Unit-5

Quantum Computing using Linear Optics

CIRCUIT MODEL FOR QUANTUM COMPUTING WITH PHOTONS:

The circuit model for quantum computing with photons involves the manipulation of
quantum information encoded in the polarization states of photons using various quantum
gates. In this model, quantum operations are represented as quantum circuits composed of
quantum gates that act on qubits. Here are some key components of the circuit model for
quantum computing with photons:

1. Quantum Bits (Qubits):

- Qubits are the fundamental units of quantum information. In the case of quantum
computing with photons, qubits are typically represented by the polarization states of
individual photons. The two basis states are often denoted as |0⟩ (horizontal polarization) and
|1⟩ (vertical polarization).

2. Quantum Gates:

- Quantum gates are the building blocks of quantum circuits. They perform operations on
qubits, transforming their states. In the context of quantum computing with photons, specific
quantum gates are designed to manipulate the polarization states of photons. Some common
gates include:

 Hadamard Gate (H): Creates a superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.

 Pauli-X Gate (X): Flips the qubit from |0⟩ to |1⟩ or vice versa.
 Pauli-Z Gate (Z): Introduces a phase flip based on the qubit state.
 CNOT Gate (Controlled-NOT): Entangles two qubits.
3. Superposition and Entanglement:

- Quantum circuits can generate superposition states where qubits exist in a combination of
|0⟩ and |1⟩, as well as entangled states where the states of multiple qubits are correlated.
These properties are crucial for quantum algorithms and communication protocols.

4. Single-Photon Sources:

- Creating quantum circuits with photons often involves the use of single-photon sources to
generate individual photons in a controlled manner. This could include techniques like
spontaneous parametric down-conversion or single-photon emitters.

5. Linear Optical Elements:

- Quantum gates for photons often include linear optical elements such as beam splitters
and phase shifters. These elements allow for the manipulation of the quantum state of the
photons without measuring them.
6. Quantum Measurement:

- Quantum circuits typically end with measurements. In the case of quantum computing
with photons, measurements are performed to extract classical information from the quantum
system. The outcome of measurements provides probabilistic information about the state of
the qubits.

7. Quantum Interference:

- Quantum interference is a key concept in quantum computing with photons. Interference

phenomena, such as Hong-Ou-Mandel interference, are exploited to create entangled states
and perform certain quantum computations.

The circuit model for quantum computing with photons provides a systematic way to design
and analyze quantum algorithms and protocols. Quantum optics, linear optical elements, and
the unique properties of photons in superposition and entanglement are harnessed to perform
quantum computations and secure communication tasks. It's important to note that the
implementation of quantum gates for photons relies on the principles of quantum optics and
the ability to manipulate the quantum states of individual photons without destroying their
quantum coherence.

ONE-WAY QUANTUM COMPUTER

The one-way quantum computer (1WQC), also known as the measurement-based quantum
computer, is a model of quantum computation that relies on the creation and manipulation of
entangled states, particularly cluster states, followed by a series of one-qubit measurements.
The model was introduced by Robert Raussendorf and Hans J. Briegel in 2001. These
quantum computers are different from the more commonly discussed gate-based quantum
computers like those developed by companies such as IBM, Google, and Rigetti. In a one-
way quantum computer, quantum information is encoded in a highly entangled state, and
computations are performed by making a sequence of measurements on this state.

Here are the key features and steps involved in the one-way quantum computer model:

Cluster States:

The central resource in the one-way quantum computing model is the cluster state. A cluster
state is a highly entangled state of multiple qubits arranged in a specific pattern. The initial
creation of a cluster state is a crucial step in the one-way quantum computing process.

Initialization:

The computation begins by preparing an initial cluster state. This typically involves
entangling qubits in a specific spatial arrangement. The entanglement is often generated
through a series of quantum gates acting on a set of qubits.
Single-Qubit Measurements:

The computation proceeds by performing a series of one-qubit measurements on the qubits of

the cluster state. Each qubit is measured in a specific basis, and the measurement outcomes
are used to perform subsequent measurements.

Adaptive Measurement:

The measurements are adaptive, meaning that the choice of basis for measuring each qubit
depends on the outcomes of previous measurements. This adaptability allows for the creation
of complex entanglement structures and the implementation of quantum gates.

Entanglement Propagation:

As qubits are measured, entanglement information is effectively "teleported" to other qubits

in the cluster, creating new entanglement links. This propagation of entanglement allows for
the generation of entanglement patterns necessary for quantum computation.

Universal Quantum Computation:

It has been shown that, with a properly initialized and manipulated cluster state, a one-way
quantum computer can perform universal quantum computation. This means it can simulate
any quantum algorithm efficiently.

Fault Tolerance:

One-way quantum computing is known for its potential fault-tolerant properties. The
entanglement structure of the cluster state enables the detection and correction of errors
through the use of error-detecting codes.

 The computation proceeds by performing a series of one-qubit measurements on the

qubits of the cluster state.
 The qubits are teleported along the arrows in the cluster and single-qubit gates are
applied along these arrays.
 • Two-qubit gates are implemented along vertical arrows (bridges), and the rest of the
qubits are measured in the Z –basis.
• The key feature is that the computation is not reversible since measurement
"collapses" the state of the measured qubit, effectively disentangling it from the rest
of the cluster.
• The essential concept underlying 1WQC is teleportation of quantum gates.
• The one-way quantum computing model is believed to be universal, meaning it can
simulate any quantum algorithm efficiently.
Applications:

1. Quantum Error Correction

2. Quantum Communication

3. Quantum Simulation

4. Optimization Problems

5. Machine Learning

6. Quantum Cryptography

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

Introduction
Light propagates as transverse electromagnetic waves. The magnitude of electric field is
much larger as compared to magnitude of magnetic field. We generally prefer to describe
light as electric field oscillations.

Polarization
The phenomenon due to which vibrations of light waves are restricted in a particular plane is
called polarization. In other words, polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field
component of the wave.

Unpolarized light
The light having electric field oscillations in all directions in the plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation is called Unpolarized light. The oscillation may be resolved into
horizontal and vertical component.

Polarized or Plane polarized light:

The light having oscillations only in one plane is called polarized or plane polarized light.
In the image above, we can see that a plane polarized light vibrates on only one plane. The
plane in which oscillation occurs in the polarized light is called plane of oscillation. The
plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation is called plane of polarization.
In above diagram, plane ABCD represents the plane of vibration and EFGH represents the
plane of polarization.
Thus, the process of transforming unpolarized light into the polarized light is known as
polarization.
Types of Polarization
There are three types of polarization depending on how the electric field is oriented:
 Linear polarization
 Circular polarization
 Elliptical polarization
Linear Polarization: The electric field oscillates in a specific direction along a straight line.
This can be horizontal, vertical, or at any angle.
Circular Polarization: The electric field rotates in a circular pattern as the wave propagates.
It can be clockwise or counterclockwise.
Elliptical Polarization: The electric field follows an elliptical pattern during each cycle.
Applications of Polarization
Polarization is essential in various applications, including optics, telecommunications, and
photography.
 Polaroid sunglasses, for example, use polarization to reduce glare from reflected light.
 In telecommunications, the polarization of antennas is crucial for signal transmission
and reception.
 Understanding polarization is also important in fields like astronomy, where it can be
used to study certain properties of celestial objects.
 Polarized light plays a significant role in quantum information processing (QIP) that
involves the manipulation and transmission of information using quantum systems,
which can lead to enhanced computational power and secure communication.

POLARIZING FILTERS (OR) POLARIZER

A polarizing filter or polarizer is an optical device used in photography and other imaging
applications to selectively transmit light waves based on their polarization. It consists of a
special optical material that allows the passage of light waves vibrating in a specific
direction, while blocking waves vibrating in other directions.

Types of Polarizing Filters

Linear Polarizers:
These filters allow light waves of a specific orientation to pass through. They are
commonly used in photography and general optical applications.
Circular Polarizers:
Circular polarizers are advanced filters that include a quarter-wave plate. They are
often used in photography to prevent issues with autofocus and light metering in certain
camera systems.

Uses of Polarizing Filters:

 Reducing Glare: Polarizing filters are commonly used to reduce glare from reflective
surfaces like water, glass, or shiny objects.
 Increasing Contrast: They can enhance contrast in the sky by reducing scattered light,
making clouds more defined against a blue sky.
 Improving Color Saturation: Polarizers can make colors appear more saturated by
eliminating reflections and glare.
 3D Glasses: Polarizing filters are also used in 3D glasses to present different images
to each eye.
  Polarizers are also used in various scientific and industrial applications, such as in
microscopes and LCD displays. In addition, polarized sunglasses use polarizing filters
to reduce glare from reflective surfaces like water or roads, providing better visibility
and eye comfort.

Different types of polarizing filters in quantum computing

In quantum computing, polarizing filters are essential for manipulating the quantum states of
photons, which serve as qubits. These filters enable the preparation, manipulation, and
measurement of the polarization states of photons. Here are some key types of polarizing
filters used in quantum computing:

1. Polarizing Beam Splitters (PBS):

Polarizing beam splitters are fundamental components in quantum optics. They transmit
photons with a specific polarization (e.g., horizontal or vertical) and reflect photons with the
orthogonal polarization. PBSs are commonly used to create entangled photon pairs and in
quantum circuits for routing and manipulation of qubits based on their polarization.

2. Quarter-Wave Plates:
Quarter-wave plates are optical devices that introduce a phase shift of 90 degrees between
the horizontal and vertical polarization components of light. They are used to rotate the
polarization state of photons and are crucial for the implementation of various quantum gates.

3. Half-Wave Plates:
Similar to quarter-wave plates, half-wave plates introduce a phase shift of 180 degrees
between the horizontal and vertical polarization components. Half-wave plates are used for
more substantial changes in polarization states and are often employed in quantum circuits
for specific operations.

4. Faraday Rotator:
A Faraday rotator is a device that introduces a rotation in the polarization plane of light as it
passes through a magnetic field. Faraday rotators are used in quantum communication
systems to implement quantum memories and protect quantum states from decoherence.

5. Polarization Rotators:
These devices can rotate the polarization of a photon by a certain angle. They are used to
adjust the polarization state of qubits and are essential for creating versatile quantum circuits.

6. Polarizing Filters:
Standard polarizing filters allow light with a specific polarization to pass through while
blocking light with orthogonal polarization. In quantum computing, these filters are used for
state preparation and measurement of qubits. They are often combined with other optical
components to create quantum gates.

7. Polarization-Entangled Photon Sources:

 Quantum dots or nonlinear crystals can be used to generate entangled photon pairs with
correlated polarization states. These sources are critical for quantum communication and
quantum key distribution protocols.

8. Beam Displacers:
Beam displacers are optical components that separate photons based on their polarization.
They can be used to route different polarization states along distinct paths, allowing for the
creation of more complex quantum circuits.

9. Polarization Maintaining Fiber:

While not a filter in the traditional sense, polarization-maintaining fibers are crucial
components in quantum communication systems. They are designed to preserve the
polarization state of transmitted photons, reducing the impact of environmental factors on the
quantum information.

QUANTUM BEHAVIOR OF POLARIZER (OR) ROLE OF POLARIZED PHOTONS

IN QUANTUM COMPUTING

The quantum behavior of a polarizer can be understood within the framework of quantum
mechanics, particularly in the context of the wave-particle duality of light. Let us consider a
basic arrangement involving a polarizer and a beam of light.

Classical Perspective
In classical optics, light is treated as an electromagnetic wave. A polarizer is a device that
allows the transmission of light waves oscillating in a particular direction while blocking
light waves oscillating perpendicular to that direction. This is based on the alignment of
polarizing molecules or crystals within the material.

QUANTUM PERSPECTIVE
In quantum mechanics, light is also considered as consisting of particles called photons.
Each photon has a polarization state, which describes the orientation of its oscillating electric
field.
The quantum behavior of a polarizer involves the superposition of polarization states,
probabilistic outcomes upon measurement, and the potential for entanglement effects when
dealing with entangled photons.

Quantum Superposition and Polarizers:

In the quantum realm, light can exist in a superposition of states, meaning it can
simultaneously exhibit multiple polarization orientations. This is a fundamental concept in
quantum mechanics, where particles can exist in multiple states until they are measured or
observed. In the case of a polarizer, a beam of light can be in a superposition of two
orthogonal polarization states, typically denoted as horizontal (H) and vertical (V)
polarizations.
 When a quantum light beam, prepared in a superposition of H and V polarizations,
encounters a polarizer, its behavior is different from what we would expect classically. In
classical physics, the polarizer would simply transmit or block the light based on its
orientation. However, in quantum mechanics, the light beam does not simply choose one of
the two polarization states. Instead, it interacts with the polarizer in a way that depends on the
specific quantum state it is in.

Quantum States and Probabilities:

In quantum mechanics, the state of a particle or system is described using a
mathematical object called a wavefunction. The wavefunction contains all the information
about the particle's properties, including its polarization. When a quantum light beam
interacts with a polarizer, the resulting wavefunction is a combination of the wavefunctions
associated with the transmitted and blocked components.

The probability of the light beam being transmitted or blocked by the polarizer
depends on the relative amplitudes of the corresponding wavefunctions. These amplitudes are
determined by the initial superposition state of the light beam and the alignment of the
polarizer. The probability of transmission is given by the square of the amplitude associated
with the transmitted component, and similarly for the blocked component.

Quantum Entanglement and Polarizers:

Another fascinating aspect of quantum mechanics is entanglement. When two or more
particles become entangled, their states become correlated in such a way that the state of one
particle cannot be described independently of the others. In the case of polarizers,
entanglement can arise between the polarization of a light beam and the orientation of the
polarizer.

For example, consider a scenario where a light beam is prepared in a superposition of

H and V polarizations, and two polarizers are placed in its path. The orientation of the second
polarizer can be entangled with the state of the light beam after passing through the first
polarizer. This means that the outcome of measuring the polarization of the second polarizer
is dependent on the first polarizer's orientation.

LOSS OF INFORMATION

To understand the loss of information that occurs when light passes through
polarizers, we need to introduce the notion of relative amplitudes. In quantum mechanics, the
wavefunction of a particle consists of complex amplitudes that describe the probability of
finding the particle in different states.

When a photon passes through a polarizer, its wavefunction interacts with the
polarizer's orientation. The probability of the photon passing through the polarizer depends
on the relative amplitudes of the wavefunction for the transmitted and blocked states. If the
amplitudes are equal, the photon has an equal chance of passing through or being blocked.
However, if the amplitudes are unequal, the photon is more likely to be transmitted or
blocked, depending on the relative magnitudes of the amplitudes.

The Three Polarizer Paradox:

A thought experiment known as the "three polarizer paradox" highlights the loss of
information that occurs when light passes through multiple polarizers. Imagine three
polarizers aligned in a row, with their orientations at angles of 0°, 45°, and 90°. If we send
unpolarized light through these polarizers, classical physics would suggest that the light
should be progressively blocked by each polarizer, resulting in no light passing through the
third polarizer.

However, in quantum mechanics, the behavior is different. When the light encounters
the first polarizer, it becomes polarized in the orientation of the polarizer. Upon passing
through the second polarizer, the light can still be transmitted if its polarization matches the
orientation. Finally, when the light reaches the third polarizer, it can be transmitted again if
its polarization matches the orientation.

Even though the third polarizer is perpendicular to the orientation of the first
polarizer, some light can still pass through it. This suggests that the information about the
initial polarization state of the light is lost during the process. In other words, information
about the initial polarization state of the photons is not fully preserved.

ENTANGLEMENT OF QUBITS USING PHOTON POLARIZATION, POSITION

AND ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Entanglement of qubits is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that allows for the
creation of highly correlated quantum states. Traditionally, qubits are entangled using the
polarization of photons, where the quantum state of one qubit is dependent on the state of
another. However, recent advancements in quantum technologies have expanded the
possibilities of entanglement by utilizing additional properties of photons, such as their
position and orbital angular momentum.

Entanglement of Qubits using Photon Polarization

Polarization states of photons include vertical (|↕⟩) and horizontal (|↔⟩)

polarizations, forming the basis for encoding qubit information. A photon in superposition
can exist in a combination of these polarization states.
Entangling qubits using photon polarization involves creating a pair of entangled
photons. One common method is using a nonlinear crystal to generate entangled photon pairs
through a process called spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC). The entangled
states resulting from this process are known as Bell states.
The Bell state |Φ+⟩ is represented as follows:
|Φ+⟩ = (1/√2) * (|0⟩ ⊗ |0⟩ + |1⟩ ⊗ |1⟩)
Here, ⊗ represents the tensor product.
In this case, |0⟩ and |1⟩ are the basis states of the qubit space, representing horizontal and
vertical polarization states of the photons.
It has to be noticed that the state of the entangled pair is a linear combination of the
tensor products of the basis states. When one entangled qubit is measured, the state of the
other qubit is instantaneously determined, regardless of the physical separation. This
correlation is a key feature of quantum entanglement.

Entanglement of Qubits using Photon Position

In addition to polarization, the position of photons can also be used to create
entangled qubits. This approach involves splitting a single photon into two spatially separated
parts using a beam splitter. The position of each part can then be controlled independently,
allowing for the creation of entanglement. By measuring the position of one photon, the state
of the other photon can be instantly determined, resulting in entanglement.

Entanglement of Qubits using Photon Orbital Angular Momentum

The orbital angular momentum (OAM) of photons can also be utilized to create
entangled qubits. OAM refers to the rotation of the photon's wavefront around its propagation
axis. By manipulating the OAM of photons, it is possible to create entangled states. For
instance, by generating entangled photons with opposite OAM values, the overall state of the
system becomes entangled. This approach has the advantage of high-dimensional
entanglement, as the OAM of photons can take on an infinite number of values.

Conclusion
The entanglement of qubits using photon polarization, position, and orbital angular
momentum opens up new possibilities for quantum information processing and
communication. These multi-dimensional entangled states can be used for various
applications, including quantum key distribution, quantum teleportation, and quantum
computation. Moreover, the combination of different properties of photons allows for the
creation of complex entangled states, which can lead to advancements in quantum
technologies and the exploration of the quantum world.

INTEGRATED PHOTONIC QUANTUM GATES

Integrated photonic quantum gates are a crucial component in the development of
quantum technologies, particularly in the field of quantum computing and quantum
communication. Quantum gates are the building blocks of quantum circuits, enabling the
manipulation of quantum bits or qubits to perform quantum information processing tasks.

Several types of integrated photonic quantum gates exist, and they can be broadly
categorized into the following:

Linear Quantum Gates:

Beam Splitters: Beam splitters are a fundamental linear optical element that can be used to
create superposition states by splitting a photon into two paths.

Phase Shifters: These elements introduce a phase shift to the quantum state of a photon,
allowing for the manipulation of interference patterns.

Nonlinear Quantum Gates:

Nonlinear Crystal Devices: These devices exploit the nonlinear properties of certain crystals
to generate entangled photon pairs through a process called spontaneous parametric down-
conversion.

Quantum Dots: Semiconductor quantum dots can be used to create entangled photon pairs,
providing a platform for quantum gate operations.

INTEGRATED PHOTONIC QUANTUM GATES FOR POLARIZATION QUBITS

When it comes to integrated photonic quantum gates for polarization qubits,

researchers focus on leveraging the polarization properties of photons to encode and process
quantum information.

Here are some key components and approaches used in integrated photonic circuits
for polarization qubits:

Polarizing Beam Splitters (PBS): Polarizing beam splitters are essential components in
integrated photonic circuits for polarization qubits. They separate photons based on their
polarization states. For instance, a PBS can transmit photons with one polarization state (e.g.,
horizontal) and reflect photons with the orthogonal polarization state (e.g., vertical).

Wave Plates: Wave plates, also known as retarders, introduce controlled phase shifts between
different polarization components. They are often used to create superposition states by
applying specific phase shifts to the polarization qubits.
Phase Shifters: Optical phase shifters are used to introduce controlled phase shifts in the
optical path, enabling the manipulation of interference in a quantum circuit. In the context of
polarization qubits, they can be used to implement controlled-phase gates.

Polarization Rotators: These components rotate the polarization state of a photon. By

strategically placing polarization rotators in a quantum circuit, researchers can implement
various quantum gates.

Quantum Interferometers: Mach-Zehnder interferometers and other types of interferometers

can be used in polarization-based quantum circuits. By adjusting the lengths of arms and
introducing phase shifts, these interferometers can implement quantum gates for polarization
qubits.

Entangled Photon Sources: Nonlinear crystals or other sources can be used to generate
entangled photon pairs with specific polarization correlations. These entangled photon
sources are crucial for creating entangled states, which are essential for certain quantum
information processing tasks.

Photonic Waveguides: Photonic waveguides play a role in guiding and confining photons in
the integrated circuit. They help create compact and scalable quantum circuits on a chip.

The specific design and implementation of integrated photonic quantum gates for
polarization qubits depend on the quantum computing or quantum communication
architecture's requirements.