12

CHAPTER
ECOSYSTEM
• The productivity is expressed in terms of g–2yr–1 or
Introduction (kcal m–2) yr–1.
• It can be divided into gross primary productivity
(a) An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).
living organisms interact among themselves and also
Primary Productivity
with the surrounding physical environment.

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• The amount of biomass or organic matter produced
(b) The entire biosphere can be regarded as a global
per unit area over a time period by plants during
ecosystem. photosynthesis is called primary production.
Types of Ecosystems • The primary production is expressed in terms of

(a) Terrestrial ecosystem: Forest, grassland, desert, etc. weight (g–2) or energy (kcal m–2).
(b) Aquatic ecosystem: Pond, lake, wetland, river, estuary Gross Primary Productivity
and ocean.

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• It is the rate of production of organic
(c) Man-made ecosystem: Crop fields and aquarium. matter during photosynthesis.
• A considerable amount of GPP is
Ecosystem: Structure utilized by plants in respiration.
and Function • Gross primary productivity minus
respiration losses (R) is the net
(a) An ecosystem, consists of biotic and abiotic
primary productivity (NPP), i.e.,
components. These components function as a unit.
NPP is the available biomass for
Unidirectional flow of energy takes place within these
the consumption of heterotrophs
components of ecosystem.
(herbivores and decomposers).
(b) Vertical distribution of different species occupying
NPP = GPP – R
different levels is called stratification. E.g., trees
occupy top vertical strata (layer) of a forest, shrubs • Primary productivity depends on
the second and herbs and grasses occupy the bottom (i) The plant species inhabiting a particular area.
layers. (ii) Environmental factors.
Components of Ecosystem (iii) Availability of nutrients.

There are four main functions of ecosystem:
(i) Productivity   (ii) Decomposition (iv) Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
(iii) Energy flow   (iv) Nutrient cycling Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems.
Example: Pond - Aquatic Ecosystem • The annual net primary productivity of the whole
• A pond is a shallow, simple, self-sustainable water biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry
body that exhibits all basic components of an weight) of organic matter.
ecosystem. • Of this, despite occupying about 70% of the surface,
• Abiotic components in pond: Water and the soil which the productivity of the oceans is only 55 billion tons.
is deposited at the bottom. Rest of course is on land.
• Climatic conditions: The solar input, the cycle of Secondary Productivity
temperature, day-length, etc.
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• It is the rate of formation of new organic matter by
• Autotrophic components: Phytoplankton, some algae
and the floating, submerged and marginal plants. consumers.
• Consumers (heterotrophs): Zooplankton, free Decomposition

swimming and bottom dwelling forms. • It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by
• Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria and flagellates. decomposers into inorganic substances like carbon
• Pond performs all the functions of an ecosystem such dioxide, water and nutrients.
as: • It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
(i) Conversion of inorganic into organic material with • Detritus (dead plant remains such as leaves, bark,
the help of the radiant energy of the sun by the flowers and dead remains of animals, including faecal
autotrophs. matter) is the raw material for decomposition.
(ii) Consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs.
(iii) Decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter
to release them back for reuse by the autotrophs.
• There is unidirectional movement of energy towards
MNEMONICS
the higher trophic levels and its dissipation and loss as
heat to the environment. Concept Name: Steps in decomposition
Productivity
Mnemonics: Fly Like Crane with High Moral

• A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement
for any ecosystem to function and sustain. Interpretation: Fragmentation, Leaching,
• The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
Catabolism, Humification, Mineralisation
ECOSYSTEM
 BIOLOGY, Class-XII

Steps in decomposition Producers


The important steps in the process of decomposition • The green plants in the ecosystem which capture the
are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification solar energy and convert it into chemically bound
and mineralization. energy are called producers.
• Fragmentation • All organisms are dependent for their food on
It is the breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by producers (green plants), either directly or indirectly.
detritivores (e.g., Earthworm). • In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are
• Leaching herbaceous and woody plants.
• Primary producers in an aquatic ecosystem are
In this process, water soluble inorganic nutrients go
phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as • The energy trapped by the producer is either passed
unavailable salts. on to a consumer or the organism dies.
• Catabolism • Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food
(i) Here, the degradation of detritus into simpler chain / web.
inorganic substances takes place by bacterial and Consumers (Heterotrophs)


fungal enzymes. • These are all animals that depend on plants (directly or
(ii) Fragmentation, leaching and catabolism operate indirectly) for their food.
simultaneously on the detritus. • They include:
• Humification (a) Primary Consumers
(i) It is the accumulation of humus • These are herbivores that feed on plants.
(dark amorphous substance) in soil. • e.g., Insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial
(ii) Humus is resistant to microbial ecosystem and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
action and so decomposes very (b) Secondary Consumers
slowly.
(iii) Being colloidal in nature, it serves as • These are primary carnivores that feed on herbivores,
a reservoir of nutrients. e.g., Frog, fox, man etc.
• Mineralization (c) Tertiary Consumers
It is the release of inorganic nutrients • These are secondary carnivores that feed on primary
due to the degradation of humus by carnivores.
some microbes. Grazing Food Chain (GFC)
Factors Influencing Decomposition

• A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below:

The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical Grass - - - - - - - Goat— - - - - - - - - - - Man - — — —-
composition of detritus and climatic factors.
• Chemical composition of detritus: (Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary Consumer)
Decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin Detritus Food Chain (DFC)
and chitin and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen

• It begins with dead organic matter.
and water-soluble substances like sugars. • It is made up of decomposers (saprotrophs) which are
• Climatic factors like temperature and soil moisture: heterotrophic organisms, e.g., fungi and bacteria.
– Temperature and soil moisture are the most important • They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by
climatic factors that regulate decomposition through degrading dead organic matter or detritus.
their effects on the activities of soil microbes. • Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that
– Warm and moist environment favours decomposition breakdown dead and waste materials into simple,
whereas low temperature and anaerobic conditions inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed
inhibits decomposition resulting in build up of organic by them.
materials. In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for

energy flow.
Energy Flow In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of

energy flows through the DFC than through the GFC.
• Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels: some

the earth. of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals.
• Of the incident, solar radiation less than 50% of it is Some animals (cockroaches, crows etc.) are omnivores.

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). These interconnections of food chains make a food
• Plants, photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria

web.
(autotrophs) fix solar radiant energy to make food. Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or
• Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR and this small

in a community according to their feeding relationship.
amount of energy sustains the entire living world. A specific place of organisms in the food chain is
So, it is very important to know how the solar energy

known as their trophic level.
captured by plants flow through different organisms
Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores
of an ecosystem.

to the second and carnivores to the third.
• Ecosystem obeys First and Second Law of
Thermodynamics. The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic

• The energy of an ecosystem is constant. levels.
• They need a constant supply of energy to synthesize When an organism dies, it becomes dead biomass

the molecules they require, to counteract the universal (detritus) that serves as an energy source for
tendency towards increasing disorderliness. decomposers.
ECOSYSTEM

Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the than at a higher level.
lower trophic level for their energy demands. • Large number of insects feeding on a big tree is an
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material example of an inverted pyramid of number.

at a particular time called as the standing crop. • Pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because
The standing crop is measured as the mass of living the biomass of fish far exceeds that of phytoplankton.


organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. • Pyramid of energy is always upright, because when
Biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or energy flows from a trophic level to the next trophic
dry weight. level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is Limitations of Ecological Pyramids


(a) It does not take into account the same species

more accurate.
belonging to two or more trophic levels.
The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is (b) It assumes a simple food chain that almost never


restricted as the transfer of energy follows Lindeman’s exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food
10 % law –only 10% of the energy is transferred to each web.
trophic level from the lower trophic level. (c) Saprophytes are not included in ecological pyramids
In nature, it is possible to have so many levels – even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.


producer, herbivore, primary carnivore, secondary Important Diagrams
carnivore in the grazing food chain. Trophic level No. of Individuals
Ecological Pyramids
TC (Tertiary consumer)

3
• The representation of a food chain in the form of
a pyramid is called ecological pyramid. It is the
relationship between the producers and consumers of
various order represented graphically. SC (Secondary consumer) 3, 54,000
• The base of each pyramid represents the producers
PC (Primary consumer) 708,000
(first trophic level) while the apex represents tertiary
PP (Primary producer) 5, 842,000
or top level consumer.
• Ecological pyramids are of three types: Fig 12.1: Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem
(a) Pyramid of number
(b) Pyramid of biomass Trophic Dry Mass
(c) Pyramid of energy level (kg/m2)

MNEMONICS PC 21
(Zooplankton)
PP 4
Concept Name: Types of Ecological Pyramids (Phytoplankton)
Mnemonics: No Energical Binding Fig 12.2: Inverted Pyramid of Biomass in Sea
Trophic level Dry Mass
Interpretation: 2
(kg/m )
(i) Pyramid of Number
TC 1.5
(ii) Pyramid of Energy
(iii) Pyramid of Biomass

• Any calculations of energy content, biomass or 11

SC
numbers, has to include all organisms at that trophic
PC 37
level.
• The trophic level represents a functional level, not a PP 809
species as such. Fig 12.3: Pyramid of Biomass in most ecosystem
• A given species may occupy more than one trophic Pyramid level Energy level
level in the same ecosystem at the same time. For e.g.,
a sparrow is a primary consumer, when it eats seeds, TC 10 J
fruits, peas, and a secondary consumer when it eats
insects and worms.
• In most ecosystems, all the pyramids are upright i.e., SC 100 J
producers are more in number and biomass than the PC 1000 J
PP 10,000 J
herbivores and herbivores are more in number and
biomass than the carnivores. 1,000,000 J of Sunlight
• Also, energy at a lower trophic level is always more Fig 12.4: An ideal pyramid of energy
 BIOLOGY, Class-XII

NCERT CORNER

Exercise Questions
Q. 1. Fill in the blanks. they are called primary producers. There are no other
(a) Plants are called as___________ because they fix producers in a food chain.
carbon dioxide. Q. 5. What is the percentage of photosynthetically active
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of radiation (PAR) in the incident solar radiation?
numbers) is__________ type. (A) 100% (B) 50 % (C) 1–5% (D) 2–10%
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the [NECRT Ex. Q.5, Page 215]
productivity is______________. Ans. Option (B) is correct.
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are
Explanation: About 50% of the total incident solar
____________.
radiation constitutes photosynthetically active radiation.
(e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is ___________.
Q. 6. Distinguish between
[NECRT Ex. Q.1, Page 214]
Ans. (a) Plants are called as Producers because they fix (a) Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
carbon dioxide. (b) Production and decomposition
(c) Upright and inverted pyramid
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid
(of numbers) is of inverted type. (d) Food chain and Food web
(e) Litter and detritus
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for (f) Primary and secondary productivity
productivity is light.
[NECRT Ex. Q.6, Page 215]
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are Ans. (a) Difference between grazing food chain and de-
earthworms. tritus food chain
(e) The major reservoir of carbon on Earth is oceans. S. Grazing food Detritus food chain
Q. 2. Which one of the following has the largest No. chain
population in a food chain?
(i) Energy is provided Energy is provided by or-
(A) Producers by the sun. ganic matter (or detritus)
(B) Primary consumers generated in trophic levels
of the grazing food chain.
(C) Secondary consumers
(D) Decomposers [NECRT Ex. Q.2, Page 215] (ii) It starts with produc- It starts with detritus such
Ans. Option (A) is correct. ers, that is, first tro- as dead bodies of animals
Explanation: In a food chain, producers are the largest in phic level. The plant or fallen leaves, which are
biomass is then eaten then eaten by decompos-
number. It should also be remembered that decomposers
by herbivores, which ers or detritivores. These
such as bacteria and fungi also forms the largest in turn are consumed detritivores in turn are con-
population but they are not included in the food chain as by variety of carni- sumed by their predators.
they derive their nourishment from the decaying organic vores.
matter and thereby decompose complex substances into
simpler substances. (iii) Generally, this food Generally, this for chain
Q. 3. The second trophic level in a lake is chain is large. is small.
(A) phytoplankton. (B) zooplankton. (b) Difference between production and decomposition
(C) benthos. (D) fishes
[NECRT Ex. Q.3, Page 215] S.
Production Decomposition
Ans. Option (B) is correct. No.
Explanation: Phytoplankton exhibit photosynthesis and (i) It is the process of It is the process of breaking
occupy the first trophic level in a lake. Zooplankton are formation of organic down of complex organic
primary consumers in aquatic food chains that feed upon matter by producers matter or biomass from the
phytoplankton. Therefore, they are present at the second by means of photo- body of dead plants and
trophic level in a lake. synthesis. animals with the help of
Q. 4. Secondary producers are decomposers into simpler
(A) herbivores. (B) producers. organic raw material such
as CO 2, H 2O, and other
(C) carnivores. (D) none of the above. nutrients.
[NECRT Ex. Q.4, Page 215]
Ans. Option (D) is correct. (ii) It relies on the pho- It relies on the decomposers.
Explanation: None of the above in the given options are tosynthetic capacity
secondary producers. Plants are the only producers and of the producers.
ECOSYSTEM

(iii) Sunlight is required Instead of sunlight, dead The living and the non-living components of an ecosystem
by plants for primary and decaying organic mate- interact amongst themselves and function as a unit.
production. rial is required. Living component of an ecosystem constitutes the biotic
factors such as producers, consumers, decomposers,
(c) Difference between upright and inverted pyramid etc. Producers include plants and algae. They contain
S. chlorophyll pigment, which helps them carry out the
Upright pyramid Inverted pyramid process of photosynthesis in the presence of light. Thus,
No.
they are also called converters or transducers. Consumers
(i) T h e p y r a m i d o f The pyramid of biomass and
or heterotrophs are organisms that are directly (primary
energy is always the pyramid of numbers can
upright. be inverted. consumers) or indirectly (secondary and tertiary
consumers) dependent on producers for their food.
(ii) In the upright pyra- In an inverted pyramid, Decomposers include micro-organisms such as bacteria
mid, the number the number and biomass of and fungi. They form the largest population in a food
a n d b i o m a s s o f organisms at the producer chain and obtain nutrients by breaking down the dead
organisms at the level of an ecosystem is and decaying animal organic material.
producer level of the lowest, which keeps on
a n e c o s y s t e m i s increasing at each trophic Abiotic component of an ecosystem constitutes non-living
the highest, which level. factors such as light, temperature, water, soil, air, inorganic
keeps on decreasing nutrients, etc.
at each trophic level Q. 8. Define ecological pyramids and describe with
in a food chain. examples, pyramids of number and biomass.
(d) Difference between food chain and food web [NECRT Ex. Q.8, Page 215]
Ans. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation
S. of various ecological parameters such as the number
Food chain Food web
No. of individuals present at each trophic level, the amount
(i) It is a basic network It contains a number of of energy, or the biomass present at each trophic level.
that shows the lin- interconnected food chains. Ecological pyramids represent producers at the base,
ear flow of nutrients while the apex represents the top level consumers present
and energy from in the ecosystem.
one trophic level to The three ecological pyramids that are usually studied are:
another.
(a) Pyramid of number
(ii) Members present at One organism has alternate (b) Pyramid of biomass and
higher trophic levels food sources of various in- (c) Pyramid of energy.
feed on single type terlinked food chains (a) Pyramid of number: It is a graphical representation of
of organisms. the number of individuals present at each trophic level in
(e) Difference between litter and detritus a food chain of an ecosystem. It can be upright or inverted
depending on the number of producers. For example, in a
S. grassland ecosystem, the pyramid of numbers is upright. In
Litter Detritus
No. this type of a food chain, the number of producers (plants)
(i) Litter contains all Detritus is composed of the is followed by the number of herbivores (mice), which in
k i n d s o f w a s t e s remains of dead plants and turn is followed by the number of secondary consumers
generated on the animals. (snakes) and tertiary carnivores (eagles). Hence, the number
surface of earth. of individuals at the producer level will be the maximum,
while the number of individuals present at top carnivores
(ii) Litter contains both Detritus contains only bio-
biodegradable and degradable matter. will be least.
non- biodegradable (b) Pyramid of biomass: It is a graphical representation of
matter. the total amount of living matter present at each trophic
level of an ecosystem. It can be upright or inverted. It
(f) Difference between primary and secondary produc-
is upright in grasslands and forest ecosystems as the
tivity
amount of biomass present at the producer level is higher
S. Primary Secondary productivity than at the top carnivore level. It is inverted in a pond
No productivity ecosystem as the biomass of fishes far exceeds the biomass
(i) Organic matter pro- It is the rate of production of of zooplankton (upon which they feed).
duced by producers organic matter by consumers Q. 9. What is primary productivity? Give brief description
per unit area over over a period of time. of factors that affect primary productivity.
a period of time is [NECRT Ex. Q.9, Page 215]
known as primary Ans. Primary productivity refers to the rate of generation
productivity. of biomass in an ecosystem by producers per unit
Q. 7. Describe the components of an ecosystem. area over a period of time. It depends on the variety of
[NECRT Ex. Q.7, Page 215] environmental factors such as light, temperature, water,
Ans. An ecosystem is an interacting unit composed of precipitation, etc. It also depends on the availability
biological community (biotic) as well as the non-living of nutrients and the availability of plants to carry out
components (abiotic) of an area. photosynthesis.
 BIOLOGY, Class-XII
Q. 10. Define decomposition and describe the processes releasing inorganic nutrients from the humus is known
and products of decomposition. as mineralization.
[NECRT Ex. Q.10, Page 215] Decomposition produces a dark coloured, nutrient-rich
Ans. Decomposition is the process that involves the substance called humus. Humus finally degrades and
breakdown of complex organic matter or biomass from releases inorganic raw materials such as CO2, water, and
the body of dead plants and animals with the help of other nutrient in the soil.
decomposers into inorganic raw materials such as carbon Q. 11. Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.
dioxide, water, and other nutrients. The various processes [NECRT Ex. Q.11, Page 215]
involved in decomposition are as follows: Ans. Energy enters an ecosystem from the Sun. Solar
radiations pass through the atmosphere and are absorbed
Fragmentation: It is the first step in the process of
by the Earth’s surface. These radiations help plants in
decomposition. It involves the breakdown of detritus
carrying out the process of photosynthesis. Also, they
into smaller pieces by the action of detritivores, such as
help maintain the Earth’s temperature for the survival of
earthworms. living organisms.
Leaching: It is a process where the water soluble nutrients Some solar radiations are reflected by the Earth’s surface.
go down into the soil layers and get locked as unavailable Only 2–10% of solar energy is captured by green plants
salts. (producers) during photosynthesis to be converted into
Catabolism: It is a process in which bacteria and fungi food.
degrade detritus through various enzymes into simpler The rate at which the biomass is produced by plants
inorganic substances. during photosynthesis is termed as ‘gross primary
Humification: The next step is humification which leads productivity’. When these green plants are consumed by
to the formation of a dark coloured colloidal substance herbivores, only 10% of the stored energy from producers
called humus, which acts as reservoir of nutrients for is transferred to herbivores. The remaining 90% of this
plants. energy is used by plants for various processes such as
respiration, growth, and reproduction. Similarly, only 10%
Mineralisation: The humus is further degraded by the
of the energy of herbivores is transferred to carnivores.
action of microbes, which finally leads to the release
This is known as 10% law of energy flow.
of inorganic nutrients into the soil. This process of
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