets. Effective camera selection
requires detailed knowledge of the camera, application, supporting architecture, and host
environment.
All CCTV cameras include three basic elements:
 Image sensor–Converts light (photons) into electronic signals;
 Lens–Gathers light reflected from a subject and focuses the light on the image sensor;
and

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 Image processing circuitry–Organizes, optimizes, and transmits video signals.
The type of camera best suited for a CCTV system depends on the operational environment
and how it will integrate into the system. The answers to the following questions may help
determine the best camera type:
 What is the desired image quality?
 What size is the desired field of view (FOV)?
 How much lighting is available?
 Will the camera be installed indoors or outdoors?
 Will the video be monitored on a full time basis?
 How will the video be transmitted?
 Will the camera be exposed to extreme conditions?
There are many types of cameras designed to perform under specific environmental
conditions but cameras can be grouped into two primary categories: fixed and pan-tilt-zoom
(PTZ). Fixed cameras are intended to constantly view a single scene, while PTZ cameras are
motor driven and can pan left or right, tilt up or down, and zoom in or out to instantly
customize the view as needed. A combination of fixed and PTZ cameras are often used to
provide the required surveillance coverage.
3.2.1 Fixed Cameras
Fixed cameras are mounted in a stationary position and are focused on a single FOV,
typically one particular area of interest. These cameras can be used indoors or outdoors and
can be installed overtly or covertly. Fixed cameras vary in size and can be mounted in a wide
range of locations (e.g., inside cabinets or control panels, or on poles, fence lines, or roofs).
Fixed cameras can be integrated with an electronic security system (ESS) and used to assess
ESS alarms. For example, a fixed camera can surveil a secured gate but only record data
when the gate opens, triggering an alarm. Fixed cameras are usually less expensive than PTZ
cameras and require less maintenance as they have fewer moving parts.
3.2.2 PTZ Cameras
PTZ cameras come in a variety of sizes and shapes for interior and exterior uses.
Typically, a PTZ camera can be turned and tilted on two axes to provide pan and tilt
capabilities and the focal length of the lens can be varied to change the FOV. This enables
PTZ cameras to offer more flexibility for viewing and capturing images in real time than
fixed cameras. PTZ cameras can be operated manually or in an automatic scan mode, thus
capturing the most relevant video possible.

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In manual mode, the operator can control the direction of the camera depending on situational
needs and zoom in on an object (e.g., a suspicious bag, a person’s facial features, or a license
plate) to capture specific details of interest.
PTZ cameras can also be configured to automatically scan back and forth over a wide area
that cannot be covered by a single fixed camera. Preset positions can be programmed to
switch views based upon specified time segments. For example, a PTZ camera could be
programmed to change its view every 10 seconds to capture different areas of interest within
the camera’s overall surveillance area.
3.2.3 Connectivity Type
CCTV cameras may employ one of two types of data transmission:
 Network Cameras–Network cameras connect to IP-based networks, including the
Internet, and provide remote viewing and recording. Network cameras are also available
in high definition (HD) which can provide greater image detail.
 Analog Cameras–Despite increasing use of digital network cameras, a market for
analog cameras still exists. This may be due to the cost involved in upgrading and
converting to a new transmission process. Analog cameras have options for high
resolution, making them applicable for various surveillance needs. These cameras also
have some cyber security advantages because the coaxial cable they are connected with
would require physical access to breach.
3.2.4 Day/Night Cameras
Day/night cameras offer flexibility by automatically adjusting to current lighting
conditions. These cameras capture color images in daylight and switch to black-and-white to
improve image quality at night. The camera relies on an analysis of the current image or a
photoelectric sensor to determine when to automatically remove the infrared-cut filter and
switch to monochrome settings.
3.2.5 Low-Light or Night Vision Cameras
Cameras used to capture images in dark environments are either low-light or night vision
cameras.
Low-light cameras are designed to perform in some level of ambient lighting, such as indoor
restaurant lighting, street lamps, or a full moon; they are not intended for use in complete
darkness.
Night vision cameras used in CCTV systems typically consist of near-infrared (NIR) and IR
cameras with built-in IR illuminators. They are designed to allow the operator to view night
scenes. The distance from which a CCTV camera can detect objects at night depends on the
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capability of the camera components, such as the lens and sensor, as well as on the intensity
of the IR illuminator used. The IR light emitted from these illuminators can be at wavelengths
that are invisible to the human eye.
The primary determinant for whether a camera transmits an image in color or monochrome
(varying tones of a single color) is the camera’s image sensor. Monochrome cameras record
images using light in NIR wavelengths outside the range of human perception (i.e.,
spectroscopic) while the image sensor of a color camera uses filters on the individual light
sensitive elements of the image sensor to limit that element to specific color wavelengths.
These filters allow the sensor to detect and transmit color in addition to light intensity, which
is what an unfiltered, monochrome sensor would detect.
Color cameras are used in daylight and well-lit night situations. There are many applications
in which accurate reproduction of color is important. Color reference charts provide an
accurate color source for the selection/evaluation of cameras and optics. CCTV installers and
technicians often use a color reference chart to assess the colors in an image. In addition,
waveform generators and vector scopes are also used to measure system performance. It is
important to remember that video monitor color reproduction is also critical.
Monochrome cameras can capture images at night or in near-dark conditions that have more
detail than the human eye can perceive. However, images captured with a monochrome
camera during the day may lack some contrast and detail because the image is formed from
visible and infrared light, which have different planes of focus. Monochrome image sensors
are made mostly of silicon and germanium material and have two different spectral
responses. This allows the image sensors to perform well in the infrared light region.
3.2.6 Thermal Imaging Cameras
Some operational environments may require a thermal imaging camera to detect through
obstructions such as fog or smoke. Thermal imaging cameras detect infrared or heat radiation
that is invisible to the human eye. Currently these cameras are sensitive to a temperature
difference of one tenth of a degree Fahrenheit. Thermal imagers cannot detect through glass
or water, but can provide an image through limited density fog or smoke.
Many thermal imaging cameras have built-in image processing to create images with
improved contrast. This provides better feature definition and sharper, clearer images.
Thermal cameras are often mounted in gyro-stabilized, pan-and-tilt devices as well as on
boats and helicopters for night surveillance in poorly lit areas. They are also available as
small handheld units with built-in displays, which can be used in safety, security, and
emergency responder applications. The image sensors in thermal cameras can degrade, so it
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is important to consult with the camera manufacturer to determine performance
characteristics over time and to budget for the cost of periodic maintenance and replacement.
3.2.7 Miniature or Covert Cameras
Special applications may exist that require the installation of small, hidden cameras as
part of a CCTV system. These cameras are not usually weather resistant, so they may require
an external housing if they are to be used outdoors. These cameras are typically battery
operated and may use built-in transmitters to provide a compact wireless solution.
Organizations can choose from many types of miniature and covert cameras depending on
their requirements.
3.2.8 Optional Camera Features
CCTV cameras can include a variety of optional features to meet the specific needs of the
operational environment. Some of these common features are described below.
1. Auto Scan: Some PTZ cameras can be programmed to perform automated functions.
Auto scan is the term used to describe a constant cycle of sweeping through the
surveillance area.
2. Preset: A preset is a programmed orientation and lens setting, which a PTZ camera
moves to either periodically or when a certain type of event occurs. For example,
during an intrusion alarm, a camera can be preset to display the high-value assets in
the surveillance area or to focus on the access point where the alarm was triggered.
3. Privacy Masking: A camera with privacy masking capability can selectively block
portions of the video image for the purpose of protecting privacy. For example, PTZ
cameras may be used to monitor a parking lot adjacent to an apartment building with
the images of the windows in the building masked. This is a feature of the system
configuration (software or hardware) and can be complex and costly.
4. Slip Ring: A slip ring is an electrical connection that allows a PTZ camera to turn
without twisting the signal/control cable. Slip rings can use light beams to optically
transmit the image, or use a sliding brush contact on a base ring to create an electrical
path. Slip rings tend to be sensitive to contamination and temperature changes.
5. Motion Detection: Cameras can be equipped with built-in motion detection features,
which can be programmed to trigger an alarm if motion occurs within the FOV. The
alarm can be programmed to trigger recording, alert an operator, or both. Motion
detection features can also result in nuisance alarms if the environment has natural
movement.

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 6. Backlight Compensation (BLC): Some cameras have built-in BLC settings. BLC
can compensate for the high contrast of images with a bright background and enhance
the image detail accordingly. For example, BLC allows security personnel to see
details of a person moving in front of a brightly lit window.
7. Digital Noise Reduction (DNR): This feature is common for cameras intended to
capture images in low-light or dark environments. DNR removes the noise (grainy
appearance displayed as spots known as “raster”) from the video image. This makes
the image clearer, brighter, and easier to interpret. Less digital noise can also reduce
storage space requirements since there is less extraneous information in the video.
8. Mobile Compatibility: This application enables remote viewing of video on mobile
devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Some remote viewing methods
require special camera software or hardware while other methods and applications can
be configured to connect directly with a camera and do not require a personal
computer (PC).
3.2.9 Types of Image Sensors
CCTV cameras commonly use charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal
oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor technology. The smallest part of an image
produced on a solid-state chip is the picture element, or pixel. Regardless of the sensor type,
pixels are engineered in number, size, and filtration to provide different resolutions, light
sensitivity, and spectral responses.
3.2.9.1 Charge-Coupled Device Sensors
Cameras that use CCD image sensors entered the CCTV industry in the mid-1980s and now
dominate the market for daylight and low-light, or NIR cameras. CCD technology has many
advantages over the tubes used in the earliest video cameras. CCD image sensors are smaller,
generate less heat, and their captured images are less susceptible to “blooming.” Blooming
occurs when the image sensor is overwhelmed by a high-intensity light source in the FOV
and eliminates details in other parts of the image. The life expectancy of a CCD camera
ranges from 5 to 25 years.
CCDs consist of a three-dimensional array of pixels, each of which generates an electrical
signal proportional to the quantity of light it receives. This analog electrical signal is
transferred to another chip where it is converted to digital information. This digital
information is processed within the camera and then transmitted to other components of the
CCTV system. Some cameras convert the processed signal to analog video prior to
transmission.
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The surface of the type of CCD used in CCTV cameras resembles an aerial view of a very
orderly city. Each of the rooftops represents a light-sensitive element, while the streets
represent the electronic timing and control circuits. The proportion of the rooftops (sensor
elements) to the streets (circuits) determines the sensitivity to light and the resolution of the
CCD. A greater area devoted to sensor elements results in a camera with high sensitivity and
finer resolution. Smaller proportions result in lower sensitivity and a more coarse resolution.
In addition, some manufacturers offer CCDs with a lens capability for sensor elements to
gather more light and increase sensitivity.
Although CCDs are sensitive to visible light, they are also sensitive to NIR light. A
sensor’s spectral response is a function of the chemistry of some components and can be
further manipulated with filtering technologies. Filters designed to reduce or eliminate IR
light, known as “infrared-cut filters,” can be used in front of the sensors to improve a color
camera’s image (see Section 3.6.2.8 for a more detailed discussion on filters). Monochrome
cameras do not have such filters because they are intended for use near the IR spectrum.
During the day, monochrome cameras form an image using both visible and NIR light;
therefore, the daytime image may lack some clarity compared to nighttime images.
In order to increase the resolution, some cameras use three CCDs. In this configuration, a
prism splits the white light passing through the lens into red, green, and blue. Then, three
monochrome CCDs, each filtered to receive one color, calculate and combine the vector
output to create a high-resolution image. The same principles can be applied to cameras
utilizing three CMOS sensors.
3.2.9.2 CMOS Sensors
Applications requiring high-quality images tend to rely on CCD sensors, but CMOS sensors
are commonly used in applications such as network cameras, PC peripherals, and
smartphones. This is a result of CMOS sensors using less power than CCDs and being less
expensive to manufacture.
Unlike CCD sensors, CMOS sensors address each pixel individually. They process the charge
from each pixel on the sensor and transmit a digital bit of information. This technique reduces
the need for additional processing along the transmission pathway. CMOS sensors use less
power than CCDs because a larger area of the chip is devoted to processing circuits.
3.3 Lenses
The lens on a CCTV camera is the first element in the imaging chain, which consists of the
lens, camera, transmission system, image management and analysis software, and monitor.
The lens focuses light or IR energy onto the imaging sensor. A lens’s role is to deliver an
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undistorted, evenly focused, accurate image to the imaging sensor. Systems that require
superior quality images start with lenses engineered to produce a high-quality image for the
imaging sensor. Other components of the imaging chain cannot compensate for an inferior
lens.

Figure 3.2. Representative CCTV Lens

Variables to consider when selecting a lens include the distance required to clearly focus on
objects, FOV, size of the camera’s image sensor, and lighting conditions. Lenses are
identified by their focal length, usually stated in millimeters; largest aperture, usually stated
as an f-number; and the size of the image sensor for which it was designed.
3.3.1 Types of Lenses
Lenses are available in three basic types: fixed focal length, varifocal (variable focal
length), and zoom. The focal length of a lens is the distance between the optical center of the
lens and the image plane. The lens focal length and the image sensor size determine the
camera’s FOV.

3.3.1.1 Fixed Focal Length Lenses

Fixed focal length lenses are built with one set, unchangeable, focal length. Such lenses are
useful in situations where the camera remains in a fixed position and the requirements to
observe an area do not change.
3.3.1.2 Varifocal Lenses
The focal length of varifocal lenses can be changed within a specific range; however, each
change must be accomplished by hand at the camera. In addition, each time the focal length is
changed, the iris and focus may also need adjustment. Varifocal lenses offer the flexibility of

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varying the scene content and are relatively inexpensive when compared to conventional
zoom lenses. Once the focal length and iris are set, the camera will maintain the FOV.
Varifocal lenses are identified by the focal length range, aperture range, and size of the image
sensor the lens is designed for.
3.3.1.3 Zoom Lenses
Unlike the varifocal lens, the zoom lens is designed to maintain the focus setting throughout
the focal length range. Zoom lenses in the CCTV industry are often built with integral motors
to enable changing the focal length from a remote location. They are used on cameras that
monitor different parts of a scene or can pan and tilt to monitor different locations. Zoom
lenses are is designed for.
3.3.1.4 Optical Versus Digital Zoom Ranges
The focal length ranges for varifocal and zoom lenses denote optical focal length ranges,
which are a function of the components of the lens. The zoom range is referred to both as a
specific range of focal lengths, such as 6 to 24 mm, and as a zoom factor, such as a 4x (four
times) multiplier. For the aforementioned focal length range of 6 to 24 mm, the zoom factor
is 4x (6 x 4 = 24). It should be noted that zoom factor is not an indication of image
magnification; zoom factor is only indicative of the focal length range. Image magnification
is a function of the image sensor size and the lens focal length. Zoom lenses are often chosen
so that security personnel can use the longer focal lengths to zoom in and enlarge a specific
potion of the image to see more detail or make identification.
A digital or electronic zoom refers to the capability of the camera, or the CCTV system’s
processing software, to select and enlarge portions of the full image. In this case, only the
selected pixels are magnified. Unlike optical zoom, digital zoom does not enhance the detail
of an image, it reduces it. Digital zoom ranges are often denoted by magnification factors of
2x, 6x, etc.

3.3.2 Features of Lenses

A lens has certain components and characteristics that further determine its capabilities.
These include the focal length, type of aperture and focus control, wavelength of light or
energy the lens is optimized to transmit, and image sensor size the lens is designed for.
Additionally, a camera’s resolution and the impact of noise on the image being captured are
critical to the overall performance of a CCTV system.
3.3.2.1 Focal Length and Imager Format

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The focal length and size of the image sensor determine the angle from which the lens
accepts light to focus on the image sensor. Different lenses of the same focal length are
designed to create a focused image on sensors of different sizes. For example, surveillance
cameras are built with image sensor formats of ¼, ⅓, ½, ⅔, or 1 inch. These measures refer to
the approximate diagonal measurement of the image sensor. Image sensor formats are
denoted in inches, while lens focal lengths are measured in millimeters.
A lens should be selected to match the format of the image sensor so that the image
formed on the sensor utilizes most of the available pixels. Lenses are generally marketed for
cameras with specific sizes of image sensors. The camera’s FOV is a function of the lens’s
focal length and the size of the image sensor.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 TRANSMISSION
The transmission system is an important component of the CCTV imaging chain that sends
and receives video signals between the cameras, the processing system (i.e., DVRs, NVRs,
and multiplexers) and the monitoring system (i.e. the display). Transmitting a strong video
signal with low noise is vital to producing a high-quality image on the monitor. Many

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problems associated with the quality of a CCTV system signal are attributable to the
transmission system.
Many types of video transmission technologies are available today. High-quality components
are needed to produce a high-quality result. The distance between a camera, monitor, and
storage system is one of the most important criteria for deciding which means of transmission
to use. IP-based systems are quickly gaining popularity as digital formats are becoming more
common within CCTV systems. Other selection factors include installation costs, existing
infrastructure, and availability of power. The options described below are available when
determining the best suited transmission strategy. Any copper conductor (coaxial cable,
twisted pair, etc.) exposed to an outdoor environment is susceptible to noise and lightning
strikes. Lightning protection is an essential added expense and could degrade the video
transmission if improperly installed and maintained.
4.2 Wired Transmission
Wired CCTV systems use cables to connect cameras to other CCTV components. Wired
transmission can provide good quality video images with fewer instances of interference
because cables are shielded. Cameras can be located far away from recording or monitoring
equipment. Three types of wired CCTV systems are commonly used today: coaxial cables,
UTP cables, and fiber optic cables. Transmission over a public telephone network is not
advisable for CCTV transmission due to the cyber security issues related to an open network;
however, it is still used in some CCTV environments.
4.2.1 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is the most common method of transmitting video signals from the camera to
the monitor or other CCTV components. Coaxial cable consists of a single wire surrounded
first by a nonconductive insulating layer (dielectric), then by a braided wire shield, and
finally a plastic or rubber covering. This construction is shown in Figure 4-1. Note that
CCTV applications require cable of the highest quality materials and manufacture. Both the
center conductor and the braided shield must be copper. Aluminum foil-wrap shield, which is
used in some consumer cable applications, does not meet CCTV requirements.
Direct-run distances of up to 2,000 feet can be achieved, depending on the gauge of the cable.
Cable runs across greater distances are possible, although this requires the use of amplifiers
inserted in the line between the camera and monitor.
Poor quality cable can have a negative impact on reliability and image quality. As
transmission through coaxial cable is electrical, it is susceptible to Radio Frequency

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Interference (RFI) and EMI. It is possible for unauthorized persons to acquire the video
signal either through these emissions or by directly tapping into the cable.
Care should be taken to properly ground the entire CCTV system when using coaxial cable or
any other form of electrical signal transmission. Improperly grounded devices and cabling
can result in poor quality video, loss of video, or a grainy image.
4.2.2 UTP Wire
In some cases, running coaxial from a camera to a monitoring location is not practical and
existing telephone wire can be used. For example, many buildings contain abandoned
telephone lines, known as UTP, which can be used for a video system. This has several
advantages: overall cost savings, low susceptibility to EMI or induction, no ground loop
concerns, and ease of use. Also, telephone wire is smaller and much lighter than coaxial
cable. It should be noted that using abandoned telephone wire beyond a facility’s boundaries
may require an approval process and service agreement with the telephone company.
UTP is comprised of two wires, twisted together. They are most often 22 or 24 American
wire gauge (AWG) in size. When considering twisted pair for video transmission, unshielded
twisted pair should be used to connect only one camera to a monitor or other device. Twisted
pair must be dedicated solely to a particular video camera. While the per foot cost of twisted
pair wire is lower than coaxial cable, signal conversion devices (transmitter and receiver) are
required at either end of the wire run. Twisted pair wire can be used in runs of up to 5,000
feet. By using repeaters at least every 4,500 feet, twisted pair can be used over greater
distances.
UTP, like other electrical transmission mediums, may be susceptible to various forms of
interference and unauthorized acquisition of the signal. Performance is compromised when
wires are routed through a telephone switching station. This type of wire should be used for
continuous point-to-point transmission and routed through “punch down blocks” or splices.
The connections should have solid, zero-resistance connections.
4.2.3 Fiber Optics
Fiber optic cable is lightweight and made up of a single spun glass or plastic fiber or a group
of such fibers encased in a protective covering. It has a broad bandwidth, making it ideal for
carrying video signals. Fiber optic cable can be used in runs up to 6 miles without
amplification. The video signal coming from the camera must first go through a fiber
transmitter which converts electrical signals to light impulses. A fiber receiver at the other
end is required for conversion back into electrical signals.

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Fiber optic cable is immune to RFI and EMI. In addition, grounding is not an issue with fiber
optics and the cable is less susceptible, if not immune, to lightning strikes. Furthermore, in
systems designed with top-of-the-line components, fiber optic cable has high cost to
performance ratios. A single strand of single mode fiber can carry 32 channels of analog
video. In low-end systems, the expense of fiber optic cable may not be warranted. Fiber optic
cable requires extremely precise installation as the most minor damage to the cable or sharp
bends can cause a major degradation of the signal.
4.3 CONCLUSION
This SIWES program has a great impact on our daily activities and also during our practical
program in school.
It aids to know more outside the institution. It enables we the students to know more of our
practical aspect outside the school environment which will enable us when we graduate from
the institution.
4.4 RECOMMENDATION
I recommend this program to continue and students should take part in it and take it seriously.
It is an opportunity for the government to approve this scheme and the management to
adhered to it.

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