3.

Motion in a Plane
Can you recall?
1. What is meant by motion? 2. What is rectilinear motion?
3. What is the difference between displacement and distance travelled?
4. What is the difference between uniform and nonuniform motion?
3.1 Introduction: The following quantities can be defined for the
We see objects moving all around us. Motion motion.
is a change in the position of an object with time. 1. Displacement: The displacement of the
We have come across the motion of a toy car object between t1 and t2 is the difference
when pushed along some particular direction, between the position vectors of the object at
the motion of a cricket ball hit by a batsman for the two instances. Thus, the displacement
a sixer and the motion of an aeroplane from one is given by
place to another. The motion of objects can be    
s   x  x 2  x1 --- (3.1)
divided in three categories: (1) motion along a Its direction is along the line of motion
straight line, i.e., rectilinear motion, (2) motion of the object. Its dimensions are that of
in two dimensions, i.e., motion in a plane and, length. For example, if an object has
(3) motion in three dimensions, i.e., motion in travelled through 1 m from time t1 to t2
space. The above cited examples correspond to along the +ve x-direction, the magnitude
three types of motions, respectively. You have of its displacement is 1 m and its direction
studied rectilinear motion in earlier standards. is along the +ve x-axis. On the other
In rectilinear motion the force acting on the hand, if the object travelled along the
object and the velocity of the object both are +ve y direction through the same distance
along one and the same line. The distances are in the same time, the magnitude of its
measured along the line only and we can indicate displacement is the same as before, i.e., 1
distances along the +ve and –ve axes as being m but the direction of the displacement is
positive and negative, respectively. The study along the +ve y-axis.
of the motion of an object in a plane or in space
becomes much easier and the corresponding 2. Path length: This is the actual distance
equations become more elegant if we use vector travelled by the object during its motion.
quantities. In this Chapter we will first recall It is a scalar quantity and its dimensions
basic facts about rectilinear motion. We will are also that of length. If an object travels
use vector notation for this study as it will be along the x-axis from x = 2 m to x = 5 m
useful later when we will study the motion in then the distance travelled is 3 m. In this
two dimensions. We will then study the motion case the displacement is also 3 m and its
in two dimensions which will be restricted to direction is along the +ve x-axis. However,
projectile motion only. Circular motion, i.e., the if the object now comes back to x = 4, then
motion of an object around a circular path will the distance through which the object has
be introduced here and will be studied in detail moved increases to 3 + 1 = 4 m. Its initial
in the next standard. position was x = 2 m and the final position
is now x = 4 m and thus, its displacement
3.2 Rectilinear Motion: is ∆x = 4 – 2 = 2 m, i.e., the magnitude of
Consider an object moving along a straight the displacement is 2 m and its direction
line. Let us assume this line to be along the
  is along the +ve x-axis. If the object now
x-axis. Let x1 and x 2 be the position vectors moves to x =1, then the distance travelled,
of the body at times t1 and t2 during its motion. i.e., the path length increases to 4 + 3 =

30
 7 m while the magnitude of displacement given instant of time. It is defined as the
becomes 2 – 1 = 1 m and its direction is limiting value of the average velocity of
along the negative x-axis. the object over a small time interval (∆t)
3. Average velocity: This is defined as the around t when the value of the time interval
displacement of the object during the time (∆t) goes to zero.
 
interval over which average velocity is   x  d x
being calculated, divided by that time v  lim   , --- (3.3)
 t 0 t  dt
interval. As displacement is a vector  

quantity, the velocity is also a vector dx 
quantity. Its dimensions are [L1 M0 T-1]. being the derivative of x with respect
 dt
If the position vectors of the object are x1
 to t (see Chapter 2).
and x 2 at times t1 and t2 respectively, then 6. Instantaneous speed: Instantaneous speed
the average velocity is given by is the speed of an object at a given instant
 
 x 2  x1 of time t. It is the limiting value of the
v av  --- (3.2)
( t - t ) average speed of the object taken over
2 1
a small time interval (∆t) around t when
For example, if the positions of an object the time interval goes to zero. In such a
are x = +2 m and x = +4 m at times t = 0 and limit, the path length will be equal to the
t = 1 minute respectively, the magnitude magnitude of the displacement and so the
of its average velocity during that time is instantaneous speed will always be equal
vav = (4 - 2)/(1- 0) = 2 m per minute and its to the magnitude of the instantaneous
direction will be along the +ve x-axis, and velocity of the object.

we write vav = 2i m/min where i is a unit
vector along x-axis.
Always Remember:
4. Average speed: This is defined as the
For uniform rectilinear motion, i.e., for an
total path length travelled during the time
object moving with constant velocity along
interval over which average speed is being
a straight line
calculated, divided by that time interval.
1. The average and instantaneous
Average speed = vav = path length/time
velocities are equal.
interval. It is a scalar quantity and has the
same dimensions as that of velocity, i.e., 2. The average and instantaneous speeds
[L1 M0 T-1]. are the same and are equal to the
magnitude of the velocity.
If the rectilinear motion of the object is
only in one direction along a line, then For nonuniform rectilinear motion
the magnitude of its displacement will 1. The average and instantaneous
be equal to the distance travelled and so velocities are different.
the magnitude of average velocity will be 2. The average and instantaneous speeds
equal to the average speed. However if the are different.
object reverses its direction (the motion 3. The average speed will be different
remaining along the same line) then the from the magnitude of average velocity.
magnitude of displacement will be smaller
than the path length and the average Example 3.1: A person walks from point P to
speed will be larger than the magnitude of point Q along a straight road in 10 minutes,
average velocity. then turns back and returns to point R which
5. Instantaneous velocity: I n s t a n t a n e o u s is midway between P and Q after further 4
velocity of an object is its velocity at a minutes. If PQ is 1 km, find the average speed

31
and velocity of the person in going from P to R.
Solution: The path length travelled by the
person is 1.5 km while the displacement is the
distance between R and P which is 0.5 km. The
time taken for the motion is 14 min.
The average speed = 1.5 / 14 = 0.107 km/min =
6.42 km/hr.
The magnitude of the average velocity = 0.5/14
= 0.0357 km/min = 2.142 km/hr.
Graphical Study of Motion
Fig 3.1 (b): Object with uniform velocity
We can study the motion of an object by
along +ve x-axis.
using graphs showing its position as a function
of time. Figure 3.1 shows the graphs of position
as a function of time for five different types
of motion of an object. Figure 3.1(a) shows
an object at rest, for which the x-t graph is a
horizontal straight line. Since the position
is not changing, displacement of the object
zero. Velocity is displacement (which is zero)
divided by time interval or the derivative of
displacement with respect to time. It can be
obtained from the slope of the line plotted in Fig 3.1 (c): Object with uniform velocity
the figure which is zero. along -ve x-axis.
Figure 3.1(b) shows x-t graph for an object
moving with constant velocity along the +ve x-
axis. Since velocity is constant, displacement
is proportional to elapsed time. The slope
of the straight line is +ve, showing that the
velocity is along the +ve x-axis. As the motion
is uniform, the average velocity is same as the
instantaneous velocity at all times. Also, the
speed is equal to the magnitude of the velocity.
Figure 3.1(c) shows the x-t graph for a Fig 3.1 (d): Object performing oscillatory
body moving with uniform velocity but along motion.
the -ve x-axis, the slope of the line being -ve.
Figure 3.1(d) shows the x-t graph of an object
having oscillatory motion with constant speed.
The direction of velocity changes from +ve to
-ve and vice versa over fixed intervals of time.

Fig.3.1 (e): Object in nonuniform motion.

Fig 3.1 (a): Object at rest. Figure 3.1(e) shows the motion of an

32
object with nonuniform velocity. Its velocity the displacement of the object during that time
changes with time and, therefore, the average interval (as shown below). Figure 3.2(d) shows
and instantaneous velocities are different. the motion of an object having nonuniform
Figure shows the average velocity over time acceleration. The average acceleration between
interval from t1 to t4 around time t0, which can t1 and t2 around t0 and the instantaneous
be seen from Eq. (3.2) to be the slope of line accelerations at t0 for the object are shown by
AB. For a smaller time interval from t2 to t3, the straight lines AB and CD respectively.
average velocity is the slope of the line CD. If
we keep reducing the time interval around t0, we
will ultimately come to a limit, when the time v0
interval will go to zero and lines AB, CD... will
go over to the tangent to the curve at t0. The v
instantaneous velocity at t0 will thus be equal to
the slope of the tangent PQ at t0 (see Eq. (3.3)).
7. Acceleration: Acceleration is defined as
the rate of change of velocity with time. It is
a vector quantity and its dimensions are [L1
M0 T-2]. The average acceleration of an object
 
having velocities v1 and v 2 at times t1 and t2 is
given by
  Fig 3.2 (a): Object moving with constant
  v 2  v1  --- (3.4) velocity.
a
 t2  t1 
Instantaneous acceleration is the limiting v2
value of the average acceleration when the
time interval goes to zero. It is given by v v
  1
   v  dv
a  lim   --- (3.5)
 t 0 t 
  dt
The instantaneous acceleration at a given
time is the slope of the tangent to the velocity
versus time curve at that time. Figure 3.2
shows the velocity versus time (v - t) graphs for
four different cases. Figure 3.2(a) represents
the motion of an object with zero acceleration, Fig 3.2 (b): Object moving with velocity (v)
i.e., constant velocity. The shaded area under along +ve x-axis with uniform acceleration
the velocity-time graph over some time interval along the same direction.
t1 to t2, shown in Figs. 3.2(a) is equal to v0
(t2 - t1) which is the magnitude of the displacement
of the object from t1 to t2. Figure 3.2(b) is the v1
velocity-time graph for an object moving with v
constant +ve acceleration (magnitude of velocity
uniformly increasing with time). Figure 3.2(c) v2
shows similar motion but the object has -ve
acceleration, i.e., the acceleration is opposite
to the direction of velocity which, therefore,
decreases uniformly with time. The area under
both the curves between two instants of time is Fig 3.2 (c): Object moving with velocity (v)
with negative uniform acceleration.

33
 Equations of Motion for Uniform
Acceleration:
We can graphically derive Newton's
equations of motion for an object moving with
uniform acceleration. Consider an object having
v position x = 0 at t = 0. Let the velocity at t = 0 be
u and at time t be v. The graphical representation
of motion is shown in Fig. 3.3. The acceleration
is given by the slope of the line AB. Thus,
vu vu
Acceleration, a  
t 0 t
Fig. 3.2 (d): Object moving with nonuniform  v  u  at --- (3.7)
acceleration. This is the first equation of motion.
The area under the velocity-time curves v
in Figs. 3.2(a) to (d) can be written using the
definition of integral given in Chapter 2 as
t2 t t
2
dx 2

Area =  v
dt  t dt t dx x(t2 )  x(t1 ) --- (3.6)
 
dt   v
t1 1 1

= displacement of the object from t1 to t2.

Always Remember:
For uniform acceleration, for a rectilinear
motion:
1. Velocity-time graph is linear. O
2. The area under the velocity-time graph
between two instants of time t1 and t2 Fig.3.3: Derivation of equation of motion
gives the displacement of the object for motion with uniform acceleration.
during that time interval. As we know, the area under the curve in
velocity-time graph is the displacement of
3. The slope of the velocity-time graph is
the object. Thus displacement s = area of the
the acceleration of the object
quadrilateral OABD. = area of triangle ABC +
For nonuniform acceleration in a rectilinear area of rectangle OACD.
motion:
1
1. Velocity-time graph is nonlinear. =  v  u  t  ut
2
2. The area under the velocity-time graph 1 2
Using Eq. (3.7), s  ut   at --- (3.8)
between two instants of time t1 and t2 2
gives the displacement of the object This is the second equation of motion.
during that time interval. As the acceleration is constant, the
3. The instantaneous acceleration of the velocity is increasing linearly with time and
object at a given time is equal to the we can use average velocity vav, to calculate the
slope of the tangent to the curve at that displacement using Eq. (3.7) as
point.  v  u   v  u  v  u
s  vav t   t 
While using the concept of area under the  2  2a
curve, the origin of the velocity axis (for v-t  
s   v 2  u 2 /  2a 
graph) must be zero.

 v 2  u 2  2 a .s --- (3.9)

34
 This is the third equation of motion. Vector Example 3.2: A stone is thrown vertically
notation was not included here as the motion upwards from the ground with a velocity 15
was rectilinear. m/s. At the same instant a ball is dropped from
The most common example of uniform a point directly above the stone from a height
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration of of 30 m. At what height from the ground will
an object in day to day life is a freely falling the stone and the ball meet and after how much
body. When a body starts with zero velocity at time? (Use g = 10 m/s2 for ease of calculation).
a certain height from the ground and falls under Solution: Let us assume that the stone and
the influence of the gravity of the Earth , it is the ball meet after time t0. The distances (not
said to be in free fall. The only other force that displacements) travelled by the stone and the
acts on it is that of the air resistance or friction. ball in that time can be obtained from Eq. (3.8)
For displacements of a few metres, this force is as
too small and can be neglected. The acceleration 1
of the body is the acceleration due to gravity sstone = 15 t0 – g t02
2
which is along the vertical direction and can be 1
sball = g t02
assumed to be constant over distances which are 2
small compared to the radius of the Earth . Thus When they meet, sstone + sball = 30
the velocity and acceleration are both along the 1 1
15 t0 - g t02 + g t02 = 30
vertical direction and the motion is a uniform 2 2
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration. t0 = 30/15 = 2 s
1
∴ sstone = 15 (2) –  (10) (2)2 = 30 -20 =10 m
Do you know ? 2
Thus the stone and the ball meet at a height of
The distance travelled by an object starting 10 m.
from rest and having a uniform acceleration 8. Relative Velocity: You must have often
in successive seconds are in the ratio experienced relative motion. The most striking
1:3:5:7... Consider a freely falling object. example is when you are going in a train and
Let us calculate the distances travelled by another train travelling in the same direction
it in equal intervals of time t0 (say). This along parallel tracks, overtakes you. If you look
can be done using the second equation at that train, it actually seems to be moving
of motion s = u t0 +(1/2) g t02. The initial much slower than what your train seemed
velocity is zero. Therefore, the distance to move and yet it is overtaking you. On the
travelled in the first t0 interval = (1/2) g other hand if your train overtakes another
t02. For simplification let us write (1/2) train, travelling on a parallel track in the same
g = A. Then the distance travelled in the direction, and you look at that train, you feel
first t0 time interval = d1 = At02. In the time that your train has suddenly slowed down. Why
interval 2t0, the distance travelled = A(2t0)2. does this happen? This is because when you
Hence, the distance travelled in the second look at the neighbouring train, you are actually
t0 interval is d2 = A(4t02 - t02) = 3A t02 = 3 experiencing relative motion, i.e., your motion
d1. The distance travelled in time interval with respect to the other train or the motion
3t0 = A(3t0)2. Thus, the distance travelled of the other train with respect to you. Thus, in
in the 3rd t0 interval = d3 = A(9t02 – 4t02) = the first case as the other train overtakes you
5A t02 = 5d1. Continuing, one can see that the what you perceive is the velocity of the train
distances d1, d2, d3 .. are in the ratio 1:3:5:7... with respect to you, i.e., the difference in the
This is true for any rectilinear motion, velocities of the two trains which most often is
starting from rest, with positive uniform much smaller than the velocity of your train. In
acceleration. the second case, you are moving faster but when
you look at that train you only feel your velocity

35
relative to it and, therefore, your velocity the value of average speed will be different as
appears to be lower than its actual value. We the magnitude of the displacement need not
can define relative velocity of object A with be equal to the path length. For example, if a
respect to object B as the difference between particle travels along a circle and comes back
their velocities, i.e., to its original position, its displacement will
vAB = vA – vB --- (3.10) be zero but the path length will be equal to the
Similarly, the velocity of B with respect to A is circumference of the circle.
given by 3.3.1 Average and Instantaneous Velocities:
vBA = vB – vA --- (3.11) For studying the motion of an object in two
We assume that at time t = 0, A and B were dimensions, for simplicity, we will take the plane
at the same point x = 0. As they are travelling to be the x-y plane. To describe the position of
with different velocities, the distance between an object in this plane we will have to specify,
them will go on increasing with time in direct both its x and y coordinates. The definitions
proportion to the difference in their velocities, of displacement, average and instantaneous
i.e., the relative velocity between them. velocities, average and instantaneous speeds
Example 3.3: An aeroplane A, is travelling and acceleration will be the same as those for
in a straight line with a velocity of 300 km/hr rectilinear motion except that each of these
with respect to Earth. Another aeroplane B, quantities will now have components along the
is travelling in the opposite direction with a x and y directions. Let us assume the object to
velocity of 350 km/hr with respect to Earth. be at point P at time t1 as shown in Fig. 3.4 (a).
What is the relative velocity of A with respect
to B? What should be the velocity of a third
aeroplane C moving parallel to A, relative to ∆y
the Earth if it has a relative velocity of 100
km/hr with respect to A?
Solution: Let vA, vB and vC be the velocities of
the three planes relative to the Earth. Relative
velocity of A with respect to B = vAB = vA - vB =
300 – (-350) = 650 km/hr ∆x
Relative velocity of C with respect to A = vCA =
vC - vA = 100 km/hr.
Thus, vC = vCA + vA= 400 km/hr Fig. 3.4 (a) Motion in two dimensions

3.3 Motion in Two Dimensions-Motion in a

Plane:
So far we were considering rectilinear
motion of an object. The direction of motion of
the object was always along one straight line.
Now we will consider the motion of an object
in two dimensions, i.e., along a plane. Here, the
direction of the force acting on an object will not
be in the same line as its initial velocity. Thus,
the velocity and acceleration will have different Fig. 3.4 (b) Instantaneous velocity
directions. For this reason we have to use vector The position of the object will be described

equations. The definitions of various terms by its position vector r 1 . This can be written in
given in section 3.2 will remain valid except terms of its components along the x and y axes
that the magnitude of the average velocity and as

36
 
r 1  x1iˆ  y1 j --- (3.12) 3.3.2 Average and Instantaneous Acceleration:
At time t2, let the position of the object be Q and Again, the definitions are the same as those
 for rectilinear motion. Thus, the average
its position vector be r 2 
acceleration ( a av) of a particle between times

r 2  x2iˆ  y2 j --- (3.13) t1 and t2 can be written as
 
The displacement of the particle from t1 to t2 a  v 2  v1   v 2 x  v1x  iˆ   v 2 y  v1 y  ĵj
   
t2  t1   t2  t1   t2  t1  - (3.21)
av
shown by PQ, i.e., in time t = t2 – t1 is given by
   where v 2 and v1 are the velocities of the
r  r 2  r 1   x2  x1  iˆ   y2  y1  ˆj --- (3.14)
particle at times t2 and t1 respectively.
We can write the average velocity of the object 
a = (a ) i + (a ) j --- (3.22),
as av av x av y
 (aav)x and (aav)y being the x and y components
  r  x2  x1  ˆ  y2  y1  ˆ
v av    i
    j of the average acceleration.
t  t2  t1   t2  t1 
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration

v av  (v ) i  (v ) j
av x av y --- (3.15) are given by
aav =  aav    aav  
2 2
where, (vav)x = (x2-x1)/(t2 - t1) and --- (3.23)
x y
(vav)y = (y2-y1)/(t2 - t1) --- (3.16) and
Average velocity
 is a vector whose tan θ = (aav)y/(aav)x --- (3.24)
direction is along ∆ r (see Eq. (3.2)), i.e., along The instantaneous acceleration is given by (see
the direction of displacement. In terms of its Eq. (3.5))
components, the magnitude (v) and direction  
  v  dv  dv x  ˆ  dv y  ˆ
(the angle θ that the velocity vector makes with a  lim 
 t 0 t 
  i   j
the x-axis) can be written as (see Chapter 2)   dt  dt   dt  -(3.25)

vav =  v av  x   v av  y and
2 2
d  dx  ˆ d  dy  ˆ  d 2 x  ˆ  d 2 y 
 i j   2  i   2  ĵ
tan θ = (vav)y  /(vav)x --- (3.17) dt  dt  dt  dt   dt   dt 
Figure 3.4(b) shows the trajectory of an object --- (3.26)
moving in two dimensions. The instantaneous Thus, the x and y components of the
velocity of the object at point P along the instantaneous acceleration are respectively
trajectory is along the tangent to the curve at given by
P. This is shown by the vector PQ. Its x and
ax = d2x/dt2 and ay = d2y/dt2 --- (3.27)
y components vx and vy are also shown in the
figure. The magnitude and direction of the instantaneous
acceleration are given by
The instantaneous velocity of the object can be
written in terms of derivative as (see Eq. 3.3) 2
 d2x   d2 y 
2

  a =  2    2  --- (3.28),
   r  dr  dx   dy    dt   dt 
v  lim       iˆ    j -- (3.18) and
 t  dt  dt   dt 
t  0
tan θ = (dvy/dt)/(dvx/dt) = dvy/dvx --- (3.29)
The magnitude and direction of the
which is the slope of the tangent to the curve in
instantaneous velocity are given by
velocity graph, i.e., a plot of vy versus vx.
2 2
 dx   dy  Example 3.4: The position vectors of three
v       , --- (3.19)
 dt   dt  particles are given by
 
x1  (5i  5 j ) m, x 2  (5t i  5t j ) m and
tan θ =  dy / dt  /  dx / dt  dy / dx --- (3.20) 
 2
m as a function of time t.
which is the slope of the tangent to the curve x 3  (5t i  10t j )
Determine the velocity and acceleration for
at the point at which we are calculating the
instantaneous velocity.
37
each, in SI units. which is the vector form of Eq. (3.8).
  
Solution: v1 = d x 1/dt = 0 as x 1 does not depend Eq. (3.30) and (3.31) can be resolved into their
on time t. x and y components so as to get corresponding
Thus, the particle is at rest. scalar equations as follows.
   vx = ux + ax t --- (3.32)
v 2 = d x 2 /dt = 5 i + 5 j m/s. v 2 does not
change with time.  a 2  0 and vy = uy + ay t --- (3.33)

v 2  52  52  5 2 m / s , tan θ = 5/5 = 1 or θ =
1
s x  ux t  a x t 2 --- (3.34)
45°. Thus, the direction of v2 makes an angle of 2
1
45° to the horizontal. and s y  u y t  a y t 2 --- (3.35)
  2
v 3 = d x 3 / dt =5 i +20t j . We can see that Eqs. (3.32) and (3.34)
involve only the x components of displacement,
 v 3  52  (20t ) 2 m / s . Its direction is along velocity and acceleration while Eqs. (3.33) and
 20t  (3.35) involve only the y components of these
θ = tan-1   with the horizontal.
 5  quantities. Thus the two sets of equations are
 independent of each other and can be solved
 dv 3
=
a3 = 20 ˆj m / s 2 independently. We can thus see that the motion
dt
Thus, the particle 3 is getting accelerated along along the x direction of an object is completely
the y-axis at 20 m/s2. controlled by the x components of velocity and
3.3.3 Equations of Motion for an Object acceleration while that along the y direction is
travellinging a Plane with Uniform completely controlled by the y components of
Acceleration: these quantities. This makes it easy to study the
We have derived equations of motion for motion in two dimensions which gets converted
an object in rectilinear motion in section 3.2. to two independent rectilinear motions along
We will now derive similar equations for a two perpendicular directions.
particle moving with uniform acceleration in
two dimensions. Let the initial velocity of the Always Remember:

object be u at t = 0 and its velocity at time t be Motion in two dimensions can be
 resolved into two independent motions in
v . As the acceleration is constant, the average
mutually perpendicular directions.
acceleration and the instantaneous acceleration
will be equal. By using the definition of
Example 3.5: The initial velocity of an object
acceleration (Eq. (3.21)), we get 
  
a = ( v - u )/(t - 0) is u = 5 i + 10 j m/s. Its constant acceleration

  
or v = u + a t --- (3.30) is a = 2 i + 3 j m/s2. Determine the velocity
which is the same as Eq. (3.7) but is in vector and the displacement after 5 s.
form. Solution:
  
Let the displacement from time t = 0 to t v  u  a t

be s . This can be calculated from the average
velocity of the object during this time. For
 
   
 ˆj  2iˆ  3 ˆj  5   15iˆ  25 ˆj
  5iˆ  10
 u+v
constant acceleration, v av =  v  v 2x  v 2y
2
    
   u v   uua t   152  252  225  625  850
 
 s  vav t    t    t  29.15 m / s
 2   2 
  vy 
  1
∴ s = u t +  a t2 --- (3.31), Direction of v with x-axis is tan-1    tan-1
2  vx 

38
 25  Solution: Let the velocity of the aeroplane
 15   tan-1(1.667) = 59o
  with respect to Earth be v AE
 , velocity of wind
  with respect to Earth be v WE. The  velocity
1
s  u t  a t 2 of aeroplane with respect to wind, v AW can be
2
determined by the following expression:
  1
2
 
 ˆj  5   2iˆ  3 ˆj 52
  5iˆ  10 
v AW =

+

v AE v EW =

-

v AE v WE

= – 100 i +300 j ,
 50i   87.5  j 
ˆ ˆ considering north along +y axis.

Magnitude of v AW =  1 0000  90000 
 s  sx2  s 2y  502  87.52
= 100 10 km/hr, and its direction,
 2500  7656.25  300 
  tan 1   71.6 is towards north of
 10156.25  100.78 m  100 
east.
1 87.5 3.3.5 Projectile Motion:
at tan  6015 ' with x-axis.
50 Any object in flight after being thrown
3.3.4 Relative Velocity: with some velocity is called a projectile and
Relative velocity between two objects its motion is called projectile motion. We often
moving in a plane can be defined in a way similar see projectile motion in our day-to-day life.
to that for objects moving along a straight line. Children throw stones towards trees for getting
The relative velocity of object A having velocity tamarind pods or mangoes. A bowler bowls a
 ball towards a batsman in cricket, a basket ball
v A , with respect to the object B having velocity
 player throws a ball towards the basket, all these
v B , is given by
   are illustrations of projectile motion. In this
v AB = v A – v B --- (3.36) motion, we have objects (projectiles) with given
Similarly, the relative velocity of object B with initial velocity, moving under the influence of
respect to object A , is given by the Earth's gravitational field. The projectile
   has two components of velocity, one in the
v BA = v B - v A --- (3.37) horizontal, i.e., along x-direction and the other
We can see that the magnitudes of the two in the vertical, i.e., along the y direction. The
relative velocities (vAB and vBA) are equal and acceleration due to gravity acts only along the
their directions are opposite. vertically downward direction. The horizontal
Consider a number of objects A, B, C, D component of velocity, therefore, remains
---- Y, Z, moving with respect to the other. Using unchanged as no force is acting in the horizontal
the symbol vAB for representing the velocity of direction, while the vertical component changes
A relative to B etc, the velocity of A relative to in accordance with laws of motion with
  
Z can be written as a x being 0 and a y (= - g ) being the downward
      acceleration due to gravity (upward is positive).
v AZ  v AB  v BC  vCD  ...  v XY  vYZ
Unless stated otherwise, retarding forces like air
Note the order of subscripts (A→B→C→D--- resistance, etc., are neglected for the projectile
→Z). motion.
Example 3.6: An aeroplane is travelling Let us assume that the initial velocity of

northward with a speed of 300 km/hr with the projectile is u and its direction makes an
respect to the Earth, when wind is blowing from angle θ with the horizontal as shown in Fig.
east to west at a speed of 100 km/hr. What is 3.5. The projectile is thrown from the ground.
the velocity of the aeroplane with respect to the We take the x-axis along the ground and y-axis
wind? in the vertical direction. The horizontal and
vertical components of initial velocity are u

39
cosθ and u sinθ respectively. The horizontal are shown at these points as well as at two
component remains unchanged in absence of intermediate points A and B, on the trajectory
any force acting in that direction, while the of the projectile. Note that the horizontal
vertical component changes according to (Eq. component of velocity remains the same, i.e.,
3.33) with ay = -g and uy = u sinθ. ux, while the vertical component decreases
and becomes zero at P. After that it changes its
direction, its magnitude increases and becomes
equal to uy again at Q. The horizontal distance
B
covered by the projectile before it falls to the
ground is OQ. We can derive the equation of
the trajectory of the projectile as follows.
Let the time taken by the projectile to reach
the maximum height be t0. The trajectory of the
object being symmetrical, it can be shown by
using equations of motion, that the object will
take the same time in going up in air and coming
Fig.3.5: Trajectory of a projectile. down to the ground. At the highest point P, t = t0
Thus, the components of velocity at time t are and vy = 0. Using Eq. (3.39),
given by we get, 0 = u sinθ – gt0
vx = ux = u cosθ --- (3.38)
vy = uy – gt = u sinθ – gt --- (3.39) t0 = (u sinθ)/g --- (3.43)
As 0 < θ < 90°, the vertical component initially ∴ Total time in air = T = 2t0 is the time of flight.
is in the upward direction. Similarly, the The total horizontal distance travelled by
displacements of the projectile in the horizontal the particle in this time T can be obtained by
and vertical directions at time t, according to using Eq. (3.40) as
Eqs. (3.34) and (3.35) are given by R = ux. T = u cosθ.2t0 = u cosθ. (2u sinθ)/g
sx = ucosθ.t ---- (3.40) = 2 ux uy /g = u2(2 sinθ cosθ)/g
1
sy = usinθ.t -  gt2 --- (3.41) = u2 sin2θ/g --- (3.44)
2
The direction of motion of the projectile at any This maximum horizontal distance
time t makes an angle α with the horizontal travelled by the projectile is called the horizontal
which is given by range R of the projectile and depends on the
tan α = vy(t)/vx(t) --- (3.42) magnitude and direction of initial velocity of the
projectile as well as the value of acceleration
The vertical velocity keeps on decreasing
due to gravity at that place.
as the projectile goes up and becomes zero
at certain time. At that time the height of the For maximum horizontal range,
projectile is maximum. The velocity then sin2   1  2  900 or   450 
starts increasing in the downward direction as u2
the particle is now falling under the Earth 's Hence, R  Rmax  for  450
g
gravitational field with a constant horizontal The maximum height H reached by the
component of velocity. After a while the projectile, having certain value of θ, is the
projectile reaches the ground. The trajectory of distance travelled along the vertical (y)
the object is shown in Fig. 3.5. The projectile direction in time t0. This can be calculated by
is assumed to start from the origin of the using Eq. (3.41) as
coordinate system, O. The point of maximum 1
height is indicated by P and the point where it H = u sin θ . t0 – g t02
2
falls down to the ground is indicated by Q. The  u sin  1  u sin 2
horizontal and vertical components of velocity  u sin   – g
 g  2  g 
40
 2 Maximum horizontal distance travelled
u 2sin 2 u y
=  --- (3.45) R = 2.ux.uy/g = 2(15)(20)/10 = 60 m
2g 2g
Equation of motion for a projectile
Do you know ? We can derive the equation of motion of
All the above expressions of T, R, Rmax and the projectile which is the relation between
H are valid if the entire motion is governed the displacements of the projectile along the
only by gravitational acceleration g, i.e., vertical and horizontal directions. This can be
retarding forces like air resistance are obtained by eliminating t between the equations
absent. However, in reality, it is never so. As giving these displacements, i.e., Eqs. (3.40) and
a result, time of ascent ta and time of decent (3.41).

td are not equal but ta > td . Also, in order As the projectile starts from x = 0, we can
to achieve maximum horizontal range for write sx = x and sy = y.
given initial velocity, the angle of projection sx x
 s x   u cos  t  t  
should be greater than 450 and the range is u cos u cos
much less than u .
2
1
g  y   u sin  t  gt 2
2
2
Example 3.7: A stone is thrown with an  x  1  x 
initial velocity components of 20 m/s along   u sin     2 g  u cos 
 u cos   
the vertical, and 15 m/s along the horizontal
direction. Determine the position and velocity 1 g  2
 y   tan  x   2 x --- (3.46)
of the stone after 3 s. Determine the maximum 2  u cos 2 
height that it will reach and the total distance
travelled along the horizontal on reaching the This is the equation of the trajectory of the
ground. (Assume g = 10 m/s2) projectile. Here, u and θ are constants for the
given projectile motion. The above equation is
Solution: The initial velocity of the stone in of the form
x-direction = u cos θ = 15 m/s and in y-direction
= u sinθ = 20 m/s. y = Ax + Bx2 --- (3.47)
After 3 s, vx = u cosθ = 15 m/s and vy = u sinθ – which is the equation of a parabola. Thus,
gt = 20 – 10(3)= - 10 m/s = 10 m/s downwards. the path, i.e., the trajectory of a projectile is a
parabola.
 v  v 2x  v 2y  152  102 3.4 Uniform Circular Motion:
 225  100  325 An object moving with constant speed
 18.03 m / s along a circular path is said to be in uniform
circular motion (UCM). Such a motion is only
tan α = vy/ vx = 10/15 = 2/3 possible if its velocity is always tangential to its
∴α = tan-1 (2/3) = 33° 41' with the horizontal. circular path, without change in its magnitude.
sx = (u cosθ) t = 15×3 = 45 m, To change the direction of velocity,
1 acceleration is a must. However, if the
sy = (u sinθ) t – gt2 = 20 × 3 - 5(3)2 = 15 m. acceleration or its component is in line with
2
Thus the stone will be at a distance 45 m along the velocity (along or opposite to the velocity),
horizontal and 15 m along vertical direction it will always change the speed (magnitude of
from the initial position after time 3 s. The velocity) in which case it will not continue its
velocity is 18.03 m/s making an angle 33° 41' uniform circular motion. In order to achieve both
with the horizontal. these requirements, the acceleration must be (i)
The maximum vertical distance travelled is perpendicular to the tangential velocity, (ii) of
given by H = (u sinθ)2/(2g) = 202/(2 ×10) = 20 m constant magnitude and (iii) always directed

41
towards the centre of the circular trajectory. 
the circle is the radius vector r . Its magnitude is
Such an acceleration is called centripetal radius r and it is directed away from the centre
(centre seeking) acceleration and the force to the particle, i.e., away from the centre of
causing this acceleration is centripetal force. the circle. As the particle performs UCM, this
Thus, in order to realize a circular motion, radius vector describes equal angles in equal
there are two requirements; (i) tangential intervals of time. At this stage we can define
velocity and (ii) centripetal force of suitable a new quantity called angular speed ω which
constant magnitude. gives the angle described by the radius vector,
An example is the motion of the moon per unit time. It is analogous to speed which is
going around the Earth in an early circular orbit distance travelled per unit time.
as a result of the constant gravitational attraction During one complete revolution, the angle
of fixed magnitude felt by it towards the Earth. described is 2π and the time taken is period T.
Hence, the angular speed
Do you know ?

Angle 2
 
 2   v 
A parabola is a symmetrical open curve
time T  2 r  r
obtained by the intersection of a cone  v  --- (3.49)
with a plane which is parallel to its side.  
The unit of ω is radian/sec.
Mathematically, the parabola is described
with the help of a point called the focus and
a straight line called the directrix shown in
the accompanying figure. The parabola is
the locus of all points which are equidistant
from the focus and the directrix. The chord of P0
the parabola which is parallel to the directrix
and passes through the focus is called latus
rectum of the parabola as shown in the
accompanying figure.

Fig.3.6: Uniform circular motion.

3.4.2 Expression for Centripetal Acceleration:
Figure 3.6 shows a particle P performing a
UCM in anticlockwise sense along a circle of
radius r with angular speed ω and period T. Let
us choose the coordinates such that this motion
is in the xy- plane having centre at the origin O.
3.4.1 Period, Radius Vector and Angular Initially (for simplicity), let the particle be at P0
Speed: on the positive x-axis. At a given instant t, the
Consider an object of mass m, moving with radius vector of P makes an angle θ with the
a uniform speed v, along a circle of radius r. Let x-axis.
T be the time period of revolution of the object, d
i.e., the time taken by the object to complete one    t and so 
dt 
revolution or to travel a distance of 2πr. x and y components of the radius vector r will
Thus, T = 2πr/v then be rcosθ and rsinθ respectively.
Distance 2 r 
 Speed v   --- (3.48).  r   rcos  i   rsin  j
Time T
  rcos  t  i   rsin  t  j --- (3.50)
During circular motion of a point object,
the position vector of the object from centre of Time derivative of position vector r gives

42
 
instantaneous velocity v and time derivative

of velocity v gives instantaneous acceleration

a . Magnitudes of r and ω are constants.

 dr
v 
dt
 
 r sin  t  iˆ   cos  t  ˆj

 
 r sin  t  iˆ  cos  t  ˆj
--- (3.51)

 dv
a 
dt

 r  cos  t  iˆ  sin  t  ˆj 

 
  2 rcos  t  iˆ  rsin  t  ˆj   2 r Fig 3.7: Conical pendulum

--- (3.52) Thus, we resolve tension T into two
mutually perpendicular components. Let θ be
Here minus sign shows that the acceleration is the angle made by the string with the vertical at

opposite to that of r , i.e., towards the centre. any position. The component T cos θ is acting
This is the centripetal acceleration. vertically upwards. The inclination should be
The magnitude of acceleration, such that T cos θ = mg, so that there is no net
vertical force.
v2
a   2r    v --- (3.53) The resultant force on the bob is then T
r
sin θ which is radial or centripetal or directed
The force providing this acceleration should also
towards centre O' T sin θ = mv2/r = mrω2.
be along the same direction, hence centripetal.
   (mv 2 / r ) v 2
 F  ma   m 2 r --- (3.54) tan   
mg rg
mv 2
Magnitude of F  m  2
r   m v - (3.55) 2π r
r Since we know v =
Conical pendulum T
In a simple pendulum a mass m is suspended
by a string of length l and moves along an arc of 4 2 r 2
 tan  
a vertical circle. If the mass instead revolves in T 2 rg
a horizontal circle and the string which makes a
r
constant angle with the vertical describes a cone T  2
whose vertex is the fixed point O, then mass- g tan 
string system is called a conical pendulum as l sin 
shown in Fig. 3.7. In the absence of friction, the T  2 ( r  l sin  )
g tan 
system will continue indefinitely once started.
l cos 
As shown in the figure, the forces acting T  2
on the bob of mass, m, of the conical pendulum g
are: (i) Gravitational force, mg, acting vertically
 h
downwards, (ii) Force due to tension T acting T  2 ( h  l cos  ) --- (3.56)
g
along the string directed towards the support. where l is length of the pendulum and h is the
These are the only two forces acting on the bob. vertical distance of the horizontal circle from
For the bob to undergo horizontal circular the fixed point O.
motion, (radius r) the resultant force must be Example 3.8: An object of mass 50 g moves
centripetal, (directed towards the centre of the uniformly along a circular orbit with an
circle). In other words vertical gravitational angular speed of 5 rad/s. If the linear speed of
force must be balanced. the particle is 25 m/s, what is the radius of the

43
circle? Calculate the centripetal force acting on 
t = 0, the velocity is given by u  20i  35 j
the particle.
km/s. After one minute the velocity becomes

v  20i  35 j . What is the magnitude of the
Do you know ?
acceleration?
1. The centripetal force is not one of the Solution: Magnitude of initial and final
external forces acting on the object. velocities =
As can be seen from above, the actual
forces acting on the bob are T and mg,  u  (20) 2  (35) 2 m / s
the resultant of these is the centripetal = 1625 m / s
force. Conversely, if the resultant force
= 40.3 m / s
is centripetal, motion must be circular.
2. In planetary motion, the gravitational As the velocity reverses in 1 min, the time
force between Sun and the planets period of revolution is 2 min.
provides the necessary centripetal 2 r uT
T , giving r 
force for the circular motion. u 2
Solution: The linear speed and angular speed a  u  u 2  2 u  2  3.14  40.3
2 2

are related by v = ωr r uT T 2  60
∴ r = v/ω = 25/5 m = 5 m.  2.11 m s 2

mv 2
Centripetal force acting on the object = = Internet my friend
r
0.05  25 2
 6.25 N. 1. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mot.
5
Example 3.9: An object is travelling in a html#motcon
horizontal circle with uniform speed. At 2. www.college-physics.com/book/mechanics

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises

1. Choose the correct option. (C) Uniform motion in a vertical circle

i) An object thrown from a moving bus is (D) Rectilinear motion in vertical circle
on example of iv) For uniform acceleration in rectilinear
(A) Uniform circular motion motion which of the following is not
(B) Rectilinear motion correct?
(C) Projectile motion (A) Velocity-time graph is linear
(D) Motion in one dimension (B) Acceleration is the slope of velocity
time graph
ii) For a particle having a uniform circular
motion, which of the following is constant (C) The area under the velocity-time
graph equals displacement
(A) Speed (B) Acceleration
(C) Velocity (D) Displacement (D) Velocity-time graph is nonlinear
iii) The bob of a conical pendulum under v) If three particles
  A, B and  C are having
goes velocities v A , v B and vC which of the
following formula gives the relative
(A) Rectilinear motion in horizontal
velocity of A with respect to B
plane     
(A) v A + v B ( B ) v A  vC  v B
(B) Uniform motion in a horizontal circle

44
     ii). A car moving along a straight road with a
(C) v A - v B (D) vC - v A
speed of 120 km/hr, is brought to rest by
2. Answer the following questions.
applying brakes. The car covers a distance
i) Separate the following in groups of of 100 m before it stops. Calculate (i) the
scalar and vectors: velocity, speed, average retardation of the car (ii) time
displacement, work done, force, power, taken by the car to come to rest.
energy, acceleration, electric charge,
[Ans: 50/9 m/sec2, 6 sec]
angular velocity.
iii) A car travels at a speed of 50 km/hr for 30
ii) Define average velocity and instantaneous
minutes, at 30 km/hr for next 15 minutes
velocity. When are they same?
and then 70 km/hr for next 45 minutes.
iii) Define free fall. What is the average speed of the car?
iv) If the motion of an object is described by [Ans: 56.66 km/hr]
x = f(t) write formulae for instantaneous iv) A velocity-time graph is shown in the
velocity and acceleration. adjoining figure.
v) Derive equations of motion for a particle
moving in a plane and show that the
motion can be resolved in two independent
motions in mutually perpendicular 20- -------------A B
directions.
v m/s 15-
vi) Derive equations of motion graphically 10-
for a particle having uniform acceleration, 5-
moving along a straight line. O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vii) Derive the formula for the range and E D C
maximum height achieved by a projectile time (s)
thrown from the origin with initial Determine:
velocity u at an angel θ to the horizontal. (i) initial speed of the car (ii) maximum
viii) Show that the path of a projectile is a speed attained by the car (iii) part of the
parabola. graph showing zero acceleration (iv) part
ix) What is a conical pendulum? Show that its of the graph showing constant retardation
(v) distance travelled by the car in first 6
l cos 
time period is given by 2 , where l sec.
g
[Ans: (i) 0 (ii) 20 m/sec (iii) AB
is the length of the string, θ is the angle (iv) BC (v) 90 m]
that the string makes with the vertical and v) A man throws a ball to maximum
g is the acceleration due to gravity. horizontal distance of 80 meters. Calculate
x) Define angular velocity. Show that the the maximum height reached.
centripetal force on a particle undergoing [Ans: 20 m]

uniform circular motion is -mω2 r .
vi) A particle is projected with speed v0 at
3. Solve the following problems. angle θ to the horizontal on an inclined
i) An aeroplane has a run of 500 m to take surface making an angle  (   ) to the
off from the runway. It starts from rest horizontal. Find the range of the projectile
and moves with constant acceleration to along the inclined surface.
cover the runway in 30 sec. What is the
2 v 02 cos  sin(   )
velocity of the aeroplane at the take off ? [Ans: R  ]
g cos 2 
[Ans: 120 km/hr]

45
 vii) A metro train runs from station A to B to ix) A car moves in a circle at the constant speed
C. It takes 4 minutes in travelling from of 50 m/s and completes one revolution
station A to station B. The train halts at in 40 s. Determine the   magnitude of
station B for 20 s. Then it starts from acceleration of the car.
station B and reaches station C in next 3 [Ans: 7.85 m s-2]
minutes. At the start, the train accelerates x) A particle moves in a circle with constant
for 10 sec to reach the constant speed of speed of 15 m/s. The radius of the
72 km/hr. The train moving at the constant circle is 2 m. Determine the centripetal
speed is brought to rest in 10 sec. at next acceleration of the particle.
station. (i) Plot the velocity- time graph
for the train travelling from the station [Ans: 112.5 m s-2]
A to B to C. (ii) Calculate the distance xi) A projectile is thrown at an angle of 30° to
between the stations A, B and C. the horizontal. What should be the range
[Ans: AB = 4.6 km, BC =3.4 km] of initial velocity (u) so that its range
viii) A train is moving eastward at 10 m/sec. A will be between 40m and 50 m? Assume
waiter is walking eastward at 1.2m/sec; g = 10 m s-2.
and a fly is flying toward the north across [Ans: 21.49 ≤ u ≤ 24.03 m s-2]
the waiter’s tray at 2 m/s. What is the
velocity of the fly relative to Earth ***
[Ans: 11.4 m/s, 10° due north of east]

46