INTRODUCTION TO

HYDRAULICS
WHAT IS HYDRAULICS
Hydraulics is a branch of engineering in which focuses
on the application of Fluid Mechanics to common
engineering problems particularly much more inclined to
liquids.
WHAT IS FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Mechanics is a branch of Engineering Mechanics
which deals with the mechanics of forces that is being
produced and within a body of fluid

Fluids can have two forms they can be Liquid or Air.

There are some solids that can act as a fluid which are
called

What we are interested are at the actual fluid that flows

 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Most fluid problems are being computed by Newtonian mechanics.
Here is a relative picture of what are fluids
 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Most fluid problems are being computed by Newtonian mechanics.
Ideal Fluids – Fluids that are not compressible and no internal resistance to flow
Real Fluids – actual fluids that have internal resistance to flow
Newtonian Fluids – A fluid in which its viscosity is not affected by Shear Rate
Non – Newtonian Fluids – A fluid that does not follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Pseudoplastic Fluids – A fluid that increases its viscosity when a force is applied
Dilatant Fluids – A fluid where its shear viscosity increases with applied shear stress
Bingham Fluids – A Viscous fluid that possess yield strength which will need to be exceeded
before it flows
 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Given values
VALUE SI SYSTEM BRITISH (IMPERIAL) SYSTEM
Density of water (20℃) 9.81 kN/𝑚3 or 1g/cc 62.4lbs/𝑓𝑡 3
Distance 1 meter 3.28ft
Atmospheric Pressure 1.013 Kpa 14.7 psi
Temperature (STANDARD) 1 Kelvin 1.8 Rankine
Gravity 9.81 N/m2 32.2 psf
Mass 1kg 2.2 pounds
Viscosity 1 cgs (dynes/cm2) or 0.1 0.0672 psf
Pa-s (poise)
 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Mass density () - mass per unit volume

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
𝜌= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
For Ideal gas Law

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 → 𝑝𝑣

= 𝑀𝑅𝑇
Specific Volume (Vs) is the volume occupied by a unit mass of liquid

1
𝑉𝑠 =
𝜌
 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Specific weight, 𝛾 is the weight of a volume of a fluid

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑊
𝛾= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉
Specific gravity – it is the ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard reference density which is
water. For liquids and . The reference density is at 4 degrees Centigrade.

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Viscosity (𝜇) is a property of a fluid that determine the amount of resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid has no
viscosity.
Let us consider two parallel plates at a small distance “y” with the space between them filled with fluid

Based on the figure. To keep the upper plate moving at constant velocity (U) it is observed that there must be a constant force
“F” that must be applied therefore there must be an interaction

𝜏 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜇= =
𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Kinematic Viscosity (𝜐) = is the ratio of the viscosity to its mass density
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
Surface Tension (s) – This is the membrane or “skin” on the surface of a liquid due to its intermolecular cohesive forces, This is the
reason why there are some insects such as water strider can walk on the surface of water.
Pressure inside a droplet of a liquid
4(𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 4𝑠
𝑝= =
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑑
Capillary Action – this is the behavior of liquid in a thin bore tube as it rises and falls
4 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 ℎ = →ℎ=
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑥𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝛾𝑑
Note at glass water the angle is = 0
 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (𝐸𝑏 ) – expresses the compressibility of a fluid. It is the ration of change of unit pressure over the
change of unit volume per unit volume
𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝑏 = −
𝐷𝑉/𝑉
Isothermal Conditions – In this condition temperature is constant therefore

𝑝1𝑣1 = 𝑝2𝑣2
Isobaric Conditions – In this condition, pressure is constant
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑀2
Adiabatic conditions – No heat is being exchanged.
𝑘
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑘−1
𝑝1𝑣1𝑘 = 𝑝2𝑣2𝑘 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑘
𝑉2 𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑃1

where k = ratio of the specific heat at constant temperature

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Calculate the specific weight 𝛾, specific volume Vs , and density 𝜌 of methane at 100°F and
120 psi absolute.
Solution
PV = MRT
Note R of methane is = 96.3ft/R
120(144)Vs = M(96.3)(463+100)
120(144)/(96.3)(460+100) = M/Vs ; Specific Weight = 0.320 lb/ft3
Density = 0.320/32.2 = 0.00994 slugs/ft3
Specific Volume = 1/ = 1/0.00994 = 101 ft3/slug
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
#A liter of water weighs about 9.75N. Compute its mass in kilograms
Solution:
Weight = Mass x Gravity
9.75 N = M (9.81) ; Mass = 0.994 kg
#Find the mass density of Helium at a temperature of 4 ℃ and a pressure of 184 KPa gauge,
If atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa. (R = 2079J/kg°𝐾
Solution
PV = MRT
(184 + 101.3)(1000) V = M (2079)(4+273)
Mass density = 0.495 kg/m3
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
#A cylinder of 0.122-m radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 0.128m radius. Both cylinders are 0.305m
long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid that fills the space between the cylinders if Torque of 0.881 N-m is required to
maintain an angular velocity of 60 rpm.
Solution:
Since Torque is being submitted through the fluid layers to the outer cylinder. Since the gap is small we can assume that the
velocity gradient is on a straight line.
1
Tangential Velocity = 0.122(60)(60)(2) = 0.767 m/s
Then.
dV/dy = 0.767 / (0.128 – 0.122) = 127.8/s
For equilibrium to take shape Torque applied = Torque resisted
0.881 = Shear Stress(Area)(Arm) = 2 x 0.125 x 0.305 x 0.125 then Shear Stress = 29.4 Pa

𝜏 29.4
𝜇= = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝐩𝐚 − 𝐬
𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑦 (127.8)
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
An 18kg slab slides down a 15° inclined plane on a 3-mm thick film of oil with viscosity = 0.0814 pa-sec. If the contact area
is 0.3 m2. Find the terminal velocity of the slab. Neglect air resistance.
Solution:
Note: Terminal velocity is always attained when there is a balance
Between the weight of a falling object and the air resistance
Since there is no air resistance then F = 0
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
W sin 15 – Fs =0
Fs = 18(9.81)(sin15) = 45.702
Then Shear Stress = Force / Area
45.702/0.3
0.0814= → 𝑑𝑉 = 5.614 𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑉/0.003
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
#Distilled water stands in glass tube of 9mm diameter at height of 24mm what is the true static height? Use s = 0.0742
Solution:

4𝑠 cos 𝜃 4(0.0742)(1)
ℎ= = = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝒎
𝛾𝜌 9810(0.009)
True height = 24 – 3.226 = 20.774 mm
# A liquid compressed cylinder has a volume of 1000 cm3 at 1MN/m2 and a volume of 995 cm3 at 2MN/m2
What is the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
Solution:
𝑑𝑝 2−1
𝐸𝑏 = − → = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝐷𝑉 995 − 1000
𝑉 1000
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
# A rigid steel container is partially filled with liquid at 15 atm. The volume of the liquid is 1.232 L. At a pressure of 30 atm,
The volume of liquid is 1.231L. Find the average bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid over the given range of pressure if the
pressure if the temperature after the compression is allowed to return to its initial value. What is the coefficient of
compressibility (𝐶𝑏 )
Solution:
𝑑𝑝 30 − 15 101.3
𝐸𝑏 = − → = 1.872 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐷𝑉 1.232 − 1.231
𝑉 1.232
Then for Coefficient of Compressibility (𝐶𝑏 )

1
𝐶𝑏 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟒 𝑮𝑷𝑨−𝟏
1.872
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
# The temperature and pressure of nitrogen in a tank are 28°C and 600 Kpa absolute, respectively, Determine the specific
weight of nitrogen if R = 30.03
Solution:
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑀𝑅𝑇

600𝑉 = 𝑀(30.03)(273 + 28)

Specific weight (M/V) = 600/(30.03 x [273 + 28]) = 0.0658kN/m3
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
# A cylinder contains 12.5 cubic feet of air at 120 Fahrenheit and 40 psi absolute. The air is then compressed to 2.5 cubic feet.
(A) Assuming Isothermal conditions, What is the new pressure and the bulk modulus of elasticity? (B) Assuming adiabatic
conditions, What are the final pressure and Temperature and Bulk Modulus of elasticity? If k=1.40

Solution:
For Isothermal Conditions

P1V1 = P2V2
40(12.5) = P2(2.5) ; P2 = 200 Psi abs.

Bulk Modulus
𝑑𝑃 200 − 40
𝐸𝑏 = − →− = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒔𝒊
𝑑𝑉 2.5 − 12.5
𝑉 12.5
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
For Adiabatic conditions.
𝑃1𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑃2𝑉2𝑘 → 40(12.5)1.4 = 𝑃2(22.5)1.4 → P2 = 381 Psia
Then for temperature
(1.4 −1) (1.4 −1)
𝑇2 𝑃2 1.4 𝑇2 381 1.4
= → = → T2 = 1104°R
𝑇1 𝑃1 (460+120) 40

Then for Bulk Modulus at adiabatic condition

K = kP = 1.4(381) = 533 psi
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
# A cylinder contains 12.5 cubic feet of air at 120 Fahrenheit and 40 psi absolute. The air is then compressed to 2.5 cubic feet.
(A) Assuming Isothermal conditions, What is the new pressure and the bulk modulus of elasticity? (B) Assuming adiabatic
conditions, What are the final pressure and Temperature and Bulk Modulus of elasticity? If k=1.40

Solution:
For Isothermal Conditions

P1V1 = P2V2
40(12.5) = P2(2.5) ; P2 = 200 Psi abs.

Bulk Modulus
𝑑𝑃 200 − 40
𝐸𝑏 = − →− = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒔𝒊
𝑑𝑉 2.5 − 12.5
𝑉 12.5
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
# Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in diameter. Use s = 0.514N/m and  = 140
Solution:
4𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4 0.514 (1000) cos 140
𝐻= → = -5.903 mm
𝛾𝑑 13.6(9.81)(2)

# Find the capillary rise of mercury-air-glass interface with  = 130 if the tube radius is 1mm and the temperature is 20°C

Solution:
4𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4 0.514 (1000)cos 130
𝐻= → = -5.213 mm
𝛾𝑑 (13.6)(9.81)(1)

# What force is required to lift a thin wire ring 6cm in diameter from a water surface in 20°C if s = 0.0728
Solution:
F = sL since resistance is inside and outside of the ring
F = 2(0.0728)(𝜋)(0.06) = 0.0274N
 THIN-WALLED CYLINDERS
As water is being pumped and run on pipes it also generates Tensile stress and strain both
lateral and longitudinal due to pressure

Note:
T – Tension
F – Force due to Pressure
D – Diameter
t – Thickness
t – Tangential Stress
p = pressure
 THIN-WALLED CYLINDERS
For Tangential Stress

Note F due to pressure = pA

Tension of Wall = 2F
also
T = (t)(Awall)
Then
pDL=2(t)tL
𝑝𝐷
t =
2𝑡
 THIN-WALLED CYLINDERS
For Longitudinal Stress
Note: that the total force acting at the rear of the tank F is
equal to the total Longitudinal Stress on the Wall
Note: l = longitudinal stress
l = Pt/A → 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑙𝜋𝐷𝑡
𝜋
F = pA → 𝑝 4 𝐷2
Then since Pt = F
𝜋
𝑙𝜋𝐷𝑡 = 𝑝 4 𝐷2
𝒑𝑫
𝒍 = 𝟒𝒕
therefore t = 2l
 THIN-WALLED CYLINDERS
For Spherical Shell
Note: that the total force acting at the rear of the tank F is
equal to the total Longitudinal Stress on the Wall
Note: l = longitudinal stress

(𝒑𝟐−𝒑𝟏)𝑫
𝒍 =
𝟒𝒕
 EXAMPLE
A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness of 20 mm, is subjected to
an internal pressure of 4.5 MPa . (a) Calculate the tangential and longitudinal stresses in the steel. (b)
To what value may the internal pressure be increased if the stress in the steel is limited to 120 MPa ? (c)
If the internal pressure were increased until the vessel burst, sketch the type of fracture that would
occur.
Solution
For a For b c.) fracture at the longitudinal will occur

t =
𝑝𝐷
2𝑡
→
4.5(400)
2(20)
= 45MPa t = pD/2t due to it is the weakest link of the
l = 45/2 = 22.5 Mpa 120 = p(400)/2(20) material based on its design.
p = 12 MPa
 EXAMPLE
A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plating that has a thickness of 20 mm. The diameter
of the pressure vessel is 450 mm and its length is 2.0 m. Determine the maximum internal pressure that
can be applied if the longitudinal stress is limited to 140 MPa, and the circumferential stress is limited to
60 MPa.
Solution:
For Circumferential stress (Tangential Stress) Then use
𝑝𝐷 𝑝 450
t = 2𝑡
→ 2 20
= 60 ; p = 5.33 MPa p = 5.33 MPa

For Longitudinal Stress

𝒑𝑫 𝑝(450)
𝒍 = → 140 = ; p = 24.889 MPa
𝟒𝒕 4(20)