Ce 140 - Hydraulics: By: Paul Rommel R. Valencia, Ce, Mame

CE 140 – HYDRAULICS
BY: PAUL ROMMEL R. VALENCIA, CE, MAME

CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
FLUIDS – any substance capable of flowing (liquid or gas)
FLUID MECHANICS – is a physical science dealing with the action

of fluids at rest or in motion, and with
applications and devices in engineering using
fluids.
DIVISIONS OF FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID STATICS – deals with fluid at rest
FLUID DYNAMICS – concerned with fluids in motion
HYDRODYNAMICS – is applied to the flow of liquids or to low velocity
gas flows where the gas can be considered as being
essentially incompressible
HYDRAULICS – is an applied science dealing with the mechanical
behavior of water and other liquids in motion or at
rest. The principles of hydraulics are employed in
the design of machine and structure for the
control, conservation and use of water and other
fluids.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
DENSITY
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter
contained in a unit volume of the substance. It can be
expressed in three different ways.
1.a. Mass Density (ρ) rho, is defined as the mass of
substance per unit volume
𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝑂𝐹 𝐹𝐿𝑈𝐼𝐷,𝑀
ρ= 𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑀𝐸,𝑉
UNITS:
English: slugs/ft3
METRIC: grams/cm3
SI: kg/m3
For an ideal gas its density can be found from the specific gas
constant and ideal gas law
𝑝 Approximate room temperature

ρ= densities of common fluids
𝑅𝑇
FLUID ρ in kg/m3
Where:
p = absolute pressure of gas in Pa Air (STP) 1.29
R = gas constant Joule/kg⁰K Air (21⁰F, a 1tm) 1.20
for air: Alcohol 790
R = 287 J/kg-⁰K Ammonia 602
R = 1,716 lb-ft/slug⁰R Gasoline 720
T = absolute temperature in ⁰K
Glycerin 1260
⁰K = ⁰C + 273
Mercury 13,600
⁰R = ⁰F + 460
Water 1,000
Specific or Unit Weight (γ) gamma is defined as the weight
per unit volume.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑂𝐹 𝐹𝐿𝑈𝐼𝐷, 𝑊 UNITS:
γ= 𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑀𝐸, 𝑉 English: lb/ft3
Metric: dyne/cm3
γ = ρg Si: N/m3 or kN/m3
Relative Density or Specific Gravity (S) is the

dimensionless ration of a fluid’s density to some standard
reference density.
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑠= ; for liquid and solid For water at 4⁰C:
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
γ = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9.81 kN/m3
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3
𝑠= ; for gas s= 1.0
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
SPECIFIC VOLUME, 𝑽𝑺 is the volume occupied by a unit
mass of fluid.
𝟏
𝑽𝒔 =
𝝆
VISCOSITY, μ (MU) – the property of fluid which determines

the amount of its resistance to shearing force
𝝉
μ= 𝒅𝑽ൗ
𝒅𝒚
Where
dV/dy = velocity gradient in m/sec or ft/sec
𝑙𝑏
τ = shearing stress in 𝑓𝑡 2 or Pa
μ = absolute viscocity in lb sec/𝑓𝑡 2 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐
μ = absolute viscosity in 2 (poise); Pa-sec
𝑓𝑡
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, ѵ (NU) – the ratio of the
dynamic viscosity μ of the fluid to its mass density, ρ
μ
ѵ=
ρ
COMMON UNITS OF VISCOSITY
SYSTEM ABSOLUTE, μ KINEMATIC, ѵ
𝑙𝑏 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Τ𝑓𝑡 2
English 𝑓𝑡 2 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
(𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔Τ𝑓𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐Τ𝑐𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
Metric
(poise) (Stoke)
Pa-sec
SI 𝑚2 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑁 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐Τ𝑚2
𝑁. 𝑠 2
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.1 2 𝑜𝑟 0.1 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 1 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 10−4 𝑚 ൗ𝑠
𝑚
COHESION – the property of fluids that refers to the
intermolecular attraction by which the separate particles of
the fluid are held together
ADHESION – the property of fluids which refers to the
attractive force between its molecules and any solid
substance with which they are in contact.
SURFACE TENSION, σ (SIGMA) – the membrane of “skin”
that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid that is due
to the intermolecular cohesive forces. Surface tension also
causes bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape.
Pressure inside a droplet of liquid
Where:
4σ p = gage pressure in Pa
𝑝= d = diameter of the droplet in m
𝑑 σ = surface tension in N/m
CAPILLARITY - The interplay of the forces of cohesion and
adhesion explains the phenomenon of capillarity. When a
liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion
between the molecules of the liquid and the solid are greater
than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid
surface. The area of contact between the liquid and solid
increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.
The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is
greater than the force of adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion
properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by which a liquid
either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upon
whether the force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not.
The angle θ as shown in the figure, is the area wetting contact

angle made by the interface with the solid surface
PHENOMENON OF CAPILLARITY
4σ𝑐𝑜𝑠θ Where:
ℎ=
γ𝑑 h = capillarity rise or depression
For complete wetting as with water on
γ =unit weight of liquid
clean glass, the angle θ is 0⁰. Hence the d = diameter of the tube
formula becomes σ = surface tension
4σ θ = wetting angle
ℎ=
γ𝑑
BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY ( 𝐸𝐵 ) expresses the compressibility of a
fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding
𝒅𝒑
volume change per unit volume. Unit is Pa or 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑖𝑛2 . 𝑬𝑩 = − 𝒅𝒗Τ
𝒗
PRESSURE DISTURBANCES. Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid

𝐸𝐵
move in waves, at speed 𝑐 = ൗρ , for gases the acoustic velocity is
𝑐= 𝑘𝑝Τρ = 𝑘𝑔𝑅𝑇
PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS

ISOTHERMAL CONDITIONS
For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is
𝒑 𝒗 𝒑 𝒗
given by 𝑻𝟏 𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
When temperature is held constant the equation

reduces to (Boyle’s Law) 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 𝒗𝟐
When pressure is held constant the equation reduces

𝒗 𝒗
to (Charle’s Law) 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
ADIABATIC OR ISENTROPIC CONDITIONS (NO HEAT EXCHANGE)
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑘
𝑣 𝑝2
(𝑣1 )𝑘 = 𝑝1
= Constant
2
𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑘
and =
𝑇1 𝑝1
Where:
𝑝1 = initial absolute pressure of gas
𝑝2 =final absolute pressure of gas
𝑣1 = initial volume of gas
𝑣2 = final volume of gas
𝑇1 = initial absolute temperature of gas in ⁰K
𝑇2 = final absolute temperature of gas in ⁰K
k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the
specific heat at constant volume. Also known as
adiabatic exponent
VAPOR PRESSURE 𝑷𝒗 the pressure exerted by the vapor as evaporation of
the liquid takes place within a closed space.
TYPICAL VAPOR PRESSURES
FLUID kPa, 20 ⁰C
Mercury 0.000173
Turpentine 0.0534
Water 2.34
Ethyl alcohol 5.86
Ether 58.9
Butane 218
Freon -12 584
Propane 855
ammonia 888
Example problems
1. A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,250 kg and a volume of 0.962
cu. m. Find its (a) weight W, (b) unit weight γ, (c) mass density ρ, and
(d) specific gravity s
2. The specific gravity of a certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its (a) specific
weight in 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑓𝑡 3 and 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚3, (b) mass density in 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠ൗ𝑓𝑡 3 and 𝑘𝑔ൗ𝑚3 .
3. Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30 ⁰C in a
500 – liter container. What is the mass of air?
4. A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a pressure of 1
MPa and a volume of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 MPa. Find the bulk modulus of
elasticity 𝐸𝐵 of the liquid.
5. If 9 𝑚3 of an ideal gas at 24⁰C and 150 kPa is compressed to 2 𝑚3 , (a) what
is the resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (b) what would have
been the pressure and temperature if the process is isentropic. Use k = 1.3
6. Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter
3mm. Use σ = 0.0728 N/m and γ = 9810 𝑁Τ𝑚3.
7. Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in
diameter. Use σ = 0.514 N/m and θ = 140⁰.
8. An atomizer forms water droplets 45 μm in diameter. Determine the excess pressure

within these droplets using σ = 0.0712 N/m.
9. If the bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.2 Gpa, what pressure is

required to reduce a volume by 0.6 percent?
10. One kilogram of hydrogen is confined in a volume of 200 liters at -45 ⁰C.
What is the pressure if R is 4.115 kJ/kg-⁰K?

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CE 140 – HYDRAULICS

BY: PAUL ROMMEL R. VALENCIA, CE, MAME

FLUID MECHANICS – is a physical science dealing with the action

𝑝 Approximate room temperature

Relative Density or Specific Gravity (S) is the

VISCOSITY, μ (MU) – the property of fluid which determines

The angle θ as shown in the figure, is the area wetting contact

PRESSURE DISTURBANCES. Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid

PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS

When temperature is held constant the equation

When pressure is held constant the equation reduces

8. An atomizer forms water droplets 45 μm in diameter. Determine the excess pressure

9. If the bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.2 Gpa, what pressure is

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