ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among

themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.

TYPES

TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC MAN-MADE

Forest pond, Crop fields

Grassland lake, aquarium

Desert wetland,

river and estuary

ECOSYSTEM– STRUCTURE
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical structure that is haracteristic
for each type of ecosystem.

STRATIFICATION - Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels

is called stratification.

Example: In a forest - (1) Trees occupy top vertical strata or layer of a forest,

(2) shrubs the second

And (3) herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

The following components of the ecosystem function as a unit

(i) Productivity;

(ii) Decomposition;

(iii) Energy flow; and

(iv) Nutrient cycling.

 POND AS AN ECOSYSTEM
ABIOTIC COMPONENT - is the water with all the dissolved inorganic and organic
substances and the rich soil deposit at the bottom of the pond.

BIOTIC COMPONENT -

The autotrophic components - (1) phytoplankton, some algae

and (2) floating, submerged and marginal plants found at the edges.

The consumers - (1) the zooplankton,

(2) the free swimming and

(3) bottom dwelling forms.

The decomposers - the fungi, bacteria and flagellates

especially abundant in the bottom of the pond.

FUNCTIONS

This system performs all the functions of any ecosystem -

i. e., 1. conversion of inorganic into organic material with the help of the radiant energy of
the sun by the autotrophs;

2. consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs;

3. decomposition and mineralisation of the dead matter to release the nutrnients back for
reuse by the autotrophs,

These events are repeated over and over again.

1. PRODUCTIVITY
The rate of biomass production is called productivity

It is expressed in terms of weight (g–2) yr–1 OR energy (kcal / m–2) yr –1

TYPES

PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY

The rate of biomass or organic matter produced The rate of formation of new organic

per unit area over a time period by plants matter by consumers.

during photosynthesis.
 TYPES

GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY

( GPP) (NPP)

1. the rate of production of organic matter 1.Gross primary productivity minus during
photosynthesis. respiration losses (R),

GPP – R = NPP

2. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised 2. NPP is the available biomass for the

by plants in respiration. consumption to heterotrophs (herbiviores and

decomposers).

2. DECOMPOSITION
The process of breaking down of complex organic matter into inorganic substances like
carbon dioxide, water and nutrients is called decomposition.

RAW MATERIAL FOR DECMPOSITION -

DETRITUS - 1. Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers

2. dead remains of animals,

3. fecal matter , constitute detritus,

IMPORTANT STEPS IN - DECOMPOSITION

1.fragmentation,

2.leaching,

3.catabolism,

4.humification and mineralisation .

1. FRAGMENTATION - break down detritus into smaller particles.by Detritivores . (e.g.,

earthworm & cockroach )

2. LEACHING - By the process of leaching, water-soluble inorganic nutrients go down

into the soil horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts.
3. CATABOLISM - Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic
substances.

4. HUMIFICATION - ( i ) accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called

humus

( ii) It is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely

slow rate.

(iii) Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.

5. MINERALISATION- The humus is further degraded by some microbes and inorganic

nutrients are released from it . The process is known as mineralisation.

FACTORS AFFECTING DECOMPOSITION

Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process.

The rate of decomposition is controlled by -

(i ) chemical composition of detritus and

( ii) climatic factors.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATIC FACTORS –

1. Temperature & 2. Soil moisture

regulate decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.

2. Warm and moist environment favour decomposition

3. Low temperature and 4. Anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition

EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DETRITUS -

In a particular climatic condition, -

( i ) if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin decomposition rate is slower ,

(ii) if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water -soluble substances like sugars

decomposition rate is faster.

3. ENERGY FLOW
PHOTOSYNTHETICALLY ACTIVE RADIATION (PAR)

Less than 50 % of the total incident solar radiation

UTILISATION BY PLANTS - Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR and this small
amount of energy sustains the entire living world.
UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW OF ENEGY -
 The solar energy captured by plants flows through different organisms of an ecosystem.

 All organisms are dependent for their food on producers, either directly or indirectly.

 So there is a unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers and then to
consumers.

PRODUCERS IN DEFFERENT ECOSYSTEMS -

( I) IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM - major producers - herbaceous and woody plants

(ii) IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM - phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.

FOOD CHAIN
1. A food chain starts from plants .

2. In it an animal feeds on a plant or another animal and in turn is food for another .The chain
or web is formed because of this interdependency.

3. No energy that is trapped into an organism remains in it for ever . The energy trapped by
the producer , is either passed on to a consumer or the organism dies.

4. Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain / web.

CONSUMERS -
All consumers are animals which depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food
needs. They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs.

TYPES OF CONSUMERS
(i)PRIMARY CONSUMERS -They feed on the producers, the plants.

They are herbivores .

Ex-In terrestrial ecosystem - insects, birds and mammals

In aquatic ecosystem - molluscs

(ii) SECONDARY CONSUMERS ( PRIMARY CARNIVORES ) - animals eat other
animals which in turn eat the plants (the producers) are called secondary consumers.

(iii) TERTIARY CONSUMERS - ( SECONDARY CARNIVORES ) - animals that feed

on secondary consumers .

TROPHIC LEVELS
Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific place in the food
chain that is known as their trophic level.

EXAMPLES OF FOOD CHAIN

GRAZING FOOD CHAIN ( GFC )
(1)

TERTIARY CONSUMER FOURTH TROPHIC LEVEL BIG FISHES

( TOP CARNIVORE )

SECONDARY CONSUMER THIRD TROPHIC LEVEL SMALL FISH

( CARNIVORE )

PRIMARY CONSUMER SECOND TROPHIC LEVEL ZOOPLANKTON

( HERBIVORE )

PRIMARY PRODUCERS FIRST TROPHIC LEVEL PHYTOPLANKTON

( PLANTS )

(2)
TERTIARY CONSUMER FOURTH TROPHIC LEVEL SNAKE

( TOP CARNIVORE )

SECONDARY CONSUMER THIRD TROPHIC LEVEL FROG

( CARNIVORE )

PRIMARY CONSUMER SECOND TROPHIC LEVEL GRASSHOPPER

( HERBIVORE )

PRIMARY PRODUCERS FIRST TROPHIC LEVEL GRASS

( PLANTS )

DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN (DFC)

1. begins with dead organic matter / detritus.

2. It is made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and

bacteria.

3. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or
detritus.

4. These are also known as saprotrophs .

5. Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into
simple, inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.
COMPARISON
GFC DFC
1.Starts with green plants ( producers ) 1.Starts with dead organic matter / detritus

2. decomposers are not involved 2. it is made up of decomposers ( saprotrophs

)

3. it is the major conduit for energy transfer 3. a much larger fraction of energy flows
in aquatic ecosystem through the detritus food chain than through
the GFC in a terrestrial ecosystem

CONNECTION BETWEEN GFC AND DFC

1. At some levels, some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals,

And

2. In a natural ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores.

FOOD WEB
The natural interconnection of food chains make a food web.

STANDING CROP
1. Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the
standing crop.

2. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in
a unit area.

3. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.

(Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate.)

The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted

The transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred
to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. ( Rest of 90% is released to atmosphere as
heat . )

Therefore , after 3rd or 4th trophic level , no energy is left for transfer .
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Express the food or energy relationship between organisms at different trophic level.

TYPES - (i) Pyramid of Number

( ii)Pyramid of biomass

(iii) Pyramid of energy

EXAMPLES -

Figure 14.4(a) 14.4 (b)

 In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number , of energy and biomass are upright, i.e.,
producers are more in number and biomass than the herbivores, and herbivores are more
in number and biomass than the carnivores.

 Also energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level.

EXCEPTIONS - INVERTED PYRAMIDS

1. PYRAMID OF NUMBERS IN FOREST ECOSYSTEM -

The number of insects which feed on a big tree is more than the number of trees .

2. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM ( POND)

Biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplanktons .

PYRAMID OF ENERGY - IS ALWAYS UPRIGHT ( CAN NEVER BE INVERTED )
REASONS -

1. In an ecosystem when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic
level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.

2. Transfer of energy follows 10 % Law . I.e, 90% is lost to environment as heat and only
10% is transferred to the next higher trophic level .

3. Therefore , energy present in one trophic level is always less than that of the previous
level and thus the pyramid is always upright .

LIMITATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

1. it does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.

2. It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost never exists in nature;

3. It does not accommodate a food web.

4. Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital
role in the ecosystem.