Signal Design

The process of designing the

different components of traffic
signals
 Objectives of Signal
Timing
 Minimize delay
 Minimize conflicts
 Maximize capacity
 Reduce crashes

Each objective leads to a different solution

We must find an appropriate
compromise
Types of Signal Timing
 Isolated Signals:

Fixed / Pretimed
Signals which have a designated cycle which does not
change regardless of flow or time of day

Semi-actuated
Signals in which a major flow sees green unless: a detector
on a minor approach is triggered AND a preset, minimum
green time is exceeded on the major approach

Fully actuated
Signals in which current flow sees green unless: a detector
is triggered AND the preset, minimum green time is
exceeded on the current approach OR the preset,
maximum green time is exceeded
Term
s
Cycle: a complete rotation through all the
indications provided. Every legal movement
receives a “green”
Cycle Length (C): time (seconds) for the signal
to complete one full cycle.
Interval: an interval of time during which none
of the lights at a signalized intersection changes
Change interval: yellow indication for a given
movement
Clearance interval: all red, after yellow
Green interval: green indication for a
particular movement
Red interval: red indication for a particular
movement
All-Red: red indication for all approaches
Term
s
Phase: the aspect of a cycle allocated to one or
more streams of traffic
 Example: “T” intersection
of two one-way streets

Cycle: a complete rotation

through all the indications
provided. Every legal
movement receives a
“green”

Cycle length: 20 + 3 + 30
sec = 53 sec
Term
s

Permitted Left Turns:

a permitted left turn
receives a “green” ball
but must yield right of
way to opposing
movements, used when http://www.drivingschool.ca/drivereducation/page16.htm
left turn movements are
reasonable and gaps in
opposing traffic flow are
adequate
Term
s

Protected Left Turns:

provided separate
phase, left turn
movements are
protected by arrow, left
turns on one-way or T- http://www.drivingschool.ca/drivereducation/page16.htm
intersection are
considered “protected”
within that phase
Term
s

Protected/
Permitted : left
turns are given
permitted for part of
the cycle and then
protected for another
part of the cycle or
protected and then
permitted
Image source: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/aard/signals.gif
Design Process (Webster’s
Method)
 Collect Traffic Variables:

Hourly volume

Peak hour volumes for all movements

Peak 15-min volumes for all movements
 Design
Isolated Intersections
 Basic Timing Elements:

Green: Green time

Yellow: Yellow time

Effective Green: Green + Yellow – time vehicles
are discharging

All-Red: All movements have red

Intergreen time: Yellow + All-Red

Pedestrian WALK: 4-7 seconds when sign says
WALK

Pedestrian crossing time (PCT): time required for
a pedestrian to cross the intersection
 Intergreen Time

 Determined based on:


Stopping Sight Distance (SD) – Chapter 3

Intersection clearance time

Pedestrian crossing time (PCT) – if there
are no pedestrian signals (will discuss
under minimum green)
 Intergreen Example

2% grade, 50 feet across intersection, vehicle length is 20

feet, design speed = 45 mph (66 ft/sec), acceleration rate
= 11.2 ft/sec2, assume 1.0 sec P/R (event is expected)

 τmin = δ + __(W + L)__ + ___uo____

 uo 2(a + Gg)

τmin = 1 + (50 + 20) + _______66________ = 4.84 sec

66 2(11.2 + 0.02*32.2)

Use 5 seconds
General Approach for
Signal Timing
 Select phasing plan
 Calculate design flow rate using
peak hour volume and PHF
Peak Hour Factor (PHF)
 Design Hourly Volume (DHV):

DHV = (Peak-Hour Volume / PHF)

Design Hour Volume is the one

hour traffic volume used as the
basis of design (usually as a
prediction of a future condition)
Design Hour Volume

PHF Adjusts volume to match peak 15 minutes

PHF = 0.85
Calculated Volume = 1200 v/hr

DHV= ____1,200 vph____ = 1,411 vph

0.85
General Approach for
Signal Timing
 Find the critical movements or
lanes and calculate the critical flow
ratios
 Lane Group
 Separates traffic into consecutive movements
 Lane group
 set of movements that has same green phase and

move together
 Can be one or more lanes

 Guidelines for deciding lane groups:

 use separate lane groups for exclusive left-turn
lane(s) unless a shared left-through also exists
for the approach
 use separate lane groups for exclusive right-turn
lane(s) unless a shared right-through also exists
for the approach
Lane Group
Saturation Flow Rate
service rate: maximum vehicles that
can be served in 1 hour assuming
continuous green and a continuous
queue of vehicles
 Represents capacity for the lane group

 when signal turns green – reaction and

delay time as vehicles start up, then

flow becomes uniform – headway
becomes uniform
Saturation Flow Rate

• sat. flow can be determined directly

in the field or calculated
• ideal so = 1,900 pcphgpl (passenger
cars per hour of green per lane)
• adjust so to reflect non-ideal
conditions
Saturation Flow Rate
Number of vehicles that could enter the
intersection after initial startup if
constant queue existed and constant
green
s = _3600_(sec/hour)
h
where:
s = saturation flow rate in vehicles per
hour of green per lane(vphgpl)
h = saturation headway (seconds)
prevailing saturation flow for a specific lane group:
s = so * N * fw * fHV * fg * fp * fa * fbb * fLU * fRT * fLT * fLbp * fRbp

N = number of lanes in lane group

fw = lane width adjustment factor

fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor

Ideal saturation flow rate
fg = grade adjustment factor is adjusted to represent
all the factors for the
fp = parking adjustment lane group which
fa = area type decrease capacity (non-
ideal conditions)
fbb = bus blockage factor

fLU = lane utilization factor

fRT = right turn adjustment factor

fLT = left turn adjustment factor

fLbp = pedestrian and bike adjustment factor for left turn movement
Critical Lane Group
 For a given phase: several lanes of traffic on one or
more approaches move simultaneously
 One of those movements has the most intense traffic
 One lane (movement) requires the most time, all
others require less
 Becomes the “design” lane
 If sufficient time is given to the critical lane, all other
lanes moving within the phase will be accommodated
 Only one critical lane (movement) per phase
 Except for lost time one critical lane is always moving
Critical Movement or Lane
 Movement that requires the most
time to execute
 If phase is long enough for the most
critical movement, other movements
in phase will be serviced as well
 Can be determined using flow ratios
 Movement with highest flow ratio is
critical movement (ratio of flow to
capacity)
 Flow Ratio
 Flow ratio = ___actual flow___
saturation flow rate

Flow = 1,200 vph

Saturation flow = 1500 vph

Flow ratio = ____1,200 vph_____ = 0.80

1,500 vph
Same as volume/capacity
 Critical Lane Example
 Find critical lanes for each phase

(v/s)north = 250/1700 = 0.15

Phase 1

Phase 2

(v/s)west = 750/1700 = 0.44

(v/s)east = 600/1700 = 0.35

(v/s)south = 300/1700 = 0.18

Critical

Lane Example
v/s for critical lane group

(v/s)west = 0.44

(v/s)south = 0.18
Example
For a NB/SB phase the following flows and saturation flow rates are
available

Movement Design Flow Rate (pcu/hr) Sat Flow Rate

(pcu/hr)
NB L,T 600 1200
NB R,T 500 1700
SB L,T 450 1330
SB R,T 720 1600

Which is the critical lane movement?

What is the critical flow ratio?

Solution: for NB L,T flow ratio = 600/1200 = 0.5

Movement Flow Ratio

NB L,T 0.50
NB R,T 0.29
SB L,T 0.34
SB R,T 0.45
General Approach for
Signal Timing
 Calculate length of clearance time
 Clearance Interval
 It allows all vehicles to clear the
intersection after the green interval,
before conflicting movements are
released

Very important for Safety

Clearance interval = Yellow + ALL-RED

Avoid “Dilemma zone”: where vehicle
cannot stop safely before intersection and
cannot clear the intersection before end of
 Clearance Interval
Yellow interval
 time to warn drivers
 allow drivers in the intersection to clear
 Allow drivers behind the stop bar to either
stop or clear the intersection if they cannot stop

For class we are assuming no all-red

 Clearance Interval
τmin = δ + __(W + L)__ + ___uo____
uo 2(a + Gg)

τmin = minimum clearance interval

δ = perception/reaction time (lower than 2.5
because expected)
W = width of intersection (feet)
L = length of vehicle (feet)
uo = speed of vehicle
a = constant rate of deceleration (ft/sec 2)
G = grade
 Clearance Example
2% grade, 50 feet across intersection, vehicle length is 20 feet,
design speed = 45 mph (66 ft/sec), acceleration rate = 11.2
ft/sec2, assume 1.0 sec P/R (event is expected)

 τmin = δ + __(W + L)__ + ___uo____

 uo 2(a + Gg)

τmin = 1 + (50 + 20) + _______66________ = 4.84 sec

66 2(11.2 + 0.02*32.2)

Use 5 seconds
General Approach for
Signal Timing
 Calculate the optimum cycle
length
Cycle Length
 Cycle should be long enough to serve critical
movements but no longer
 If cycle is too short -- inefficient because of time
lost to too many changes high compared to usable
green time
 If too long, delays will be lengthened as vehicles
wait
 Several ways to calculate optimum cycle length

Webster's:
 most common
 minimizes intersection delay
 Gives optimum cycle length as a function of lost time and critical
flow ratio
 Cycle Length
Co = 1.5L + 5
1 - Σ(Yi)

where:
Co = optimum cycle length
L = sum of the lost time for all phases
Yi = ratio of the design flow rate to the saturation flow rate for the
critical approach or lane in each phase

cycle length should be increased to the nearest multiple of 5 seconds

once have cycle length subtract intergreen time allocate green based
on critical movements
Lost Time

 Some time is “lost” as vehicles

start up from a stop until vehicles
are progressing at the saturation
flow rate through the intersection
 Vehicles utilize some the yellow
interval so this adds to the actual
time available to vehicles
Start up lost time
 Average headway
is greater than h
 First 3 or 4
vehicles at signal
require more
time to react and
accelerate than
subsequent
 Start up lost time

 h = saturation headway (seconds)

 Average headway for first few vehicles in
queue > h
 Start up lost time
 l1 = ∑Δi

where

l1 = start-up lost time (sec/phase)

Δi = incremental headway (time > h) for
vehicle i
 Time to discharge Queue
 Green time to discharge queue of
vehicles

Tn = l1 + nh
 Where

Tn = GREEN time to move queue of
n vehicles through signalized
intersection for phase

l1 =start-up lost time
 n = number of vehicles in queue
 h = saturation headway (s/veh)
 Clearance Lost time

 Lost time associated with stopping

queue at end of GREEN signal (l2)
 Difficult to observe in field
 Time between last vehicle’s front
wheels crossing stop line and
initiation of GREEN for next phase
 Total lost time
 Lost time due to vehicles starting up at
beginning of green and vehicles stopping at
end of green


tL = l1 + l2
 Where:
 tL = total lost time (sec/phase)
 l1 = start-up lost time (sec/phase)
 l2 = clearance lost time
(sec/phase)
Lost Time for Phase i
li = Gai + y – Gei
Where:
li = lost time for phase i
Gai = actual green time for phase i
y = yellow interval for phase I
y = τmin (yellow interval) if all red is not
included
Gei = effective green time for phase i
Lost time includes start-up delay plus any
portion of yellow not used for vehicle
movement

Image source: http://hcmdev.kittelson.com/Case1/popup_terms/effgreen_popup.htm

 Effective green time
 Amount of time during cycle that vehicles are moving
for a particular movement

g1 = Gi + Yi – tLi

Where:

g1 = effective green time (sec) for
movement i

Gi = actual green time (sec) for movement i

Yi = sum of yellow interval for movement i

tLi = total lost time for movement i


Yi = yi + ari
 Where:

yi = yellow interval for movement i

ari = all red interval for movement i
Effective Red time
 Amount of time vehicles for a
particular movement are not
moving
Total Lost Time
 Total lost time for a cycle is given by:

L = li + R
Where
L = lost time per cycle
li = lost time for phase i
R = total all red during cycle
Example
Given: 3 phases, Calculate the optimum cycle length based on the
following information

Phase Critical Flow Ratio Lost Time (sec)

1 0.23 6
2 0.13 4
3 0.26 7

Solution:

Co = 1.5L + 5 = __1.5(6+4+7) +5___ = 1.5(17) + 5

1 - Σ (V/s) 1 - (0.23+0.13+0.26) 1 - 0.62

Co = 80.3 sec, use 80 sec

General Approach for
Signal Timing
 Allocate available green based on
critical flow ratios
Green Split Calculations

 With Co, allocate available green to

phases
 Allocated by critical flow ratios
 Each phase receives green consistent
with it's ratio of critical flow
compared to that for other phases
Green Split Calculations
 For phase I:

gi = (V/s)i * Gte
Σ (V/s)
where:
gi = length of green interval for phase i
(sec)
(V/s)i = critical flow ratio for phase i
Gte = available green for the cycle (sec)
Total Available Green
 Gte = C – L

Where:
Gte = total effective green time per
cycle
C = actual cycle length
L = total lost time
Example
Given:
2 phase cycle
s = same for both cycles = 900 pcu/hr
available green time = 60 sec

Phase 1: critical flow rate = 500 pcu/hr

Phase 2: critical flow rate = 250 pcu/hr
Example
Given:
2 phase cycle
s = same for both cycles = 900 pcu/hr
available green time = 60 sec

Phase 1: critical flow rate = 500 pcu/hr, flow ratio = 0.56

Phase 2: critical flow rate = 250 pcu/hr, flow ratio = 0.28

Solution for phase I:

g1 = __(V/s)1_* GTE___ = __0.56 * 60____ = 40 sec

Σ (V/s) (0.56+0.28)
General Approach for
Signal Timing
 Calculate length of minimum green
time
 Minimum Green Interval
 Pedestrian crossing time is the minimum
green that can be given
 Pedestrians can only cross intersection as
long as no conflicting movements are
present (with the exception of permitted
left and right turns)
 Sum of green and intergreen must provide
time for ped. to cross approach
 Minimum Green Interval
 With pedestrian signal Assumptions:
 pedestrian walk signal will be on for

approx. 7 sec
 a pedestrian may begin crossing the

street as DON'T WALK begins to flash

 pedestrians walk about 4 ft/sec

 WALK interval is contained in the green

interval of the corresponding approach

Minimum Green Interval
Gt = 3.2 + _L_ + 2.7(Nped) for WE > 10 ft
Sp WE

Gt = 3.2 + _L_ + 2.7(Nped) for WE <= 10 ft

Sp
where:
Gt = pedestrian crossing time (sec) for pedestrian signal
L = width of intersection (feet)
Sp = velocity of the pedestrian (usually 4 ft/sec) --depends on
ped.
Nped = number of pedestrians crossing during an interval
3.2 = pedestrian start-up time
WE = effective crosswalk width (feet)
Minimum Green Interval

gmin = Pt - I
where:
gmin = minimum green time (sec)
Pt = pedestrian crossing time (sec)
I = clearance interval (sec)
 Example
Given:
Intersection width = 60 feet 12 peds/interval
Sp = 4 feet/sec 9 ft crosswalk
WALK interval = 10 sec
Clearance time is 6 sec.

Gt = 3.2 + _L_ + 0.27(Nped) for WE <= 10

ft
Sp WE

Gt = 3.2 + _60 ft__ + 0.27(12) = 18.6 sec

4 ft/sec 9
 Example
Given:
Intersection width = 60 feet 12 peds/interval
Sp = 4 feet/sec 9 ft crosswalk
WALK interval = 10 sec
Clearance time is 6 sec.

Gt = 18.6 sec

gmin = Pt - I = 18.6 sec - 6 sec = 12.6

sec
General Approach for Signal
Timing
 Allocate available green based on
critical flow ratios
 Calculate the capacity
 Check capacity/design flow rates
and green intervals/minimum
green intervals
 Adjust cycle timing if necessary
Adjustments
 Once done need to see if results work
 Make sure green meets requirements or
adjust until it does (ped crossing)
 Check capacity
 If significantly below capacity, reduce
green time
 If close increase
 Compute LOS and delay and check
 Will worry about LOS next time
Determination for Left Turn
Phasing
Left turn phasing
 Additional phases increase lost time
 Consider protected or protected/permitted:
 VLT >= 200 veh/hr

VLT*(vo/No) >= 50,000

Where
 VLT = left-turn flow rate

 Vo = opposing thru movement flow rates

 No = number of lanes for opposing through

movement
Left turn phasing
 Usually not provided when Vlt <
two vehicles per cycle (sneakers)
 When protected left is used for
opposing left, consider even if not
needed
Protected
 Safest
 Recommended when 2 of following
are met
 Left-turn flow rate > 320 veh/h
 Opposing flow rate > 1,100 veh/hr
 Opposing speed limit >= 45 mph
 Two or more left turn lanes
Protected
 Recommended when 1 of following is met

Three opposing traffic lanes with >= 45 mph
speed limit
 Left turn flow rate > 320 and % of HV > 2.5%
 >= 7 left turn accidents in 3 years have
occurred

Average stopped delay to left turning traffic is
accepatble for fully protecte phasing and
engineer judges that additional left-turn
accidents will occur
Traffic Engineering
Handbook Guidelines for
Left-Turn Phase
 Developed by University of Texas-
Arlington
 Favors least restrictive option –
permitted
Permissive Only
 Left turn volume and speed limit fall
within shaded portion of Figure 13-8,
page 476 (TE Handbook)
 Sight distance for left-turning vehicles is
not restricted
 < 8 left-turn related accidents (sum
over 3 years) at any one approach
 < 450 left-turn related conflicts per
million entering vehicles2 (vphpl2)
Protected Only
 Recommended when any two are
met:
 Peak 15-min flow rate for LT > 320 vph
 Peak 15-min flow rate for opposing
traffic > 1,100 vph
 Opposing traffic speed limit >= 45 mph
 2 + left turn lanes
Protected Only
 Recommended when any one is met:
 3+ opposing lanes & opposing speed >= 45 mph
 LT volumes > 320 vph & heavy vehicles > 2.5%
 Opposing volume > 1,100 & heavy vehicle LT
traffic > 2.5%
 >= 7 LT-related accidents within 3 yrs for
protected-permitted option
 > 260 LT-related conflicts per million vphpl 2
 Average stopped delay for LT is acceptable for
protected-only phasing and engineer judges more
LT accidents would occur under
protected/permitted option
Lead or Lag?
(protected/permitted or
protected only)
 Lead Advantages:

Clearing left first minimized LT-Thru conflicts

Moves spilled back vehicles out of thru lane

LT drivers quicker reaction time

Increases capacity and safety when left-turn
lanes do not exist
 Lead Disadvantages

LT vehicles may continue after phase ends

Adjacent through vehicles– false start
Lead or Lag?
 Lead:
 Recommended unless lag is
necessary for progression (protected
first or protected only)
 Permissive/protected lead when LOS
is unacceptable
 Permissive/protected lead when > 7
accidents and unacceptable delay
with protected/permitted
Lead or Lag?
 Lag Advantages:
 Both directions of through traffic start at same time
 Ensures that LT vehicles not able to clear on permitted
clear
 Allows LT vehicles to use permitted first, minimized
protected
 Complete stopping of LT vehicles
 Lag Disadvantages
 Yellow trap
 Through vehicles are inhibited when spillback from LT
occurs
 More severe collisions if through drivers speed through
clearance interval and encounter LT
Lead or Lag?
 Lag
 Protected phase is recommended
when intended to improve safety of of
installed leading sequence with > 190
conflicts per million vphpl2
 Necessary to accommodate
progression
Yellow Trap

 LT driver expects opposing display

to be yellow when they receive
yellow
 Yellow trap occurs when opposing
traffic does not receive yellow and
LT driver mistakenly assumes that
is the case