Ecosystem

1 INTRODUCTION 3 ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS FUNCTION AS A UNIT IN THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS

m Ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms
interact among themselves and the surrounding physical
environment, e.g., a small pond, a large forest or a sea. PRODUCTIVITY DECOMPOSITION ENERGY FLOW NUTRIENT CYCLING
m Entire biosphere is a global ecosystem, composite of all local
ecosystems on Earth. PRODUCTIVITY
m Amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis is primary
m Forest, grassland and desert are terrestrial ecosystems; pond, –2 –2
lake, wetland, river and estuary are aquatic and crop fields and production, expressed in terms of weight (gm ) or energy (K cal m ).
–2 –1 –2 –1
an aquarium are man-made ecosystems. m Rate of biomass production is productivity, expressed as gm yr or (K cal m ) yr . It can be divided into:
m Input (productivity), transfer of energy (food chain/web, nutrient (i) Gross primary productivity (GPP), is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
cycling) and the output (degradation and energy loss) are the (ii) Net primary productivity (NPP), is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and
major functions of ecosystem. decomposers)
2 ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION GPP – R (respiratory loss) = NPP.
m Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical m Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area. It also depends on environmental factors,
structure. availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. It varies in different ecosystems.
l Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is approximately = 170 billion tons (dry wt.) of organic matter.
m Vertical distribution of different species occupying different
l Productivity of oceans (70% of surface) = 55 billion tons, rest is on land
levels is called stratification, like trees at top vertical strata,
shrubs second and herbs and grasses occupy bottom layers. m Secondary productivity is the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

5 ENERGY FLOW 4 DECOMPOSITION

m Unidirectional from sun to producers and then to
m Breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic substances like CO2, water and nutrients is decomposition.
consumers.
m Detritus, i.e. dead plant remains like leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter, is the raw material for
SUN PAR (< 50%) Plants decomposition.
(Incident solar
m Largly oxygen requiring process
radiation) DECOMPOSITION (Important steps)

Photosynthetic bacteria FRAGMENTATION LEACHING CATABOLISM HUMIFICATION MINERALISATION

2-10% of PAR
(autotrophs) Break down of Water soluble inorganic Bacterial and fungal Accumulation of dark, amorphous HUMUS Humus is further
detritus into smaller nutrients go down into enzymes degrade which is highly resistant to microbial degraded by
particles by the soil horizon and get detritus into simpler action. Colloidal reservoir of nutrients microbes to release
Sustain the Food (simple
detritivores (eg., precipitated as inorganic substances Humus undergoes decomposition at an inorganic nutrients
ENTIRE sugars)
earthworm) unavailable salts extremely slow rate in soil
WORLD
m Fragmentation, leaching and catabolism operate simultaneously on the detritus.
RATE OF DECOMPOSITION COMPOSITION OF DETRITUS CLIMATIC FACTORS
SLOWER Rich in lignin and chitin Low temperature and anaerobiosis
QUICKER Rich in nitrogen and water soluble substances like sugar Warm and moist environment. Oxygen requiring process
m Temperature and soil moisture are most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition.
 6 TROPHIC LEVELS IN AN ECOSYSTEM 7 DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN (DFC) GRAZING FOOD CHAIN (GFC)
m Amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. m Begins with dead organic matter. m Sun is the source of energy.
m Only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower m Made up of decomposers which are m Autotrophs assimilate food using simple
trophic level (10% Law).
heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and inorganic materials and radiant solar energy.
TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient m The energy flows from autotrophs to heterotrophs
ECOSYSTEM ECOSYSTEM requirements by degrading dead organic matter as per the law of thermodynamics.
Tertiary Fourth trophic level (T4) Man, lion Large fishes or detritus. Known as Saprotrophs. m In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit
consumer (secondary carnivores) m In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction for energy flow.
of energy flows through the DFC than through the
HETEROTROPH

GFC.

Secondary Third trophic level (T3) Birds, wolf Fishes

consumer (primary carnivores)
8 STANDING CROP STANDING STATE
m Each trophic level has a certain mass of living m Organisms need a constant supply of nutrients to
material at a particular time called as the grow, reproduce and regulate various body
Primary Second trophic level Insects, birds, Zooplanktons,
standing crop. functions.
consumer (T2) (herbivores) mammals molluscs
m Standing crop is measured as the mass of living m The amount of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen,
organisms (Biomass) or the number in a unit phosphorus, calcium etc., present in the soil at any
area. given time, is called standing state.
Primary First trophic level (T1) Herbaceous, Algae,
producer m Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is m It varies in different kinds of ecosystems and also
(green plants) woody plants phytoplanktons
(AUTOTROH) and higher plants more accurate. on a seasonal basis.

9 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS LIMITATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

m Food or energy relationship between organisms at different trophic levels, is expressed in terms of number, biomass or m It does not take into account the same species belonging
energy. to two or more trophic levels.
m The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or top level m It assumes a simple food chain, that never exists in
consumer. nature. It does not accommodate a food web.
m The trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in m Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological
the same ecosystem at the same time. eg. A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eat seeds, fruits, peas, and a secondary pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
consumer when it eats insects and worms. ecosystem
m Three types of ecological pyramids are usually studied – (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of
energy.

PYRAMID OF NUMBER PYRAMID OF BIOMASS PYRAMID OF ENERGY

m Upright in most ecosystems m Upright in most ecosystems. m Always upright and can never be inverted
m A big tree ecosystem is inverted or spindle shaped m In sea, it is generally inverted m When energy flows from a particular trophic level to next trophic level some energy is
always lost as heat
 Ecosystem

10 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION 11 SUCCESSION OF PLANTS

m The composition and structure of all communities constantly change in response to the HYDRARCH (In wet areas) XERARCH (Xeric/dry conditions)
changing environmental conditions, which is orderly and sequential, parallel with changes in Phytoplankton Submerged Submerged free Lichens Bryophytes Higher
the physical environment, leading finally to a community that is in near equilibrium to the (pioneer) plant stage floating stage (pioneer) plants
environment and is called climax community. species
species
m This gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is called Reed-swamp
stage
ecological succession.
m The entire sequence of communities that sucessively change in a given area are called Forest Scrub stage Marsh-meadow
(climax) MESIC stage MESIC (climax) Forest
SERE(s) and individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral
communities.
12 NUTRIENT CYCLING
m In the successive seral stages change in diversity of species of organisms, increase in the
number of species and organisms as well as an increase in total biomass is seen. m Nutrients which are never lost from the ecosystems, they are recycled time and again
indefinitely. It is called biogeochemical cycles (bio-living organism, geo-rocks, air, water).
m Actually succession and evolution would have been parallel processes. m Nutrient cycles are of two types:
m Primary succession starts in an area where no living organisms ever existed, like on bare rock, (a) Gaseous (eg. nitrogen, carbon cycle)
newly cooled lava, newly created pond or reservoir, so it is slow and can take several hundred (b) Sedimentary (eg. sulphur, phosphorus cycle)
to thousand years. CARBON-CYCLE PHOSPHORUS-CYCLE
m Natural reservoir is atmosphere. m Phosphorus is major constituent of
m Primary succession is very slow process. m Carbon constitutes 49% of dry weight of biological membranes, nucleic acids and
m Secondary succession takes place in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that organisms and is next only to water. cellular energy transfer system.
existed there, like abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded. m 71% of global carbon is dissolved in m Needed to make shells, bones and teeth.
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession. oceans, which regulates amount of CO2 in m Natural reservoir is rock.
atmosphere.
m In secondary succession, since soil is already there, the rate of succession is much faster and m Fossil fuel represent a reservoir of carbon. m Herbivores and other animals get it from
hence, climax is also reached more quickly. 13 plants.
m 4 × 10 kg of carbon is fixed annually in
m As succession proceeds, the numbers and types of animals and decomposers also change. biosphere through photosynthesis. m There is no respiratory release of
m Respiratory activities of producers and phosphorus into atmosphere.
m The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species. m Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus
consumers return a lot of CO2 to the
m After several more stages ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed. atmosphere. Decomposers contribute through rain fail are much smaller than
carbon inputs and secondly gaseous
substantially to CO2 pool
exchanges of phosphorus between
14 m Burning of wood, forest fire, fossil fuel, organism and environment are negligible.
volcanic activity, deforestation etc. also
m In ecosystem there is unidirectional movement of energy towards higher trophic levels and its
contribute to the atmospheric CO2.
dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.
m Some organisms of DFC are prey of the GFC animals. 13 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
m Some animals like cockroaches, crows etc. are omnivores. m Healthy forest ecosystem purify air and water, mitigate droughts and foods, cycle nutrients,
m Both hydrarch and xerarch lead to medium water conditions (MESIC). generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide
storage site for carbon and also provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values.
m Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc., regulate the rate of release
m Robert Constanza tried to put price tags of average US $ 33 trillion a year for these
of nutrients into the atmosphere.
ecosystem services, which is largely taken for granted, because they are free. This is
m The climax community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged. nearly twice the value of global GNP of US $ 18 trillion.
m Products of ecosystem processes are named as ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, e.g., purification m Out of the total cost soil formation accounts for about 50%, recreation and nutrient cycling
of air and water by forests. less than 10% each and climate regulation and habitat for wildlife 6% each.