BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

K. R. Road, V. V. Pura, Bangalore – 560004

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VII SEMESTER
Optical Communication and Optical Networks (21TC72)
M-1-Part-A
SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER-2024
Faculty: Prof. Sudha. B, Dept of ETE, BIT
COURSE:Optical Communication and Optical Networks SUB CODE:
21TC72
SEMESTER: VII CIE MARKS: 50

TOTAL NO. OF LECTURE HOURS: 2 HOURS +1HOUR(S SEE MARKS: 50

 BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
VISION
To establish and develop the Institute as a center of higher learning, ever abreast with expanding horizon

of knowledge in the field of engineering and technology, with entrepreneurial thinking, leadership

excellence for life-long success and solve societal problem.

MISSION
1. Provide high quality education in the engineering disciplines from the undergraduate through
doctoral levels with creative academic and professional programs.
2. Develop the Institute as a leader in Science, Engineering, Technology and management, Research
and apply knowledge for the benefit of society.
3. Establish mutual beneficial partnerships with industry, alumni, local, state and central governments
by public service assistance and collaborative research.
4. Inculcate personality development through sports, cultural and extracurricular activities and engage
in the social, economic and professional challenges.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISION
Empower every student to be creative and productive in the field of
Telecommunication Engineering, by imparting excellent Technical Education and
inculcating Human Values
MISSION
M1. To make our Students acquaint with the Global requirements such as Problem Solving
Skills, Cultural Sensitivity, Ethical behavior and Social Responsibility.

M2. To motivate our Students to pursue Higher Education and engage in continuous
upgradation of their Professional Skills.

M3. To encourage students to develop Communication Skills, Professional Values and Positive
Attitude that in turn leads to fostering Leadership Qualities.
 Program specific Outcomes(PSO)
• PSO1: : Analyze and Design Analog & Digital modules for a
given Specification and Function
• PSO2: Implement Functional Blocks of Hardware-Software Co-
Designs for Embedded Systems, Signal Processing,
Communication and Networking applications
 COURSE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This course will enable students to:
• Learn the basic principle of optical fiber for overall design
considerations.
• Identify the client layers of the optical network.
• Attain knowledge of different network elements and optical
communication with different modes of light propagation.
• Understand the transmission characteristics and losses in optical
fiber.
• Study of optical components and its applications in optical
communication networks.
• To study the transmission characteristics layer services.
 COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course the students will be able to:
• Understand the Classification and characterization of optical fibers with different modes
of signal propagation.
• Discuss the constructional features and the characteristics of optical fiber and optical
devices used for signal transmission and reception.
• Identify the transmission characteristics for overall design considerations.
• Explain the client layers of the optical network.
• Attain knowledge of different network elements and optical layer services.
• Make use of Modern Simulation tools to Estimate the Optical fiber losses and
Demonstrate communication skills / ability to work as a team.
 Syllabus-Module -1-Part-A
Optical Fiber Structures:
• Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations,
• Single mode fibers,
• Fiber materials. Text 1: [Text 1: 2.3 [2.3.1 to 2.3.4], [2.5, 2.7].
Part-B
• Attenuation and Dispersion:
-Attenuation, Absorption, Scattering Losses, Bending loss,
• Signal Dispersion:
- Intermodal
-Intra Modal
-Polarisation Mode dispersion
• [Text 1: 3.1[3.1.1,3.1.2,3.1.3,3.1.4] 3.2[3.2.1]
 TEXT BOOKS/ REFERENCE BOOK
Text books:
1.Gerd Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill Education(India)
Private Limited, 2015. ISBN: 1-25-900687-5.
2.Kumar N. Sivarajan and Rajiv Ramaswami, Galen H. Sasaki, Optical Networks, A Practical
Perspective, Third Edition, Morgan Kauffman publishing 2010
Reference Book:
1.John M Senior, Optical Fiber Communications, Principles and Practice, 3rd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2010, ISBN: 978-81-317-3266-3.
2.Biswajit Mukherjee, Optical Communication Networks, TMH 1998
NPTEL:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117101002
Virtual Labs: https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/numerical-aperture-measurement/
https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=189
https://sites.google.com/site/worldofmatlab/home/optical-fiber
 Optical Fiber Waveguides
• Introduction: The transmission of light via a dielectric waveguide structure was
first proposed at the beginning of the twentieth century.

• A transparent dielectric rod, typically of silica glass with a refractive index of

around 1.5, surrounded by air, proved to be an impractical waveguide due to its
unsupported structure and the excessive losses at any discontinuities of the
glass–air interface.

• To overcome these problems core clad structure was developed where a

transparent core with a refractive index n1 surrounded by a transparent cladding
of slightly lower refractive index n2.
 Fig: core clad wave guide structure for optical wave transmission

• The cladding supports the waveguide structure, reduces the radiation loss
into the surrounding air.
• The light energy travels in both the core and the cladding
• Explain the ray theory of the optical fiber, with the help of neat sketch

• Using ray theory, explain propagation of light inside the fiber.

• Define Total Internal Reflection, Critical angle (φc )

Definitions related to Meridional ray(SIF)
• Acceptance angle (ϴa)

• Numerical Aperture (NA)

• Refractive Index Difference(𝚫)

Acceptance angle (ϴa):

• The meridional ray for a step index fiber is shown. The light ray enters the fiber core from a
medium of refractive index n0 at an angle θ1 w.r.to fiber axis and strikes the core-cladding
interface at a normal angle ‘φ’.
• Acceptance angle It is the maximum angle made by the light ray with the fiber axis, so that
light can propagate through the fiber by total internal reflection
• In the fig it shows a meridional ray ‘A’ enters the fiber core at an angle θa to
the fiber axis (with in acceptance angle cone) at air–core interface. It travels
through optical fiber core by total internal reflection.

• For rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber

core they must be incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone
defined by the conical half angle θa.

• Any rays which are incident into the fiber core at an angle greater than θa will
be transmitted to the core–cladding interface at an angle less than φc, and it
will be refracted through cladding and lost by radiation. Ex: Ray-B in the
diagram.
 VTU questions
Q1. What is Numerical Aperture? Derive an expression for Numerical Aperture and
Maximum acceptance angle in the case of step index optical fiber in terms of
refractive indices of core and cladding material. (10M)

Q2.Define Numerical Aperture(NA) and what is its significance. With an optical ray
diagram and by derivation relate NA and core-cladding motive indices as well as NA
and relative refractive index ∆.

Q3. Derive the expression for Numerical Aperture(NA) using ray theory
Numerical Aperture(NA)
 **Numerical Aperture(NA)
• The ray theory analysis gives a relationship between the acceptance
angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved(n0, n1, n2 )
namely the air, core and cladding, which is Numerical Aperture.
• Consider a meridional ray within the fiber. A light ray incident on the fiber
core at an angle θ1 to the fiber core which is less than the acceptance angle θa
for the fiber is shown .
• The ray enters the fiber from a medium of refractive index n0 (air) , and the
fiber core has a refractive index n1, which is slightly greater than the cladding
refractive index n2 (n1 >n2 ).
• Assuming the entrance face at the fiber core to be normal to the axis, then
considering the refraction at the air–core interface and using Snell’s law
 n0 sin θ1 = n1 sin θ2 (1)
Considering the right-angled triangle, the incident angle at core clad interface is
𝜋
φ= −θ2 (2)
2
where ‘φ’ is greater than the critical angle at the core–cladding interface. Hence
Eq. (1) becomes:
n0 sin θ1 = n1 cos φ (3)
Using the trigonometrical relationship sin2 φ + cos2 φ = 1, we get
n0 sin θ1 = n1 (1 − sin2 φ) (4)
• When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, φ becomes
equal to the critical angle for the core–cladding interface where sin φc = n2
n1
• At this limiting case, θ1 becomes the maximum acceptance angle for the fiber
θa max. Combining these limiting cases Eq. (4) gives:
 At θ1 = θa, max = θA ; φ = φc From Eq-4
n0 sin θa = n1 (1− sin2φc)1/2
Substitute sin φc= n2
n1
n22 1/2
(
n0 sin θA = n1 1−n2 )
1

n0 sin θA = (n12 − n2 2 )1/2 ---- (5)

• Equation 5 gives the relation between acceptance angle to the refractive

indices.From this the definition of the numerical aperture (NA) is obtained.
• Numerical Aperture (NA) = n0 sin θA = (n12 − n2 2 )1/2 (7)

• Since the NA is often used with the fiber in air where n0 is unity (n0=1) , it is

simply equal to

Numerical Aperture(NA) = sin θA = (n12 − n2 2 )1/2 ----- (8)

• The incident meridional rays over the range 0 ≤ θ1 ≤ θA will be propagated

within the fiber.

•
Refractive Index Difference(𝚫) :it is core cladding index difference or index difference.
Values of n₂ are chosen such that Δ is nominally 0.01. Typical values range from 1 to 3% for
multimode fibers and from 0.2 to 1.0 percent for single-mode fibers. Since the core
refractive index is larger than the cladding index, electromagnetic energy at optical
frequencies is made to propagate along the fiber waveguide through internal reflection at the
core-cladding interface. ∴ n2 = n1 (1- Δ) ---------------9

Numerical Aperture can be defined in terms of refractive index difference(𝚫) as :

W.k.t Numerical Aperture (NA) = n0 sin θA = (n12 − n2 2 )1/2

1/2
Numerical Aperture = sin θA = n1(2Δ) ---- (10)

• Numerical Aperture is the light gathering ability or capacity of an optical

fiber. More the NA, the more efficient will be the fiber
Numerical

1. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by

ray theory analysis has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding
refractive index of 1.47.

Determine: (a) the critical angle at the core–cladding interface; (b) the NA for

the fiber; (c) the acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
Solution:
(a) The critical angle φc at the core–cladding interface is given by
sin φc = n2 = φc= sin -1 n2 = sin -1 1.47
= 78.520
n1 n1 1.5
(b) the NA is:
NA= sin θa = (n12 − n22 )1/2 =(1.52 − 1.472)1/2
=(2.25 - 2.16)1/2 = NA= 0.03
(c) The acceptance angle in air θa is given by:
sin-1(NA)=sin-1(0.3)

θa= 17.450

For ray to propagate in optical fiber it has to enter the fiber with half
acceptance angle cone (with θa )less than 17.450
A-Classification of Optical Fibers
Q1. Discuss classification of Optical Fiber depending on Refraction index
profile, mode of operation and material used.
Optical fibers based on material used:
• Optical fibers are made up of materials like silica and plastic.

Based on the material used for fabrication, they are classified into two types:

1. Glass fibers and

2. Plastic fibers

The glass fibers are generally fabricated by fusing mixtures of metal oxides and
silica glasses

The plastic fibers are typically made of plastics and are of low cost. Although
they exhibit considerably greater signal attenuation than glass fibers, the plastic
fibers can be handled without special care due to its toughness and durability
Optical fibers based on refractive index profile
• Based on the refractive index profile of the core and cladding, the optical fibers are classified
into two types:

1. Step index fiber(SIF)

 multimode step index fiber

 Single mode step index fiber

2. Graded index fiber: (GIF)

Multimode fiber

• Step index and graded index fibers further classified as Single mode and Multimode fiber

• As the name implies, a single-mode fiber sustains only one mode of propagation, whereas
multimode fibers contain many hundreds of modes
Based on Refractive Index(RI) Profile
Q1:With a neat diagram discuss the structure of single mode and multi mode
step index and graded index optical fibers with advantages for each types
or

Q: With an optical ray diagram Compare Single mode and Multimode Step
index and graded index optical fibers
 Q1. With the help of neat diagrams discuss the structure of single mode and multi-mode
step index fibers(SIF) with appropriate mathematical equations

• Variations in the material composition of the core give rise to the two

commonly used fiber types

i) Step index fiber( SIF).

ii) Graded index fiber(GIF).

 Step Index Fiber(SIF)
• The step index (SI) fiber is a cylindrical waveguide core with central or inner core has a
uniform refractive index of (n1 ) and the core is surrounded by outer cladding with
uniform refractive index of ( n2 )

• In a step index fiber, The refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and undergoes
an abrupt change (or step) at the cladding boundary. This is called a step-index fiber

• The cladding refractive index (n2) is less than the core refractive index (n1).

• But there is an abrupt change in the refractive index at the core cladding interface.
• Refractive index profile of step indexed optical fiber is shown in Fig.

• The refractive index is plotted on horizontal axis and radial distance ‘a’ from the
core is plotted on vertical axis.

• The propagation of light wave within the core of step index fiber takes the path of
meridional ray

• The step index fibers propagate both single and multimode signals within the
fiber core.
• The two major types of step index fiber are:
multimode step index fiber
single-mode step index fiber.
Fig: The refractive index profile and ray transmission in step index fibers:
(a) multimode step index fiber; (b) single-mode step index fiber
• The refractive index profile of Step index Fiber is defined as:

n1 r<a (core)
n (r) = ; in both the cases
n2 r>a(cladding)

• Figure (a) shows a multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of
around 50μm or greater, which is large enough to allow the propagation of
many modes within the fiber core.

• Figure (b) shows a single-mode or mono mode step index fiber.

• A single-mode or Monomode step index fiber allows the propagation of only

one transverse electromagnetic mode and hence the core diameter must be of
the order of 2 to 10 μm.
Graded Index Optical Fiber(GIF)

• In the Graded Index Fiber, the core refractive index is made to vary as
a function of the radial distance from the center of the fiber. This type
is a graded-index fiber
Comparison of Conventional Single mode and multimode
step index and graded index optical fibers
Comparison/Advantages of Multimode Fibers
• Multimode fibers offer several advantages compared with single mode
fibers.
• The larger core radii of multimode fiber make it easier to launch optical
power into the fiber
• Another advantage is that light can be launched into a multimode fiber
using a light-emitting diode (LED) source, whereas single-mode fibers
must generally be excited with laser diode.
• Although LEDs have less optical output power than laser diodes, they are
easier to make, are less expensive, require less complex circuitry and have
longer lifetime than Laser diodes,
• A disadvantage of multimode fibers is that they suffer from intermodal
dispersion.
• intermodal dispersion can is described as follows, When an optical pulse
is launched into a fiber, the optical power in the pulse is distributed over
all of the modes of the fiber. Each of the mode that can propagate in a
multimode fiber travel at a slightly different velocity. This means that the
modes in a given optical pulse arrive at the fiber end at slightly different
times, thus causing the pulse to spread out in times as it travels along the
fiber.
• This effect, which is known as intermodal dispersion or modal delay
can be reduced by using a graded-index profile in a fiber core.
• This allows graded - index fibers to have much larger bandwidth (data
rate transmission capabilities) than step – index fibers.
 Normalized Frequency(V):

• The normalized frequency determines how many modes a fiber can support.

• The number of modes that can exist in a fiber is a function of V. As the value

of V increases, the number of modes supported by the fiber increases.

• Normalized frequency is also related to the fiber's operating wavelength.

Normalized Frequency(V):

For meridional rays, Normalized frequency may be expressed in terms of the

numerical aperture NA and the relative refractive index difference Δ.
2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑁𝐴 =
2𝜋
𝑎 (n12 − n2 2 )1/2
𝜆 𝜆

2𝜋 1ൗ
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑛1 2Δ 2
𝜆

where 𝑛1 is the core index of refraction, 𝑛2 is the cladding index of refraction,

‘a’ is the core diameter, and 𝜆 is the wavelength of light in air.

• It combines in a very useful manner the information about three

important design variables for the fiber: namely,

• The core radius ‘a’,

• The relative refractive index difference ‘Δ’ and

• The operating wavelength ‘λ’.

Cut off wavelength (λc)

Definition related to step index fiber(SIF):

• Multimode step index fibers allow the propagation of a finite number of guided
modes along the channel.

• The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical parameters (i.e. relative
refractive index difference Δ, core radius ‘a’) of the fiber and the wavelengths of the
transmitted light which are included in the normalized frequency ‘V’ for the fiber.

• There is a cutoff value of normalized frequency ‘Vc’ for guided modes below
which they cannot exist [modes propagate as unguided or leaky modes below υc]

• But guided waves are important in optical fiber communication as these are confined
to the fiber over its full length.
• The total number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index
fiber is related to the V value for the fiber by the approximate expression:

V2
Mode volume = Ms ≅
2

which allows an estimate of the number of guided modes propagating in a

particular multimode step index fiber.

reference equations: 2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
2𝜋 1ൗ
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑛1 2Δ 2
𝜆
Numerical:
• A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 μm and a relative
index difference of 1.5% is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 μm. If the core
refractive index is 1.48, estimate: (a) the normalized frequency for the fiber;
(b) the number of guided modes (Mode volume Ms ) .
Solution:
2𝜋 1Τ
The normalized frequency 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛1 2Δ 2
𝜆
1
2𝜋 ×40×10−6 ×1.48
V= (2 × 0.015) = 75.8
2
0.85×10−6

V=75.8
The total number of guided modes are:
𝑉2 (75.8)2 5745.6
Ms ≅ = =
2 2 2
Ms = 2873.
Conclusion: This fiber has a V number of approximately 76, giving nearly 3000 guided
modes to propagate through fiber.

• there is no mode coupling

• Thus most of the optical power is carried in the core region and not in the cladding
Q: Explain How to use multi mode SIF as single mode fibers.

Advantages of single mode fiber.

 2.5.Single Mode Fiber (from multimode step index fiber)
• The advantage of the propagation of a single mode optical fiber is that no
signal dispersion compared with a multimode fiber. Intermodal dispersion can
be reduced by designing a fiber which allow only fundamental mode to
propagate

• Construction of Single Mode : To use multimode step index fiber for the
propagation of single mode.

• For the transmission of a single mode, the fiber must be designed to allow
propagation of only one mode, while all other modes are attenuated by
leakage or absorption.
 The fundamental mode is LP01 .
The single-mode propagation of the LP01 mode in step index fibers is possible over the
range:
0 ≤ V < 2.405 (1)
as there is no cutoff for the fundamental mode.

• If V is less than 2.405 then the fiber is operating in Mono mode or single
mode. if V is greater than 2.405 then fiber is multimode.
• The normalized frequency for the fiber may be adjusted to within the range
given in Eq. (1)
• By reducing the core radius ‘a’
• By reducing the relative refractive index difference ∆
Numerical
• A manufacturing engineer wants to make an optical fiber that has a

core index of 1.480 and a cladding index of 1.478. What should the

core size be for single-mode operation at 1550 mm?

• Using the condition that V≤ 2.405 must be satisfied for single-mode
operation.
• From the Equation of V number, We can find the core radius ‘a’

2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑁𝐴 =
2𝜋
𝑎 (n12 − n2 2 )1/2
𝜆 𝜆
 2.5.2.Mode-field diameter(MFD)
• Q: Explain mode field diameter of single mode fiber. (4)
• In fiber optics, the mode field diameter (MFD) is a measure of the width of an
irradiance distribution, i.e., the optical power per unit area, across the end face of a
single-mode fiber
• Many properties of the fundamental mode are determined by the radial extent of its
electromagnetic field including losses at launching and jointing, micro bend losses,
waveguide dispersion and the width of the radiation pattern.
• Therefore, the MFD is an important parameter for characterizing single-mode fiber
properties which takes into account the wavelength-dependent field penetration into the
fiber cladding.
• For step index and graded (near parabolic profile) single-mode fibers operating near the
cutoff wavelength λc, the field is well approximated by a Gaussian distribution.
• As light propagates down a single mode fiber, the beam maintains a cross sectional
profile that is nearly Gaussian in shape. The mode field diameter (MFD) describes the
width of this intensity profile. The better an incident beam matches this intensity
profile, the larger the fraction of light coupled into the fiber.
• The MFD is generally taken as the distance between the opposite (1/e)E0 =
(0.37E0 ) field amplitude points and the power 1/e2 = 0.135 points in relation
to the corresponding values on the fiber axis.
Spot Size :
• Another parameter which is directly related to the MFD of a single-mode
fiber is the spot size (or mode-field radius) ω0 . Hence MFD = 2ω0, where
ω0 is the nominal half width of the input excitation.
• The MFD can therefore be regarded as the single mode analog of the fiber
core diameter in multimode fibers
• However, for many refractive index profiles and at typical operating
wavelengths the MFD is slightly larger than the single-mode fiber core
diameter.
 Fiber core axis

Field amplitude distribution E(r) of the fundamental mode in a single-mode

fiber illustrating the mode-field diameter (MFD) and spot size (ω0)
• the wavelength of the fundamental mode λ01 is smaller than the vacuum
wavelength λ by the factor 1/neff where:
λ
λ01 =
neff
• It should be noted that the fundamental mode propagates in a medium with a
refractive index n(r) which is dependent on the distance ‘r’ from the fiber
axis.
• Within a normally clad fiber, the MFD is large compared to the core
diameter and hence the electric field extends far into the cladding region. In
this case the propagation constant β will be approximately equal to n2k and
the effective index will be similar to the refractive index of the cladding n2.
• At short wavelengths, however, the field is concentrated in the core region
and the propagation constant β approximates to the maximum wave number
nlk.
 2.7.Fiber Materials
• What are the requirements that must be satisfied for selecting the fiber material?

Hence discuss about fiber types.

• Explain briefly about fiber materials used in optical communication.

• What are the different types of materials used for fabrication of optical fiber and

their requirements? (6)

2.7: Fiber Materials Type of Material used
• The main component in optical fiber communication is an
optical fiber.

• Type of Material used:

• Optical fibers are generally made up of

• plastic materials or
• glass materials
Contnd---
• Glasses exhibits the best overall material characteristics for using

fabrication of low loss optical fibers .

• Therefore glass fibers are used in long distance and telecom

applications

• Plastic fibers are less widely used because of their substantial higher

attenuation than glass fiber glass fibers

The requirements of the material to be selected for
optical fiber
• Materials used for fabricating optical fibers must satisfy a number of requirements
such as:
 variation of refractive index inside optical fiber i.e., between the core and the
cladding is a fundamental necessity in the fabrication of fibers for the light
transmission.
Hence two different materials which are transparent to light over the current
operating wavelength of range 0.8 to 1.6 µm are required.
These materials must exhibit relatively
low optional attenuation,
must have low intrinsic absorption
 and scattering losses.
In order to avoid scattering losses in excess of fundamental intrinsic losses
scatterings centers such as bubbles, strains and grain boundaries must be
eradicated.
It must be possible to make
long,
thin ,
flexible fibers from the material
2.7.1.Glass Fibers
• Glass is made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides sulfides or selenides. The
resulting material is a random connected molecule network because of
which the glasses do not have well defined melting points.

• If the glass is heated up, as the temperature increases above several hundred
of degrees the glass gradually begins to soften.

• At very high temperature it becomes a viscous liquid.

• The term melting temperature is commonly used in glass manufacturer

refers to an extended temperature range in which the glass becomes fluid
enough to free itself fairly quickly of gas bubbles.
• To produce two similar materials that have slightly different refractive index
for the core and cladding various oxides such as B203 ,Ge O2 ,and P2 O5 are
added to the silica.
• The addition of Ge O2 or B2O3 increases the refractive index whereas doping
the silica with fluorine or P2 O5 decreases it.
• Since the cladding must have a lower index than the core the following fiber
composition can be used:
GeO₂-SiO₂ core; SiO₂ cladding

2. P₂O5 - SiO₂ core ; SiO2 cladding

3. SiO2-core ; B₂O3-SiO2 cladding

4. GeO2- B₂O3-SiO2 -core, B₂O3-SiO2 cladding.

• The principal raw material for glass is high purity sand.
• Glass composed of pure silica is referred to either as silica glass, fused
silica, or vitreous silica. Some of its desirable properties are
1. a resistance to deformation at temperatures as high as 1000°C,
2. a high resistance to breakage from thermal shock because of its low
thermal expansion,
3. good chemical durability,
4. high transparency in both the visible and infrared regions of interest to
fiber optic communication systems.
• Its high melting temperature is a disadvantage if the glass is prepared from a
molten state.
2.7.2.Active Glass Fibers
• Incorporating rare-earth elements (atomic numbers 57 to 71) into a normally
passive glass gives the resulting material new optical and magnetic
properties.
• These new properties allow the material to perform amplification,
attenuation, and phase retardation on the light passing through it.
• Doping can be done both for silica and for halide glasses.
• Two commonly used materials for fiber lasers are erbium and neodymium.
The ionic concentrations of the rare-earth elements are low (on the order of
0.005 to 0.05 mole percent) to avoid clustering effects.
• By examining the absorption and fluorescence spectra of these materials,
one can use an optical source which emits at an absorption wavelength to
excite electrons to higher energy levels in the rare-earth dopants.
• When these excited electrons drop to lower energy levels, they emit light in
a narrow optical spectrum at the fluorescence wavelength.
Plastic Optical Fibers
• For providing high-speed services directly to the workstation, high-bandwidth
graded-index polymer (plastic) optical fibers (POF) for use in a customer premises
are created.
• The core of these fibers is either polymethyl methacrylate or a perfluorinated
polymer.
• These fibers are hence referred to as PMMA POF and PF POF.
• Plastic fibers exhibit greater optical signal attenuations than glass fibers
• Advantage of plastic fiber:
• They are tough and durable.
• Standard optical connectors can be used on plastic fibers having core sizes that are
compatible with the core diameters of standard multimode glass telecom fibers.
• Thus coupling between similar sized plastic and glass fibers is straightforward.
• For the plastic fibers inexpensive plastic injection-molding technologies can be used
to fabricate connectors, splices, and transceivers.