18.

4 SAMPLE SIGNAL TIMING APPLICATIONS 527

is the sum of two 15-ft lanes and a 10-ft crosswalk, or Assuming that this is a pretimed controller, a desirable
P = 15 + 15 10 = cycle length of 35 s or a 40 would be used. For the
purposes of this signal timing case, the minimum value
1.47 of 35 will be used.

Step 7: Allocate Effective Green to Each Phase

1.47 * 35 Given a 35-second cycle length with 10.4 s of lost time
= 1.0 + (0) per cycle, the amount of effective green time to be allo-
= 3.6 s cated is 35.0 - 10.4 = 24.6 s. The allocation is done
using Equation 18-13:
P + L
- 1.6
1.47 25

Because both streets have the same width, crosswalk

width, and approach speed, the values of y and ar are
the sarne for both Phases A and B of the signal.

Step 5: Determination of Lost Times The cycle length may be checked as the total of effec-
Lost times are found using Equations 18-5 through tive green times plus the lost time per cycle, or
In this case, the recommended default values for 12.5 + 12.1 + 10.4 = 35.0 s. Effective green times
start-up lost time and extension of effective green may be converted to actual green times using Equa-
into yellow and all-red (e) are used: tion 18-14:

Y =y = 3.6 1.6 = 5.2s

= Y -e = 5.2 - 2.0 = 3.2
= e, = 2.0 + 3.2 = 5.2 Again, note that when default values for start-up lost
time (2.0 s) and extension of effective green into yellow
As phases have the same value, the total lost time and all-red (2.0 s) are used, the actual green time is nu-
per cycle, L, is 5.2 5.2 = 10.4 s. Note that in all cases merically the same as effective green time.
where the recommended values for (2.0 s) and e
(2.0 s) are used, lost time per phase is the same nu- Step 8: Check Pedestrian Requirements
merical value as the sum of the yellow and all red inter- Equation 18-15 is used to compute the minimum pedes-
vals trian green requirement for each phase. Because both
streets have equal width and equal crosswalk widths
Step 6: Determine the Desirable Cycle Length and because pedestrian traffic is “moderate” in all
Equation 18-11 is used to determine the desirable cycle crosswalks, the requirements will be the same for each
length: phase in this case. From Table 18.2, the default pedes-
trian volume for “moderate”activity is 200 The
number of pedestrians per cycle ( based on the
number of cycles per hour (3,600135 = 102.9, say 103
The number of pedestrians per cycle is then
1,615* PHF *
2001103 1.94, say 2 Then:
10.4

- 1,615* 0.92 * 0.90

10.4
0.3 1
- 33.5 3.2 - +
18.4 SAMPLE SIGNAL TIMING APPLICATIONS 529

Table 18.5: Computation of Through Vehicle EquivalentVolumes for Signal-Timing Case 2

Volume Equivalent Volume Lane Group
Approach Movement Tables
L 35 140 140 140
T 610 1.oo 610 702 35 1
70 1.32 92
L 25 129 129 129
T 500 1.oo 500 566 283
R 50 1.32 66
L 220 1.05 231 231 231
T 700 1.oo 700 944 472
R 185 1.32 244
B L 250 1.05 263 263 263
T 800 1.oo 800 1 516
R 175 1.32 23
*Interpolated by opposing volume.

Step 3: Determine Critical Lane Volumes Note that each “ring” handles two sets of move-
ments in Phase C. This is possible, of course, because it is
As noted in Step I, the signal phase plan includes an ex-
the same signal face that controls all movements in a
clusive LT phase for the N-S artery and a single phase
given direction. The left-turn lane volume cannot be aver-
with permitted left turns for the E-W artery. Figure
aged with the througwright-turn movement as there are
18.16 illustrates this and the determination of critical
lane-use restrictions involved. left turns must be in the
lane volumes.
left-turn lane; none may be in the througwright-turn lanes.
Phase A is the exclusive N-S LT phase. The heavi-
est movement in the phase is 263 for the SB turn. Step 4: DetermineYellow and All-Red Intervals
In Phase B, the heavier movement is the SB through and
right turn,with 516 In Phase C, both E-W left-turn Equation 18-2 is used to determine the length of the
lane and througwright-turn lane groups move at the yellow interval; Equation 18-3b is used to determine the
same time. The heaviest movement is the lanes, length of the all-red interval. As a speed l i m i t 4 5
with 351 The sum of critical-lane volumes, is, is given rather than a measured average approach speed,
therefore, 263 516 = 1,130 there will be no differentiation between the and

Ring 1 Ring 2

231 or 263
263

=
472 or 516
263 516 351
1,130

............. 140,351,283,or 128

..............
351
128

Figure 18.16: Determination of Critical-Lane Volumes-Signal-Timing Case 2

530 CHAPTER 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL TIMING AND DESIGN

As the speed limits on both arteries are the same, the Using Equation 18-13, the effective green time is allo-
yellow intervals for all three phases will also be the same: cated in proportion to the phase critical lane volumes:
1.47 * 45
1,130
+
+ (0) = 4.3
The all-red intervals will reflect the need to clear the
1,130 42.5
full width of the street plus the width of the far crosswalk.
The width of the N-S street is 55 ft, while the width of the
E-W street is 60 ft. The width of a crosswalk is 10ft. Dur- = 93 = 28.9
ing the N-S left-turn phase, it will be assumed that a vehi- 1,130
cle must clear the entire width of the E-W artery. Thus, for The cycle length is now checked to ensure that the
Phase A, the width to be cleared is 60 + = 70 ft; for sum of all effective green times and the lost time equals
Phase B, it is also 60 = 70 ft; for Phase C, the dis- 110 s: 21.6 + 42.5 + 28.9 + 17.0 = 110 OK. Note
tance to be cleared is 55 65 ft. Thus: that when the default values for and e (both 2.0 s) are
used, green times, G, equal effective green times,
70 20
= = 1.4s Step 8: Check Pedestrian Requirements
1.47* 45
65 20 Pedestrian requirements are estimated using Equation
arc = 1.3 15. In this case, note that be permitted to
cross the E-W artery only during Phase B. Pedestrians
where 20 ft is the assumed length of a typical vehicle. will cross the N-S artery during Phase C. The number of
pedestrians per cycle for all crosswalks is the default
Step 5 : Determination of Lost Times pedestrian volume for “moderate” activity, 200 di-
vided by the number of cycles in an hour
Remembering that where the default values for and e (36001110 = 32.7 Thus, = 200132.7
are both 2.0 s, that the lost time per phase, is the same = 6.1 Required pedestrian green times are:
as the sum of the yellow plus all-red intervals,

4.3 1.4 5.7 3.2 +

4.3 + 1.3 5.6 s = 3.2 15.0 + 1.6 19.8
Based on this, the total lost time per cycle, is
5.7 5.7 + 5.6 = 17.0 s.
= 3.2 +
= 3.2 + 13.8 1.6 = 18.6
Step 6: Determine the Desirable Cycle Length
The minimum requirements are compared to the sum of
The desirable cycle length is found using Equation 18- 1: the green, yellow, and all-red times provided for vehicles:
17 17
- 109.7 s 19.8 s + 42.5 + 5.7
1,130 0.155
= 48.2 s OK
18.6 + 28.9 + 5.6
Assuming that this is a pretimed signal controller,
= 34.5 OK
a cycle length of 110 s would be selected.
Therefore, no changes to the vehicular signal timing are
Step 7: Allocate Effective Green to Each Phase required to accommodate pedestrians safely.

In a cycle length of 110 with 17 s of lost time per For major arterial crossings, pedestrian signals
cycle, the amount of effective green time that must be would normally be provided. During Phase A, all pedes-
allocated to the three phases is 110 - 17 = 93 s. trian signals would indicate “DON’T WALK.” During
18.4 SAMPLE SIGNAL TIMING APPLICATIONS 531

B, the pedestrian clearance interval (the flashing counting from the end of 48.2 - 15.0 = 33.2
DON'T WALK) would be or = 15.0 s. The During Phase C, is 5514.0 = 13.8 and the
interval is whatever time is left in G + Y , WALK interval would be 34.5 - 13.8 = 20.7 s.

Figure 18.17illustrates anotherjunction of major arterials.In this SB: = 30 200

case, the E--W artery has three through lanes, plus an exclusive
xprod = 30 *
LT lane and an exclusive RT lane in each direction. In effect,
each movement on the E-W artery has its own lane group. The = 7,500 50,000
N-S artery has two lanes in each direction, with no exclusive LT Protected phase not needed.
or RT lanes. There are no pedestrians present at this intersection.
The results are fortunate. Had protected phasing been
Step 1: Develop a Phase Plan required for the NB and SB approaches, the lack of an
Phasing is determined by the need for left-turn protec- exclusive LT lane on these approaches would have
tion. Using the criteria of Equation 18-1, each left turn caused a problem.
movement is examined. The E-W approaches have LT lanes, and protect-
ed left-turns are needed on both approaches. As the LT
EB: = 300 vehh 200 volumes EB and WB are very different (300 vs.
Protected phase needed. 150 a phase plan that splits the protected LT
WB: = phases would be advisable. A NEMA phase plan, uti-
xprod = 150 * lizing an exclusive LT phase followed by a leading
green for the EB direction, will be employed for the
= 60,000 50,000
E-W artery.
Protected phase needed.
Step 2: Convert Volumes to Through-Vehicle Equiva-
NB: =
lents
xprod = (40012)
Tables 18.1 and 18.2 are used to find through-vehicle
= 10,000 50,000
equivalents for left- and right-turn volumes respectively.
Protected phase not needed. Conversion computations are illustrated in Table 18.6.

60 1000
PHF = 0.85
400 I Target = 0.90
E-W Avg. speed = 50
N-S speed = 35
96 ft Deceleration = 10
Level grades
Driver reaction time = 1.0 s
Default = 2.0
Default e = 2.0

1200 50 40
100
40 ft

Figure Signal-Timing Case 3

532 CHAPTER 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL TIMING AND DESIGN

Table 18.6: Computation of Through Vehicle Equivalent Volumes for Signal-Timing Case 3
Volume Equivalent
Approach Tables
EB 1.05 315 315 315
1,200 1.oo 1,200 1,200 400
1.18 118 118 118
WB L 150 1.05 158 158 158
T 1,000 1.oo 1,000 1,000 334
R 250 1.18 295 295 295
NB L 50 3.00 150
T 500 1.oo 500 697 349
R 40 1.18 47
SB L 30 120
T 400 1.oo 400 591 296
R 60 1.18 71
Interpolated by opposing volume.
Note that the EB and approaches have a sep- the choice is simpler, as there are no overlapping phases.
arate lane group for each movement, while the NB and Ring 2, serving the approach, has the critical-lane
SB approaches have a single lane group serving all volume of 349 The sum of all critical-lane vol-
movements from shared lanes. umes is 649 349 = 998
Note also that overlapping phases have a unique
Step 3: Determine Critical-LaneVolumes
characteristic. In this example, for overlapping Phase A,
Figure 18.18 shows a ring diagram for the phase plan the largest left-turn movement is EB and the largest
discussed in Step 1 and illustrates the selection of the through movement is EB as well. Because of this, the
critical-lane volumes. overlapping phase plan will yield a smaller sum of crit-
The phasing involves overlaps. For the combined ical lane volumes than one using an exclusive
Phase A, the critical path is down Ring 1, which has a phase for both left-turn movements. Had the largest
sum of critical-lane volumes of 649 For Phase B, left-turn and through movements been from opposing

Ring 1 Ring 2

315 + 334 = 649

or
158 + 400 = 558 =
= 649 tvulh 649 349 =
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
998
..........
..........

.... .... 296 or 349

= 349
296

Figure 18.18: Determination of Critical-LaneVolumes-Signal-Timing Case 3

18.4 SAMPLE,SIGNAL TIMING APPLICATIONS 533

approaches, the sum of critical-lane volumes would be

the same for the overlapping sequence and for a single
exclusive LT phase. In other words, little is gained by
using overlapping phases where a left turn and its op-
posing through (through plus right turn) movement are
the larger movements. Note from Figure 18.18 that the first phase transi-
tion occurs at the end of Phase AI, but only on Ring 2.
A similar transition occurs at the end of Phase A2, but
Step 4: Determine Yellow and All-Red Intervals
only on Ring 1. The two other transitions, at the end of
Equation 18-2 is used to determine the appropriate Phases A3 and B, occur on both rings. Thus, the total
length of the change intervals. Note that the sig- + +
lost time per cycle, L i s 5.9 5.9 6.5 = 18.3 and
nal design is a three-phase signal and that there are three the phase plan represents a three-phase signal.
transitions in the cycle. Because of the overlapping se-
quence, the transition at the end of the protected Step 6: Determine the Desirable Cycle Length
left turns occur at different times on Ring 1 and Ring 2.
For simplicity, it is assumed that left-turning vehicles The desirable cycle length is found using Equation
from the EB and approaches cross the entire width 18-11:
of the N-S artery. intervals are determined using
Equation as there are no present.
Percentile speeds are estimated from the meas-
ured average approach speeds given:

18.3
= 95.3 s
0.192

Assuming that this is a pretimed controller, a cycle

length of 100 s would be selected.
Then:
Step 7: Allocate Effective Green to Each Phase
A signal cycle of 100 with 18.3 of lost time has
+ (0) = 5.0 100.0 - 18.3 = 81.7 s of effective green time to allo-
cate in accordance with Equation 18-13. Note that in
allocating green to the critical path, Phases and A2
are treated as a single segment. Subsequently, the loca-
40 + 20 tion of the Ring 2 transition between Phases and A2
= 0.9
1.47 * 45 will have to be established.
96 + 20
= 2.6 s
1.47 * 30

where 20 ft is the assumed average length of a

typical vehicle. 334
81.7 * 27.3
Step 5: Determination of Lost Times
As the problem statement specifies the default values of
2.0 s each start-up lost time and extension of effec-
tive green into yellow and all-red intervals, the total lost The specific lengths of Phases and A2 are deter-
time in each phase, is equal to the sum of the yellow mined by fixing the Ring 2 transition between them.
and all red intervals, Y. Thus: This requires consideration of the noncritical path
534 CHAPTER 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL TIMING AND DESIGN

through combined Phase A, which occurs on Ring 2. effective green times (numerically, although they do not
The total length of combined Phase A is the sum of occur simultaneously):
and or 25.8 27.3 53.1 The Ring
transition is based upon the relative values of the lane
volumes for Phase A1 and the combined Phase or: 10.8
5.9
27.3 s
By implication, Phase A2 is total length of combined
= 5.9 s
Phase A minus the length of Phase AI and Phase A3, or: 28.6 s
6.5 s
= 100.0 s
Now, the signal has been completely timed for vehicu- There is no Step 8 in this case, as there are no pedestri-
lar needs. With the assumption of default values for ans at this intersection and, therefore, no pedestrian re-
s) and e (2.0 s), actual green times are equal to quirements to be checked.

Figure 18.19 illustrates a typical T-intersection, with Step 2: Convert Volumes to Through-Vehicle
sive lanes for various movements as shown. Note that there is
only one opposed left turn in the WB direction.
Table 18.7 shows the conversion of volumes to
Step 1: Develop a Phase Plan through vehicle equivalents, using the equivalent val-
In this case, there is only one opposed left turn to check ues given in Tables 18.1 and 18.2 for left and right
for the need of a protected phase. As the WB turns respectively.
left 200 it should be provided with a pro- Note that the NB left turn is treated as an opposed
tected left-turn phase. There is no EB or SB left turn, turn with =0 There are different approaches
and the NB left turn is unopposed. The standard way of that have been used to address left turns that are
providing for the necessary phasing would be to utilize posed due to one-way streets and T-intersections,
a leading WB green with no lagging EB green. sons other than the presence of a protected left-turn

700 300 250

Target ratio = 0.95
Low pedestrian activity
100 Driver reaction time = 1.0s
I
Deceleration rate = 10
I Speed limit, all approaches = 35 miih
I
I
Default for = 2.0
I Default for e = 2.0 s
I
I N Level grades
I Crosswalk width 10 ft
Pedestrian walking speed = 4.0
39 ft

Figure 18.19: Signal-Timing Case 4

536 CHAPTER 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL TIMING AND DESIGN

in Phase it will be assumed that both movements cross

the entire 48-ft width of the E-W street. Then:

= 3.6
(0)
39 + 20 - 1.1
As the usual defaults for and e are used, actual
green times are numerically equal to effective green
times.
48 20
= = 1.3 s
1.47 35 Step 8: Check Pedestrian Requirements
While there is low pedestrian activity at this intersec-
tion, pedestrians must still be safely accommodated by
Step 5: Determination of Lost Times the signal phasing. It will be assumed that pedestrians
Once again, 2.0-s default values are used for start-up lost cross the N-S street only during Phase A2 and that
time and extension of effective green into yellow and pedestrians crossing the E-W street will use Phase B.
all-red (e), so that the total lost time for each phase is equal The number of pedestrians per cycle in each crosswalk
to the sum of the yellow plus all-red intervals: is based on the default volume for “low” activity-50
(Table the number of cycles per
= 48. Then, in each crosswalk
would be = 1.0 Equation 18-15 is
used to compute minimum pedestrian requirements:

The total lost time per cycle is, therefore, 4.7

4.7 + 4.9 = 14.3

Step 6: Determine the Desirable Cycle Length = 3.2 + + (0.27 1.0) = 15.5

Equation 11 is once again used to determine the de-

These requirements must be checked against the
sirable cycle length, using the sum of critical-lane vol-
vehicular green, yellow, and all-red intervals:
umes, 1,140

14.3 14.3 13.2

- 74.5
= 21.9 + 4.7 26.6 OK
15.5 + 17.6 + 4.9
For a pretimed controller, a cycle length of 75 = 22.5 s OK
would be implemented.
Pedestrians are safely accommodated by the ve-
Step 7: Allocate Effective Green to Each Phase hicular signalization, and no changes are required.

The available effective green time for this signal is

75.0 - 14.3 = 60.7 s. It is allocated in proportion to References
the critical-lane volumes for each phase:

1. Pusey, R. and Butzer, G., “Traffic Control Sig-

nals,” Engineering Handbook, 5th Edition