LAUNT ENTRANCE EXAM TOPICS

MATHEMATICAL REASONING

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS.
Real Numbers: properties.

Conventional operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, root extraction,

exponentiation, logarithm: properties. Decimal number generator.

OPERATIONAL SKILL.
Applications of numerical induction.
Applications of basic algebraic identities

LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS.
Unconventional operation: Definition, classification.
Binary operation: Definition, neutral element, inverse element.

SUCCESSIONS.
Numerical sequences: Reason for a sequence, arithmetic sequence, geometric sequence.
Polygonal sequences: linear sequences, quadratic sequences, recurrence formula of a
sequence, combinatorial method.

SERIES AND SUMMATORIES.

Series: arithmetic series, geometric series, infinite geometric series, remarkable series.
Summations: properties.

NUMERICAL COUNTING TECHNIQUES.

Numerical counting.
Number system applications.
Principle of addition, multiplication.

GEOMETRIC COUNTING TECHNIQUES.

Counting flat figures.
Counting intersection points of plane figures.
Counting spatial figures.
Introduction to Topology.
Eurelian paths traveled, shortest path theorem.

COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS.
Combinatorial number: factorial of a number, properties of the combinatorial number.
Permutations: linear permutation, circular permutation, permutation with repeated
elements.
Combinations: combinations with repeated elements.
ODDS.

Notion of probability: Experiment.

Sample space.
Simple events.
Mutually exclusive composite events.
Axioms of probability.

SETTING UP EQUATIONS.
Symbolization of verbal statements through algebraic language.
Formulation of equations.
Problems regarding ages and mobiles.

COMPARISON OF MAGNITUDES.
Magnitudes. Definition. Measurement.
Directly proportional magnitudes.
Inversely proportional magnitudes.
Composite proportionality.
Applications of the compound rule of three.

THE AS MUCH FOR HOW MUCH.

The amount for how much.
The percentage as a particular case of the amount per how much. Properties.
Percentage changes.
Applications of percentages.
Successive operations on percentages.
Business applications on percentages.

STATEMENT OF INEQUALITIES.
Inequality: Inequality. First degree inequality.
Second degree inequality.
Statement of inequalities.

FUNCTIONAL MODELS
Function: Definition.
Linear function.
Quadratic function.
Absolute value function.
Exponential function.
Linear models.
Quadratic models.

GEOMETRIC REASONING
I. Problems on polygonal geometric figures using auxiliary lines and properties of
polygons.

GEOMETRIC REASONING
II. Problems on plane geometry related to areas and perimeters of polygonal regions.
 VERBAL REASONING
TEXTUAL COMPREHENSION.
Reading levels. (Literal, inferential, critical).
Text superstructure.
The Paragraph (structure and function)
Essential Statement.

LEXICO-SEMANTIC RELATIONS.
Word structure (Greek and Latin roots and affixes) Conceptualizations.
Semantic Precision.
Polysemy.
Homonymy.
Paronymy.
Hyponymy.
Hyperonymy.
Lexical and Contextual Synonymy.

LOGICAL-SEMANTIC RELATIONS.
Writing Plan.
Textual Restructuring.
Excluded statement.
Essential term.
Term excluded.
Text completion.
Verbal Series.
Analogies.
 LOGICAL REASONING
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC.
Proposition: Definition and properties.
Formalization of expressions from everyday language and other branches of knowledge.
Tautological, contradictory and contingent propositions.
Tables of truth values of a logical formula.
Laws of propositional logic.
Rules of inference, applications to the validity of reasoning.
Logic circuits to switches and gates.
Simplification.

PREDICATE LOGIC
Predicates: Subject term and predicate term.
Types of predicates.
Class logic: classes, types of classes, Venn diagrams.
Quantificational logic: Quantifiers, laws with quantifiers.
Formalization and equivalences with monadic and dyadic predicates.
Rules of generalization and exemplification.
Formal demonstration of the validity of reasoning.
Syllogisms and quantificational logic.

FORMS OF REASONING
Inductive reasoning, characteristics, types and applications.
Transductive reasoning, characteristics, types, types and exemplification.
Reasoning by analogy.
Erroneous reasoning or fallacies, characteristics, types, importance and identification.
 MATH
ARITHMETIC
REAL NUMBER SYSTEM (R).
The Natural Number System (N): The natural numbers.
Addition.
Subtraction.
Multiplication.
Division. Properties.
The Number System: Integers (Z):
The Integers.
Addition.
Subtraction.
Multiplication.
Division.
Empowerment.
Filing.
Properties.
Issues.
Non-periodic decimal expressions and irrational numbers.
Absolute Value. Properties.
Metric units of length, mass, surface area, capacity, and cubic units.
Conversion and problem solving.
Successions.
Arithmetic and geometric progressions.

SET THEORY.
Notion of Sets.
Determination of a set: Comprehension, extension.
Relationships between sets: Inclusion, equality, proper subset.
Disjoint sets.
Operations between Sets: Meeting, intersection, difference, symmetric difference and
complement.

NUMBERING SYSTEMS.
Basis of a numbering system.
Decimal system.
Other systems.
Polynomial decomposition.
Conversion into different numbering systems.

DIVISIBILITY.
Multiple of a number.
Divisibility applied to Newton's Binomial.
Divisibility criteria by: 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 11; 13; 17 and 19.

PRIME NUMBERS - COMPOSITE - LCM - GCD.

Number of divisors of a number: prime and composite divisors.
Sum of divisors of a number.
Product of divisors of a number.
Sum of the inverses of the divisors of a number.

MCD - MCM.
Determination of the GCD by the Euclidean Algorithm. Properties.

RATIONAL NUMBERS - RATIOS AND PROPORTIONS.

Rational Number System.
Fractional number.
Classification. GCD and LCM of fractional numbers.
Decimal numbers.
Classes.
Arithmetic and Geometric Reason: Proportion: arithmetic and geometric.
Classes of proportions.
Harmonic Proportion.
Series of equivalent reasons: Properties.
Rule of three, percentages.

INTEREST - DISCOUNT RULE.

Interest: Simple and Compound.
Rules of interest and mixing.
Discount: Present value, nominal value.
Trade and Rational Discount Classes.
Properties.
Common Maturity.
Financial models.

STATISTICS.
Data management:
A. Position: arithmetic mean, weighted mean, harmonic mean, geometric mean, median, mode,
quantiles.
B. Dispersion: mean deviation, variance, standard deviation, coefficient of variation. C. shape:
skewness and kurtosis.
Simple and compound index numbers.
Sample size, sampling error.
Surveys.
Frequency tables.
Sorting and counting charts.
Statistical variables.
Classification. Population and sample.
Graphical representation of distributions: histogram, frequency polygon, ogive.

PROBABILITY.
Additive principle and multiplicative principle for performing counts.
Tree chart for counting and listing.
Elementary combinatorics: permutations, variations and combinations.
Probability of compound events; conditional, of independent events.
Probability in tree diagrams.
Laplace's rule.
conditional probability, Bayes' theorem.
Random variable.
Discreet, Continuous.
Probability distributions, mathematical expectation and mathematical variance.
 ALGEBRA
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS.
Classes of Algebraic Expressions.
Theory of exponents.
Degree of a monomial and a polynomial.
Special polynomials.
Operations with Polynomials.
Algebraic exponents.

POLYNOMIALS - OPERATIONS.
Degree of a polynomial.
Addition and subtraction.
Properties.
Algebraic multiplication of monomials and polynomials.
Laws and properties.
Notable Products: square of a binomial, sum by the difference of a binomial.
Product of two factors with a common term, Argand's identity, GAUSS's identity, square of
a trinomial, cube of a trinomial.
Lagrangian identities.

FACTORIZATION - NEWTON'S BINOMIAL.

Factoring. Cases.
Newton's binomial, expansion with binomial coefficients, general term.
Properties of the development of the binomial.
Exercises and application problems.

ALGEBRAIC DIVISION - NOTABLE QUOTIENTS.

Algebraic division: division methods, classical method, separate coefficients, Horner and
Ruffini.
Remainder theorem.
Notable Quotients. Cases.
General term. Properties.

LINEAR AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS, AND SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS.

Linear equations.
Quadratic equations.
Properties of the roots of quadratic equations.
Non-quadratic equations that can be reduced to quadratic equations.
Factorable equations.
Matrices and determinants of order 2 and 3. Properties.
System of linear equations with 2 and 3 variables.
Solution methods.
System of higher order equations with 1 and 2 variables.

INEQUALITIES. LINEAR AND QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES AND SYSTEMS OF

INEQUALITIES.
Inequalities, properties of inequalities.
Intervals.

Interval classes.
Operations.
Linear and quadratic inequalities.
Polynomial Inequality.
Fractional inequality.
Systems of inequalities with 1, 2 and 3 variables.
Solution set.

LOGARITHMS.
Definition of Logarithm, decimal logarithm systems, neperian. General properties of
logarithms.
Antilogarithms.
Cologarithm.
Exponential and logarithmic equations.
Solution set.
Systems of basic exponential and logarithmic equations.
Solution set.

BINARY RELATIONSHIPS.
Cartesian product.
Binary Relationship.
Binary relationship classes.
Domain and range of a real relationship.
Real relationship graph.

FUNCTIONS.
Functions. Definition.
Domain, Range and Graph.
Function classes: Constant, linear, absolute value, square root, greatest integer, sign,
hyperbolic, logarithmic, trigonometric, exponential, greatest integer, sign, even, odd,
periodic function.
Quadratic function, inverse function, invective, surjective and bijective.
Linear models.
Algebra of functions.
Composition of functions.
Resolution and formulation of problems linked to reality.

INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR PROGRAMMING.

Linear Programming. Definition.
Systems of first degree equations and inequalities with two variables.
Determination of the feasible region.
Maximum and minimum values in a convex polygon.
Graphical and analytical methods of linear optimization.
Application troubleshooting.
GEOMETRY
LINES, SEGMENTS, ANGLES AND PLANES.
Undefined concepts in geometry.
Lightning, Ray.
Proportional, congruent segments.
Segment operations.
Angles, classes Angles between two parallel lines and one secant line.
Angles with perpendicular sides.
Angles formed by the bisector of a triangle
Convex sets.
Separation of Plane and Semiplane.

TRIANGLES.
Definition.
Types of triangles.
Remarkable lines in a triangle.
Congruence of segments, angles, and triangles.
Likeness.
Metric relationships in triangles.
Pythagorean theorem.
Parallel and perpendicular lines. Properties.

POLYGONS AND QUADRILATERALS.

Polygon.
Classes.
Fundamental properties and theorems.
Star polygon.
Exterior angle.
Diagonal of a polygon.
Quadrilaterals, classes, properties and fundamental theorems.

CIRCUMFERENCE AND CIRCLE.

Definition.
Noticeable lines on the circumference.
Angles in the circumference.
Metric relationships in the circumference.
Area of a circle. Properties.
Circle inscribed and circumscribed to a triangle. Properties.

AREAS OF GEOMETRIC FIGURES.

Formulas for the areas of geometric figures: triangles, quadrilaterals, rhombuses,
trapezoids, hexagons, pentagons, circular sector, circular crown, circular segment, circular
trapezoid.
Areas of shaded regions.
Perimeters of flat geometric figures.

INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.

The Cartesian plane.
Distance between two points in R1; R2; and R3.
Division of a segment in a given ratio.
The Line: Slope and inclination of a line.
Equations of the line: slope - ordinate at the origin, slope point and general equation.
Relative positions of two lines:
Parallel lines and perpendicular lines.
Figures derived from geometric patterns.
Mediatrix and Bisector.
Angle between 2 straight lines.
Distance from a point to a straight line and between parallel lines.
CIRCUMFERENCE AND PARABOLA.
Equations of the circumference: Ordinary and general.
Tangent line to a circle.
Relative positions of two non-concentric circles.
Equations of the Parabola: Ordinary and general.
Tangent line to a parabola. Application problems.

ELLIPSE AND HYPERBOLA.

Ellipse Equation: Ordinary and General.
Fundamental elements.
Hyperbola Equation: Ordinary and General.
Fundamental elements.
Reflection, Translation and Rotation with respect to the coordinate axes.
From a flat figure.
Composition of transformations. Application problems.

POLYHEDRONS - PRISM AND CYLINDER.

Point, straight line and plane in space.
Relative positions between them.
Polyhedra: Definition.
Regular Polyhedron: Tetrahedron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron.
Dihedral angles. Classification.
Polyhedral angles.
Prisms: classification.
Lateral and total area. Volume.
Prism Trunk.
Cylinder of revolution: Lateral and total area. Volume.
Cylinder trunk. Formulas.
Resolution and formulation of problems linked to reality.

PYRAMID - CONE - SPHERE.

Pyramids.
Classification.
Lateral and total area. Volume.
Truncated pyramid.
Cone of revolution: Lateral and total area. Volume.
Truncated cone.
Sphere: spherical surface. Volume.
Fundamental formulas.
Resolution and formulation of problems linked to reality.
TRIGONOMETRY
TRIGONOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS AND RATIOS IN RIGHT TRIANGLES.
Trigonometric angles and arcs.
Angular measurements: trigonometric angle, coterminal angle, sexagesimal angle,
centesimal angle, and radial angle.
Conversions.
Trigonometric ratios of acute, notable and complementary angles.
Trigonometric ratios of angles 0º; 90º; 180º; 270º; and 360º.
Trigonometric ratios of negative angles.
Reduction to the first quadrant.
IDENTITIES, TRIGONOMETRIC, TRIGONOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS OF
COMPOSITE ANGLES.
Trigonometric circle and the definitions of the sine, cosine and tangent functions.
Fundamental and auxiliary identities.
Composite angles and transformations.
Trigonometric functions of the sum and difference of angles. Identities of trigonometric
functions of simple, half, double, triple and compound angles.
Inverse trigonometric functions.

SOLVING TRIANGLES, TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS.

Resolution of oblique triangles: Law of sines, cosines and tangents.
Properties.
Application problems.
Trigonometric equations.
Angle of elevation and depression.
 PHYSI
VECTOR CALCULUS. CS
Scalar and vector magnitudes.
Vector: elements and properties.
Composition of vectors: addition and subtraction.
Vector decomposition.
Dot and vector product of vectors.

KINEMATICS: RECTILINEAR MOTION.

Fundamental definitions.
Motion.
Position. Position vector.
Displacement.
Distance.
Path.
Speed.
Acceleration.
Uniform and uniformly varied rectilinear motion.
Free fall.

KINEMATICS: CURVILINEAR MOTION.

Parabolic and circular motion.
Angular displacement.
Angular velocity.
Period.
Frequency.
Uniformly varied circular motion.

DYNAMIC.
Force.
Fundamental forces of nature.
Newton's laws.
Friction and inertia forces.

STATIC.
First and second equilibrium condition.
Biomechanics.
Work and Energy.
Work and kinetic energy.
Conservative forces.
Work and potential energy.
Hooke's law.
Work of a variable force. Power.
Performance.
Simple machines.
ENERGY CONSERVATION.
Principle of conservation of mechanical energy.
Work and energy theorem.
Renewable energy.
Energy in living beings.

QUANTITY OF MOVEMENT.
Definition of momentum.
Impulse.
Redefinition of Newton's second law.
Newton's third law and the Principle of conservation of momentum.
Collisions.

UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
Geocentric and heliocentric theories.
Kepler's laws.
Law of universal gravitation.
Orbital velocity.
Escape velocity.
Movement of satellites.

VIBRATORY MOVEMENT.
Kinematics of simple harmonic motion.
Dynamics of simple harmonic motion.
The simple pendulum.
The harmonic oscillator.
Conservation of energy in simple harmonic motion.

HYDROSTATIC.
Fundamental definitions.
Density.
Specific weight.
Pressure.
Torricelli's experiment and atmospheric pressure.
Pascal's principle.
Archimedes' principle.
Floatation of bodies.
Blood pressure.

HYDRODYNAMICS.
Expenditure or flow.
Bernoulli's principle.
Venturi effect.
Lift.
Blood circulation.

MOLECULAR PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN LIQUIDS.

Forces of adhesion and cohesion.
Surface tension.
Capillarity.
Osmosis.
Transport across the cell membrane.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE.

Heat.
Temperature.
Temperature scales.
Heat capacity.
Specific heat.
Mechanical equivalent of heat.
Heat equation.
Changes in the state of aggregation of substances.
Calorimetry.
Global Warming.

IDEAL GASES.
Ideal gas equation of state.
Kinetic-molecular theory of ideal gas.
Principle of Equipation of energy.
Internal energy of the ideal gas.
First Law of Thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic work.
Change in internal energy.
Thermodynamic work in isochoric, isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic thermodynamic
processes.
First Law of Thermodynamics.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS.

Thermodynamic cycle.
Thermal machines.
Efficiency or performance.
Second law of thermodynamics.
Carnot cycle.
Atto cycle.
Diesel cycle.
Internal combustion engines.

ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.
Electric charge.
Properties of electric charge.
Coulomb's law.
Lines of electric force: properties.
Electric field.
Electric field lines: properties.
Electric potential.
Equipotential lines and surfaces.
Electrical potential energy.
Electrical work.

ELECTRODYNAMICS.
Electric current.
Electrical resistance.
Intensity of electric current.
Electrical potential difference.
Electromotive force.
Ohm's law.
Electrical power.
Sources of the Magnetic Field.
Magnetic field.
Properties.
Ampere's law.
Force between drivers.
Biot-Savart law.

MAGNETIC FORCE AND TORQUE.

Magnetic force on a moving charged particle, in the presence of a uniform magnetic field.
Magnetic force on current-carrying conductors, in the presence of a uniform magnetic field.
Torque on current-carrying conductors in the presence of magnetic fields, Principle of the
electric motor.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
Magnetic flux.
Faraday's Law of Induction.
Lenz's law.
Movement of conductors in the presence of magnetic fields.
The transformer.
Electric generators.

WAVE MOTION.
Waves.
Properties.
Types of waves.
Classification of waves.
Transverse harmonic wave equation.
Sound.
Sound intensity.
Sound intensity level.
Electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic spectrum.

GEOMETRIC OPTICS: REFLECTION AND MIRRORS.

The Light.
Ray of light.
Laws of reflection.
Image formation in plane and spherical mirrors.
Equation of spherical mirrors.

GEOMETRIC OPTICS: REFRACTION AND LENSES.

Refractive index.
Snell's law.
Total reflection and optical fibers.
Image formation in spherical lenses.
Equation for thin spherical lenses.
Optical instruments: the microscope, the telescope, the eye, the photographic camera.

PHYSICAL OPTICS: CORPUSCULAR PROPERTIES OF WAVES.

The photoelectric effect.
Planck's hypothesis.
Einstein and the application of Planck's hypothesis in the explanation of the photoelectric
effect.
The Compton effect.

PHYSICAL OPTICS: WAVE PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES.

De Broglie hypothesis.
Young's double-slit experiment.
Diffraction by a grating.
Diffraction through a slit.
Electron diffraction.
 CHEMIS
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY TRY
Concept of Chemistry.
Division of Chemistry.
Importance of Chemistry.
The Scientific Method.
Scientific Notation.
Measurement and Unit Systems.
Main Unit Equivalences.
International System of Units - Prefixes of 5.1.
Unit Conversion.
Concept of Matter.
Classification of Matter.
Properties of Matter.
Physical States of Matter.
Transformations in Matter.
Methods of Separation of Mixtures.
Chemical System.
Allotropy.
The Energy.
Energy Classes.
Heat Transfer and Measurement.
Conservation Laws.
Matter - Energy Interpellation.
Einstein's equation.
Relativity of Mass.

ATOMIC THEORIES AND MODELS - NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Philosophical concepts of

the structure of matter. Dalton's Atomic Theory.
Fundamental Subatomic Particles.
The Electron: Cathode Rays: Electron Beam.
The Proton: Rays Channels: Proton Beam.
The Atomic Nucleus: Rutherford's Experiment.
The Neutron.

ATOMIC IDENTIFICATION.
Atomic Number and Mass Number.
Types of Nuclides.
Electrified Chemical Species.
Relative Atomic Mass.
Nuclear Chemistry.
Radioactivity.
Natural Radioactivity.
Artificial or induced radioactivity.
Nuclear Reactions.
Nuclear Radioactive Decay Reactions.
Half-life or half-life period.
Applications of radioisotopes. (Radio nuclei).
Nuclear Bond Transmutation.
Nuclear Fission and Fusion.

MECHANICAL-WAVE MODEL OF THE ATOM AND THE ELECTRONIC

CONFIGURATION OF THE ATOM.
X-ray.
Electromagnetic Waves.
Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Radiation.
Visible Spectrum. Spectrum of the Atom.
Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom.
Atomic Theory of Niels Bohr.
Spectral Series of the Hydrogen Atom.
Mechano-Wave Model.
Dual property of Matter.
Uncertainty Principle.
Quantized States of Energy.
Atomic Orbital or Electron Cloud.
Wave Equation and Quantum Numbers.
Electronic Distribution or Configuration.
Distribution by sublevels. (Aufbau principle).
Orbital Distribution. (Principle of Maximum Multiplicity).
Pauli Exclusion Principle.
Electronic Distribution of Ionized Atoms.
For magnetism and diamagnetism.

PERIODIC TABLE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

First Contributions to the Classification of Elements.
Periodic Properties.
Variations in Chemical Properties.
Location of an Element on the Periodic Table.

CHEMICAL BONDING THEORY.

Chemical Bonding Theory.
Chemical Bonding Classes.
Resonance Phenomenon.
Molecular Geometry.
Intermolecular Bonds.
Polarity and Nonpolarity of Molecules.

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE AND FORMATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS.

Definition.
Oxidation number and valency.
Nomenclature Systems.
Traditional or Common. Stock.
Systematic (IUPAC) Binary Hydrogen Compounds.
Binary Oxygen Compounds.
Ternary and Higher Compounds.
Salts. Deliquescence. Efflorescence.
Common names of the most important inorganic compounds in the industry.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS.
Definition.
Practical Evidence that Demonstrates the Occurrence.
Classification of chemical reactions.
Chemical Equation.
Balancing Chemical Equations.

STOICHIOMETRY.
Basic Concepts. Mol.
Avogadro's number. Molar Mass. Number of Moles. Molar Volume.
Calculations in Pure Substances.
Ponderal and Volumetric Laws.
Stoichiometric Calculations in Chemical Reactions.
Equivalent Weight.
Law of Chemical Equivalent.

DISSOLUTIONS AND CONCENTRATION UNITS.

Definition.
Guys.
Solubility.
Concentration Units.
Operations with Dissolutions.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND GALVANIC CELLS.

Electrochemistry - Applications.
Electrolytic Cells - Electrolysis.
Faraday's laws.
Galvanic Cells.
Cell Notation.
Electromotive force of a cell.
Spontaneity of a Redox Reaction.

GASEOUS STATE.
Generalities.
General Equation.
Restricted Processes. Isothermal Process. Isobaric Process. Isochoric process.
Universal Ideal Gas Equation.
Avogadro's hypothesis.
Molar Volume of a Gas at Standard Conditions.
Gas mixture.
Laws of Gas Mixing.
Laws of Partial Volumes.
Law of Gaseous Diffusion or Thomas Graham's Law.

CHEMICAL KINETICS AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM.

Definition.
Chemical Reaction Rate.
Factors that Influence the Rate of Reaction.
Catalysis. Chemical Equilibrium.
Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium.
Law of Chemical Equilibrium.
Types of Balance.
Relationship between the Equilibrium Constants Kp and Kc.
Interpretation of the Equilibrium Constant. Characteristics of the Equilibrium Constant.
Applications of the Equilibrium Constant.
Thermodynamics and Chemical Equilibrium.
Relationship between Free Energy and Equilibrium Constant.
Standard Enthalpy (AHº) and Equilibrium Constants at different Temperatures.
Lechatelier's principles.
ACID - BASE THEORY,

IONIC BALANCE OF WATER, PH AND POH SCALES AND IONIC BALANCE.

General Properties of Acids and Bases.
Acid and Base Theories.
Relative Strength of Acids and Bases.
Molecular Structure and Strength of Acids.
Ionic Balance. Ionization of Weak Acids.
Ionization of Weak Bases.
Potential of the Basicity Constant.
Degree of Ionization.
Ionization percentage.
Dilution of a solution containing a weak electrolyte.
Autoionization of H2O.
Ionic Product Potential of Water.
Hydrogen Potential.
Hydrolysis of salts.
Qualification or Assessment.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Definition: The Carbon Atom. Types of Formula.
Organic Chemical Functions.
Hydrocarbons - Classification.
Types of Organic Reactions.

OXYGENATED COMPOUNDS.
Alcohols.
Preparation and reaction. Aldehydes.
Preparation and reaction.
Ketones. Preparation and reaction.
Carboxylic Acids.
Preparation and reaction.
Esters. Preparation and reaction. Ethers.
Preparation and reaction.
Carbohydrates. Lipids.
Urtomins.

NITROGENOUS ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. AMINES.

Preparation and reaction.

NITRILES.
Preparation and reaction.
Proteins.
 BIOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, ORIGIN, EVOLUTION, AND CLASSIFICATION OF
LIVING BEINGS.
Theories on the origin of life: creationist, cosmozoic, spontaneous generation, biogenetic
and chemosynthetic.
Theories on evolution: acquired characteristics, natural selection, mutationist, germ plasm,
neo-Lamarckist and neo-Darwinist.
Evidence of evolution.
Characteristics of living matter.
Classification of living beings according to Carl Woese: Domains Archaea, Bacteria and
Eukaria: kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Most important species.

CHEMICAL ORGANIZATION OF LIVING BEINGS.

Bioelements: properties; classification: macroconstituents and microconstituents.
Inorganic biomolecules: water and mineral salts: structure and importance.
Organic biomolecules:
a) Carbohydrates: properties, classification, main carbohydrates and carbohydrates,
importance.
b) Lipids: properties, main fatty acids, classification: saponifiable and non-saponifiable,
importance.
c) Proteins. Amino acids: properties, essential and non-essential.
Protein classification. Importance.
Enzymes: structure and importance.
d) Nucleic acids: structure, properties, and importance of RNA and DNA.
e) Vitamins: fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble (B complex and C), functions.

CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF LIVING BEINGS.

Subcellular Structures: prions viruses and viroids: characteristics, main
human diseases.
Prokaryotic cell: structure, main archaea and bacteria, bacteria of human and industrial
importance.
Eukaryotic cell:
a) cell cover.
b) Plasma membrane: “fluid mosaic” model, transport, importance.
c) Cytoplasm: cytosol; cytoskeleton; membrane-bound organelles: endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, glyoxysomes; microtubular
organelles: centrioles, cilia and flagella; ribosomes and inclusions.
e) Nucleus: karyotheca, nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleolus.
Sex chromatin. Plant and animal cell.
Similarities and differences between plant and animal cells.

ENERGY BIOTRANSFORMATION.
Macroergic molecules: ATP, GTP.
Proton and electron transport molecules: NAD, NADP and FAD. Anabolism:
a) Chemosynthesis: characteristics and importance.
b) Photosynthesis: characteristics and importance.
Cyclic and acyclic light phase; dark phase.
Catabolism or cellular respiration:
a) Glycolysis: characteristics and importance.
b) Alcoholic and lactic fermentation: characteristics and importance.
c) Krebs cycle: characteristics and importance.
d) Oxidative phosphorylation: characteristics and importance.
Energy balance.

TISSUE ORGANIZATION IN LIVING BEINGS.

Animal tissues: Epithelial tissue.
Characteristics.
Classification: Coating: Simple and stratified.
Glandular epithelium (exocrine and endocrine).
Loose connective tissue, cartilaginous tissue.
Bone tissue.
Blood tissue.
Features and functions.
Muscle tissue:
Characteristics.
Classification: Smooth and striated (skeletal and cardiac).
Particular characteristics.
Physiology of muscle contraction.
Nervous tissue.
Characteristics.
Neurons and neuroglia.
Plant tissues:
Definition.
Classification.
Meristematic tissues (primary and secondary) and definitive tissues (protective,
parenchymatic, mechanical, conductive and secretory).
Features and functions.

BONY AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS OF LIVING BEINGS.

Diversity of the skeletal system in animals: hydrodynamic, exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
Human skeleton. Long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid bone.
Human axial skeleton: most important bones of the head, trunk and spine.
Human appendicular skeleton: most important bones of the shoulder girdle, upper limbs,
pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
Most important synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis and diarthrosis joints.
Diversity of the muscular system in animals.
Human muscular system: main muscles of the head, face, masticatory muscles of the neck,
shoulder, back, thorax, upper and lower limbs and functions.
Hygiene of the bone-muscular system.

NERVOUS AND SENSORY SYSTEM OF LIVING BEINGS.

Diversity of the nervous system in animals: radial, bilateral and ganglionary. Human
nervous system: Relational and autonomic nervous system.
A) Nervous system relationship:
a) Central nervous system: Brain and spinal cord. Brain: cerebrum, cerebellum, midbrain,
pons, medulla oblongata: structure and physiology.
Spinal cord: structure and physiology (arch and reflex action).
b) Peripheral nervous system: most important cranial and spinal nerves.
B) Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic and parasympathetic: physiological
comparison. Sensory system.
The sense of sight (photoreceptors), sense of hearing (hearing and balance receptor
mechanisms), sense of smell and taste (chemoreceptors), sense of touch (nociceptors and
thermoreceptors): structure and function.
Care and hygiene of the nervous system.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM OF LIVING BEINGS.

Endocrine system.
Hormones: definition and classification: water-soluble and fat-soluble.
Hormonal diversity in the main metazoans (insects, crustaceans, amphibians, fish and
some domestic mammals).
Main human endocrine glands: Pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thymus, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, endocrine pancreas, testes and ovary.
Main hormones: actions, target organs.
Most important effects of hormonal hyposecretion and hypersecretion.
Hormonal diversity in metaphytes: auxins, gibberellins, ethylene, obscisic acid, cytokinins:
main functions.

CIRCULATORY AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS OF LIVING BEINGS.

Circulatory system in Metazoa: open and closed system.
Circulatory system in humans.
A) The heart: structure and physiology. Cardiac cycle.
Pulse and blood pressure. Systemic and pulmonary circulation.
B) Blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries: structure and physiology.
Transport in vegetables.
Xylem circulation (tracheids and xylem vessels).
Phytoematous circulation (sieve tubes): differences and functions.
Respiratory system in metazoans: cutaneous, branchial, tracheal and pulmonary.
Respiratory system in humans.
A) Respiratory tract.
Conducting and respiratory portion: nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, primary, secondary and
tertiary bronchi; primary, secondary and tertiary bronchioles: structure and functions.
B) Lungs. Anatomy and physiology.
Pulmonary lobule and pulmonary alveolus.
Care and hygiene. Respiration in plants.
Stomata: structure and function.

DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF LIVING BEINGS.

Digestive system in metazoans: Intracellular, extracellular and in tube.
Digestive system in humans.
A) Digestive tract: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
and anus: external and internal morphology.
Functions.
B) Glands attached to the digestive tract: Salivary, liver, pancreas, gallbladder.
Functions.
Processes: Ingestion, movement, digestion, absorption.
Functions of the main digestive enzymes.
Care and hygiene.
Excretory system in metazoans.
Simple system: Flame cells, nephridia and complex system.
Human excretory system:
A) The kidney: External and internal morphology.
The nephron: Parts and function.
Urine: Its characteristics.
Differences between normal urine and abnormal human urine.
B) Urinary tract: Minor calyces, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, urethra.
Functions. Care and hygiene.

CELL REPRODUCTION.
Cell cycle: definition and periods.
Interface: Periods G1, GO, S and G2. Important events.
Cell division or M: Mitosis: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase:
characteristics and importance; cytokinesis: definition and importance; consequences.
Meiosis: definition, characteristics and importance.
Meiotic division I or Reductional and meiotic division II or Equational; important events.
Consequences of meiosis. Difference between meiosis and mitosis.
Human gametogenesis: spermatogenesis and oogenesis: processes and importance.
Biotechnology Overview: Genetic Engineering and Cloning.

REPRODUCTION FUNCTION OF LIVING BEINGS.

Asexual reproduction in metazoans: Binary fission or bipartition.
Budding, Fragmentation, Sporulation, Parthenogenesis.
Sexual reproduction in metazoans: Oviparous, ovuliparous, viviparous, ovoviviparous
reproduction.
Sexual dimorphism.
Male human reproductive system: Gonads: testicles; spermatic ducts: epididymis, straight
tubules, rete testis, efferent duct, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and urethra.
Accessory glands: seminal vesicle, prostate and bulbourethral glands.
External genitalia: penis.
Female human reproductive system: Gonads: ovaries; internal passages: Vagina, uterus,
oviducts; accessory glands: Skene's, Bartholin's and mammary glands.
Human sperm and oocyte: structure and functions.
Human embryonic development and fertilization.
Childbirth and delivery.
Life cycles of Plasmodium and Tapeworms.
Asexual reproduction in metaphytes: graft, cuttings, stolon.
Sexual reproduction in metaphytes: pollen and ovary; flower, fruit and seed.

GENETICS.
Inheritance and biological variation.
Chromosomes. Definition, structure and classification: By the location of the centromere.
Karyotype: human and some metazoans.
Chromosomal theory of inheritance: Works of Morgan and Surton.
Terminology in classical genetics: Gene, locus, allele, zygote, homozygote, heterozygote,
genotype, phenotype, P1, F2 and F2 generation.
Obtaining gametes.
Mendel's laws: Mendel's first principle or segregation.
Second principle of Mendel or of Recombination independent of hereditary factors.
Application of principles in problem solving.
Inheritance of ABO blood groups and Rh factor.
Basic problem solving about blood groups.
Genetic engineering: cloning, stem cells and transgenics.
GENETICS.
Genetics and sex.
Sex-linked inheritance in humans: on the X chromosome (gynodric): color blindness,
hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
On the Y chromosome (holandric) auricular hypertrichosis, Teratoma dissipatum (flat feet).
Inheritance influenced and limited by sex.
Resolution of basic problems on the Genetics of sex.
Mutations: definition.
Structural mutations: deletion, inversion, duplication, translocation.
Numerical mutations: Euploidies: polyploidies.
Somatic chromosome aneuploidy: Down syndrome, Patau syndrome, Edwards syndrome.
Sex chromosome aneuploidies: Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome, double Y
syndrome.

ECOLOGY.
Ecology: Autoecology and Synecology.
Habitat, niche, medium, substrate.
Abiotic and biotic environmental factors.
Light, soil, climate, temperature.
Human population: growth curves.
Intraspecific relationships: density, birth rate, mortality.
Positive, negative and neutral interspecific relationships.
Terrestrial and marine communities.
Ecosystems.

ECOLOGICAL BALANCE.
Energy flow in ecosystems: Food chains (terrestrial and aquatic), trophic networks.
Energy pyramid: Numerical and biomass.
Biogeochemical cycles: nitrogen, carbon, water and phosphorus.
Ecological balance: Natural and regulated by man.
Preservation and conservation of natural resources.
National system of conservation units.
National parks.
National Reserves, National Sanctuaries and Historical Sanctuaries.
Ecological imbalance.
Causes:
Environmental pollution:
By nature and by human activity.
Main pollutants: Primary and secondary.
Air pollution (ozone layer depletion, greenhouse effect and acid rain), water and soil.
Overexploitation of natural resources: Logging, fishing and hunting.
The population explosion.
Measures to mitigate environmental deterioration.
LANGUAGE
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION.
The dictionary.
Narrative texts.
Functional texts.
Punctuation marks.
General and special accentuation.
Spelling of the letter.
Textual markers.
Text planning.
Connectors and referents.
Textual Coherence.
Expository texts.
Administrative documents.
Grammatical connectors. Scientific report.
Textual properties.

AUDIOVISUAL COMMUNICATION.
Journalistic texts.
Posters and advertisements.
Illustrations.
The comic strip.
The wall newspaper.
Language and radio formats.
Image reading.
Email.
Television language.
Radio and television advertising.
The website.

ORAL COMMUNICATION.
The exhibition.
Register of linguistic uses.
Non-verbal resources.
Sociolinguistic variations.
Linguistic prejudices.

LITERATURE THE LITERARY DISCOURSE.

Nature, elements and characteristics.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LITERATURE.

Concept and characteristics.

FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE.
Stylistic, ethical, evasive, cognitive, cathartic, ideological, planned, transcendental, social,
playful.

LITERARY GENRES.
Dramatic: Tragedy, Comedy, Drama, Dramatic techniques: theatrical discourse.
Narrative: The novel, the story, the fable, the legend, the traditions.
Narrative techniques.
Lyrical: The verse, Classes.
The traditional verse.
Rhyme, rhythm and meter.
Poetic licenses synalepha, syneresis, hiatus.
Free verse.
Literary figures: Classes.
HISTORICAL-LITERARY PERSPECTIVE.
Literary schools, movements, currents, periods, tendencies or generations.

PERUVIAN LITERATURE.
Quechua Literature: Myths, Legends, Fables, Lyric Poetry: species
Theatre: Ollantay, The Colony: The Royal Commentaries (Inca Garcilazo de la Vega).
Peruvian Traditions (Ricardo Palma) Symbolic
- The song of the figures (Eguren) Hours of struggle
- The speech of the Politeama (Gonzales Prada) Trilce
- Spain, take this cup from me (César Vallejo)
Seven essays on Peruvian reality (JC Mariátegui)
The Hungry Dogs - The world is wide and alien (Ciro Alegría)
The deep rivers. All the bloods (Arguedas) The word of the mute (Ribeyro)
The war of the end of the world
- The Feast of the Goat (Vargas Llosa)
The river (J. Heraud)
Drum roll by Rancas (Scorza) Collacocha (Solary Swayne) Kingdom
- Antigone (J. AND. Elison)
Road to Babel (Blanca Varela)
The agony of the immoral (Jorge Díaz Herrera).

UNIVERSAL LITERATURE.
The Greek classics. The Iliad, The Odyssey (Homer)
Medieval Literature: The Divine Comedy (D. Alighieri)
The Renaissance: Shakespeare.
The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha (Cervantes).
The Miser (MoLliere).
Les Misérables (Victor Hugo)
Faust (Goethe)
Madame Bovary (G. Flaubert)
The Metamorphosis (F. Kafka)
Steppenwolf (H. Hesse).
The Sound and the Fury (w. Faulkner)
Mother Courage (B. Brecht)
Crime and Punishment (F. Dostoysky)
The Old Man and the Sea (E. Hemingway)
Doll's House (H. Ibsen)
The bald singer (Egene lonesco)
The Gospel according to Jesus Christ
Essay on Blindness (José Saramago)
The Tin Drum Cat and Mouse (Gunter Grass).
HISPANIC-AMERICAN LITERATURE
Blue. Songs of life and hope (R. Dario)
Mr. President (MA) Asturias)
Twenty love poems and a desperate song
- General Song (P. Neruda)
Tribute to the American Indians
- Psalms (Ernesto Cardenal)
Desolation - Tenderness - Tala (Gabriela Mistral) Meditations (O. Peace) One Hundred
Years of Solitude
- The Autumn of the Patriarch (G. Garcia Marquez)
Pedro Paramo (J. Rulfo)
Fictions (JL Borges
Ceremonies (J. Cortazar)
The Tunnel- Abaddon (E. Saturday).
The Shipyard (Carlos Onetti)
Bestiary (Julio Cortázar).
 PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY: FUNDAMENTALS AND HISTORY
Definition of Psychology.
Object of Psychology.
Branches of Psychology: Theoretical (general, differential, developmental, personality,
social, psychopathological), Applied (Clinical, educational, organizational, sports,
communicative). Fundamentals of Psychology as a science.
Scientific Period of Psychology: Structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, Gestalt,
reflexology, Psychoanalysis, Humanism, cognitivism, genetics, socio-culture.

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Definition.
Classification: observational, clinical, genetic, correlational, experimental.

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation: Definition, processes, thresholds, sensory systems.
Perception: Definition, characteristics, elements, process, laws, factors, alterations.

MEMORY.
Definition, processes, memory anomalies.
Oblivion: theory.
Intelligence.
Definition, factors, theory of intelligence: Spearman, Thurstone, Cattel, Gardnes, Goleman.
Stages of intelligence development according to Piaget.
Measurement: test, characteristics.

THOUGHT
Definition, elements, modalities, operations, functions.
Creative critical thinking, decision making and problem solving.

LEARNING
Definition, characteristics, types.
Theories.
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, meaningful discovery learning, observational
learning.

MOTIVATION AND WILL

Definition, characteristics, processes, classes, theories (of the hierarchy of needs, of
achievement motivation).
Will: Definition, characteristics, processes, anomalies.

AFFECTIVITY
Definition, characteristics.
Emotions: definition, characteristics, types.
Feelings: definition, characteristics, types.
Passions: definition, characteristics, types.

ACTIVITY AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT.

Attitudes: Definition, characteristics, components, formation and development.
Moral development: Theories of Piaget and Kohlberg.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT I.
Definition, characteristics, factors, sequences.
Prenatal Period: Periods of zygote, embryo and fetus.
Postnatal Period. Childhood: Physical, cognitive and psychosocial characteristics.
Early Childhood: Physical, cognitive and psychosocial characteristics.
Middle Childhood: Physical, cognitive and psychosocial characteristics.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT II.

Adolescence.
Puberty and its physical changes.
Adolescence and its changes: affective, cognitive and psychosocial.
Sexuality and gender.
Risks.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT III.

Early adulthood: physical, cognitive and psychosocial changes.
Middle Adulthood: Physical, cognitive and psychosocial changes.
Late adulthood: physical, cognitive and psychosocial changes.

PERSONALITY.
Personality: Definition, characteristics, factors, components, temperament and character.

PERSONALITY THEORIES.
Personality theories of: Jung, Sigmund Freud (defense mechanisms), Alfred Adler, Erich
Frann.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS.
Personality Disorders: Definition, characteristics.
Anxiety Disorders: Phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Somatoform disorders: hypochondriasis, somatization, conversion disorder.
Dissociative disorders: dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder.
Mood Disorders: Depression, Bipolar Disorder.
Schizophrenic disorders: symptoms, subtypes, causes.
 PHILOSOPHY
HISTORICAL PROPAEDEUTIC OF PHILOSOPHY
Knowledge and philosophical attitude.
Philosophy: Origin.
Definition.
Characteristics.
Philosophical Disciplines.
Classification. Methods.
Importance of Philosophy.

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

Greek Philosophy: Characteristics.
Periods: cosmological, anthropological and systematic.
Representatives.
Background of Medieval Philosophy: Saint Augustine.
Scholasticism: characteristics, problems, periods, and main representatives: Saint Anselm,
Roger Bacon, Saint Bonaventure, Saint Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham.

MODERN PHILOSOPHY
Background: The Renaissance.
Philosophy of Nature and Science.
The Protestant Reformation.
New Theory of the State. Thomas More and Machiavelli.
Doctrines: Rationalism: Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and Guillermo Leibniz.
Empiricism: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume.
Transcendental Philosophy: Manuel Kant.
Absolute Idealism: George Hegel.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY.
19th Century: Characteristics.
Currents: Positivism.
Marxism. Voluntarism.
The Philosophy of Life.
Historicism.
Representatives.
20th Century: Characteristics. Currents.
Pragmatism.
Existentialism.
Neopositivism.
Structuralism.
Personalism.
Neo-Marxism.
Neo-Thomism.
Philosophical Postmodernism.
Representatives.

PERUVIAN PHILOSOPHY.
The Andean Worldview.
Scholasticism.
The Enlightenment.
Romanticism.
Positivism: Manuel Gonzales Prada.
The spiritualist reaction.
The Centennial Generation: José Carlos Mariátegui and Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre.
Group of the 40s: Francisco Miró Quesada, Walter Peñaloza, Cesar Guardia Mayorga,
Alberto Wagner de Reyna.
Group of the 60s: Augusto Salazar Bondy.
Recent Trends: Liberation Theology. Neoliberalism.

GNOSIS AND EPISTEMOLOGY.

Knowledge: Definition. Characteristics.
Problems of Knowledge: origin, possibility and essence.
Forms of Knowledge.
The Problem of Truth: definition of truth, types of truth.
The problem of the mind-brain relationship.
Definition of Epistemology.
Branches.
Science: definition, characteristics, structure, classification, functions.
Scientific Categories.
The Scientific Method.

PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, AXIOLOGY AND ETHICS

Philosophical Anthropology: Definition, Relationship with Anthropobiology and Social
Anthropology.
Theories on the origin of man: creationist, evolutionist and Teilhardist.
Anthropological concepts: Christian, Marxist, liberal-individualist and ready structure.
Human society and its historical development.
Axiology: Definition.
Value: definition, characteristics, classification.
Axiological Theories: Objectivism, Subjectivism, Relationism and Emotivism.
Ethics: Definition.
Legal Entity and Morality.
Fundamental ethical values.
Conceptions of freedom: Determinism, Indeterminism and autodeterminism.
Duty and responsibility.
 LOGIC
LOGIC.
Definition.
Areas. Beginning.
Stages.
Dialectical logic.
The principle of causality and the principle of finality.
Modern dialectics.
The method. Laws of dialectics.

THOUGHT-LANGUAGE.
Forms of thought: characteristics and identification.
Categorical thinking.
Scientific language and non-scientific language.
Formal languages.

LOGICAL RELATIONS AND SETS

Basic operations with sets, Relationship between logic and sets, statements and
propositions,
The proposition,
Logical connectives,
Truth Tables,
quantifiers: Existential and Universal,
Charts and diagrams for organizing logical relationships,
Arguments: Deductive and Inductive, and their structure.
 CIVIC
THE HUMAN BEING AND HIS RIGHTS.
The Human Person: Definition. Characteristics.
Fundamental rights of the person.
Human Rights and their historical evolution.
Characteristics of Human Rights.
Classification of Human Rights.
Problems of Human Rights and Local Communities.
American Convention on Human Rights: Pact of San José, Costa Rica.
The political rights and duties of the Peruvian citizen.

THE FAMILY
Definition, Characteristics, Functions, Classes.
Adoption requirements.
Factors of family integration and disintegration.
The family in the legal norm.
Family protection institutions: Parental authority.
Guardianship. Curatorship.
Marriage: Definition. Finnish.
Shapes. Requirements.
Exceptions to the formality of marriage.
Impediments. Duties and rights arising from marriage.
Marital regime: Community property regime.
Separation of assets regime.
Dissolution of marriage: natural, voluntary and legal. Causes.
The Gender Problem: Characterization. Causes.
Situation in Peru.

STATE, CONSTITUTION, DEMOCRACY AND POLITICAL PARTIES.

The State: Origin.
Theories of state formation. Definition.
Essential elements of the State.
Structure of the Peruvian State: National, Regional and Local Level (municipalities)
Exceptional regime.
The Constitution: Definitions. Classes.
Historical evolution.
The constitutions in Peru.
Democracy: Definition. Characteristics.
Democracy and political parties in Peru.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS FOR LATIN AMERICAN INTEGRATION.

The UN. Origin.
Finnish. Beginning. Organic structure.
Main functional organisms.
The OAS: Origin. Goals.
Organic structure.
Main Organizations.
The CAN: Origin. Goals.
Organic structure. Integration
Latin American: MERCOSUR, NAFTA, EU, APEC, ALBA.

NATIONAL DEFENSE SYSTEM AND CIVIL DEFENSE SYSTEM.

SIDENA: Definition. Goals.
Purpose. Characteristics. Areas.
Conformation (levels).
SINADECI: Background. Definition. Purpose. Goals.
Organization of the Civil Defense System.
Characteristics. Beginning.
Phases. Disasters in Peru.
The SMV: Definition. Goals.
Registration. Exceptions.
Sanctions. Importance.

SELF-MANAGEMENT AND COOPERATIVISM.

Self-management: Cooperative management.
Characteristics of a cooperative company.
Cooperativism: Background. Origins and evolution of the cooperative movement.
Precursors of cooperativism.
Definition, Purposes and Principles of Cooperativism.
Cooperativism in Peru.
Types of Cooperative.
Administrative regime.

DEMOCRATIC COEXISTENCE AND CULTURE OF PEACE.

Democratic coexistence based on a culture of peace.
Democratic mechanisms for conflict resolution: negotiation, conciliation and mediation. The
National Agreement.
Commitments. Violence and internal conflict in Peru.
Truth, Justice and Collective Memory.
National Reconciliation.
Building Citizenship in Peru.
 GEOGRAPHY
NOTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY.
Geography: Definition, Evolution, Division.
Geographic Principles.
Importance of Geography.

THE KNOWN AND UNKNOWN SPACE.

The Universe: Definition, Origin, Measurement System, Structure: Galaxies: definition,
classification.
Milky Way: definition, characteristics, structure.
The Stars: definition, evolution, classification.
Constellations: definition, classification.
Nebulae: definition, origin, classification.

THE MYSTERY OF THE SOLAR PLANETARY SYSTEM.

Solar Planetary System: Definition, Origin of theories about its arrangement, Modern
concepts, Structure: planets, dwarf planets, planetoids, satellites, meteorites, comets.
The Sun: definition, characteristics, structure, movements - importance.
Planets: definition, classification and characteristics of the Planets.
Satellites: definition, principles.
Comets: definition, main types, origin.
Asteroids.
Meteorites.
The Moon: definition, characteristics, movements, phases, influence on the Earth.
Eclipses. Tides.
The man in the moon.

THE EARTH AS MAN'S ABODE.

The Earth: Definition, Characteristics, Evidence of its sphericity, Causes of its sphericity,
Consequences of its sphericity, Evolution: geological eras.
Movements: rotation and consequences, translation and consequences.
The Seasons: definition, causes, characteristics, types.

LOCATION AND THE ART OF REPRESENTING THE EARTH.

Notions of Cartography: Definition, Imaginary Terrestrial Lines: definition, classes.
Geographic Coordinates.
Positions.
Graphic Representation of the Earth: globes, maps, charts, plans.
Orientation.
Time Zones.
Scales.

GEOMORPHOLOGY.
Internal Structure of the Earth: Definition, Methods used, Structure or parts: crust, mantle,
core.
Discontinuities.
Formation of the Earth's relief: Definition, Forces: Internal: diastrophism, volcanism,
isostasy, origin of the continents, seismic movements.
External: weathering, erosion, biological, anthropic.
Main relief forms.

METEOROLOGY.
The Atmosphere: Definition, Origin, Characteristics, Factors that enable its existence,
Structure, Importance, Weather, Climate: elements, factors, classification, meteorological
phenomena.
Climate change and global warming process.

HYDROGEOGRAPHY.
Rivers: Definition, Parts, Importance.
Hydrographic Basins: Definition, Importance.
Lakes: Definition, Difference between lake, lagoon, pond, swamp, Importance for human
life.
The Oceans: Definition, Origin, Main Oceans.
The Seas: Definition, Classes, Characteristics, Movements, Importance.

BIOGEOGRAPHY.
Phytogeography: Flora, Factors that determine its distribution, Plant formations, Types of
formations.
Zoogeography: Fauna, Factors that determine its distribution, Distribution of fauna.
Importance of flora and fauna in human life.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PERU. GEOMORPHOLOGY.

Location of the Peruvian Territory: Location, Limits, Dimensions.
Peruvian Geomorphology: Underwater geomorphology, Coastal geomorphology,
Geomorphology of the coast, Geomorphology of the Andes, Geomorphology of the jungle.
Eight Natural Regions.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PERU. HYDROGRAPHY.

Hydrographic Basins and Risk Management in Peru: Pacific Hydrographic Basin, Amazon
Hydrographic Basin, Titicaca Hydrographic Basin.
Lakes and Lagoons of Peru: Lake Titicaca, Other lakes and lagoons.
Importance of rivers, lakes and lagoons as a source of energy for human life.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PERU.

The Peruvian State: Definition, Principles or characteristics, Government, Political Division.
Centralism: Definition, Consequences.
Decentralization: Definition, Objectives, Theoretical Approaches, Types of
decentralization.
Regionalization: Definition, Objectives, Regionalization Attempts, Regionalization Process,
Perspectives.
World and Peruvian Population: The Population: Definition, Population classes,
Demographic indicators, Censuses, Population distribution.
Peruvian Population: Indicators, Population distribution, Population characteristics,
Problems of the Peruvian population.
Migrations: Definition, Types, Causes, Consequences, Migrations throughout history.

BIOGEOGRAPHY OF PERU.

The Ecoregions: The Cold Sea, The Tropical Sea, Pacific Tropical Forest, Equatorial Dry
Forest, Deserts and Coastal Hills, Steppe Mountain Range, The Puna, The Páramo, High
Jungle, Tropical Forest, Palm Savannah.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGICAL BALANCE.

Natural Resources: Definition, Classification.
Natural Resources in Peru: Natural Resources of the Coast, Natural Resources of the
Sierra, Natural Resources of the Jungle.
Natural Resources Problems.
Status and Policy of Conservation of Natural Resources.
Environmental Protection Agencies: National Environmental Commission, Environmental
Law, SINANPE.
Conservation Units: Direct Use, Indirect Use, Reserved Areas.

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OF PERU.

Economic activities: Definition, Classification.
Extractive Activities: Definition, Mining, Oil, Fishing, Logging.
Productive Activities: Agriculture, Livestock, Others.
Transformative Activities: Definition, Industries.
Distributive Activities: Definition, Transportation, Commerce.

LIBERTY REGION.
La Libertad: Location, Boundaries, Physical Appearance, Hydrography, Climate,
Population, Political Division, Economic Activities, Cultural Events, Tourist Attractions.
Trujillo as a District: Location, Boundaries, Historical Overview, Physical Appearance,
Hydrography, Climate, Population, Political Division, Economic Activities, Cultural Events,
Tourist Attractions.

THE CONTINENTS. AMERICA - EUROPE. NORTH AMERICA.

Location.
Boundaries.
Extension.
Orography.
Main
States.
Central America.
Location.
Boundaries.
Extension. Orography.
Main States.
South America.
Location. Boundaries.
Extension. Orography.
Main States.
Europe. Location.
Boundaries.
Extension.
Orography.
Main States.

CONTINENTS: ASIA - AFRICA - OCEANIA

Asia.
Location.
Boundaries.
Extension.
Orography.
Main States.
Africa.
Location.
Boundaries.
Extension.
Orography.
Main States.
Oceania.
Location.
Boundaries.
Extension.
Orography.
Main States.
Notions of Geopolitics.
Geopolitics. Definition.
Evolution. Items.
Parts of the State.
Geopolitical Objectives.
Relations
International.
Definition.
Classes. Goals.
Bases.
Main International Agreements.
Worldwide. UN
G - 7.
At the American level. OAS

MERCOSUR. ALADI. TLC. SELA.

Amazon Cooperation Treaty.
Anadina Community.
Kyoto Agreement.
The Amazon and Antarctica as a reserve of biodiversity in the world.
Border Treaties.
Latest Political Changes.
 HISTORY
THE HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF MAN.
History: concept and classification.
The Origin of Man: main fossil species: Australopithecus to Homo Sapiens.
The Paleolithic, the Mesolithic and the Neolithic: Neolithic Revolution.
The Settlement of America: Autochthonous Theory, Foundations and Criticisms.
Immigration Theory: Asian, Oceanic and Australian.

“HIGH CULTURES OF THE WEST: GREECE - ROME”.

Greece: Geographical environment.
Period of Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic Greece.
The City States: Sparta and Athens.
Religion, political, social and economic organization.
Cultural contributions: Education, Arts and Sciences.
Rome: Location. Origin.
Periods of its history: The Monarchy, the Republic and the Empire.
His cultural legacy.

“PRE-HISPANIC PERIODIFICATION OF PERU”

Periodization of Pre-Hispanic Peru.
Theories on the origin of Peruvian culture: Immigrationist Theory: Max Uhle.
Autochthonous Theory: Julio C. Tello. Hologenist Theory: Luis Guillermo Lumbreras.
Emergence of Peruvian Culture. Of the first settlers of Peru: Lithia Period: Preceramic or
Pre-agricultural (Of hunters and gatherers).
Pacaicasa.
The Paijanense Complex.
Geographical environment. Organization, political economy, social, religion and cultural
contributions.
Archaic Period: (Of the horticulturists and first sedentary people).
Guitarist.
Preserves.
Huaca Prieta.
Caral.
Geographical environment.
Organization, political economy, social, religion and cultural contributions.
Horizons and intermediates: Pre-Hispanic cultures: Chavín, Paracas, Moche, Nazca, Wari,
Tiahuanaco, Chimú, Lambayeque.
Geographical environment.
Organization, political economy, social, religion and cultural contributions.

“THE TAHUANTINSUYO”
Origin of Tahuantinsuyu: Historical evolution.
Location, Boundaries, Territorial Division, Sovereigns.
Economic organization, political-administrative organization, social organization.
Cultural manifestations and cultural significance.

"MIDDLE AGES"
Periodization of the Middle Ages: High Middle Ages, Middle Ages and Late Middle Ages.
The Germanic invasions: Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Anglo-Saxons, Franks.
Carolingian Empire: Organization economic; organization political-administrative,
social organization, cultural contributions.
The Byzantine Empire: Organization economic, political-administrative organization,
social organization cultural contributions.
Feudalism: Economic structure, Social structure, Political structure, Rise of the bourgeoisie.
The Crusades: Causes, development of war, consequences of the crusades.
Arabs and Islam: geographical location, Islamic expansion, economic organization,
political-administrative organization, social organization, cultural contributions.

“THE COLONIZATION OF AMERICA”.

European Exploratory Voyages of the 17th Century XV and XVI: Spain and Portugal:
expansion models. Portugal: The Exploration of the African Coast. Spain: Columbus's
project and voyages.
The Tawantinsuyu Conquest.
Background: the first attempts of Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Pascual de Andagoya, Captain
Juan Basurto.
Factors: The civil war of Panaca in Quito and Cuzco, new diseases, Pizarro's travels.
Capitulation of Toledo.
Capture of Atahualpa.
Impact of the Conquest.
Economic and social destructuring of the Empire.
The Andean Resistance: Uprising of Manco Inca, the Incas of Vilcabamba.
Founding of Cities: the founding act, the founders, the objectives, the requirements,
founded cities.

“THE PERUVIAN VICEROYALTH”

The Civil Wars: The assassination of Francisco Pizarro.
War of sucks.
The creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru and the Iñaquito war.
The rebellion of the encomenderos.
Battle of Huarina.
Battle of Jaquijahuana.
The Peruvian Viceroyalty.
Economic organization.
Political organization. Social organization.

“THE GREAT LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS OF THE 18TH CENTURY”.

The Enlightenment.
Background.
Causes.
Characteristics.
Representatives of the Enlightenment.
The encyclopedia.
Enlightened Despotism.
Consequences.
The Independence of the 13 English Colonies.
Characteristics of the colonies.
Causes.
The War and its main events (Political and Military).
The Treaty of Paris of 1783 (the Peace of Versailles).
The new constitution.
Consequences. 3.
The French Revolution.
Monarchical Stage.
Background.
The States General.
Republican Stage.
The National Assembly.
The Constituent Assembly.
The Legislative Assembly.
Imperial Stage.
The Convention.
The directory.
First Industrial Revolution.
Causes: rise of capitalism.
Main facts and inventions.
Transcendence.

“THE INDEPENDENCE OF PERU”

The Precursors: Continental separatist precursors.
Peruvian precursors: the reformist precursors.
The separatist precursors.
The Southern Liberation Current: Background.
The campaign to Chile.
The maritime campaign.
San Martin in Peru.
The move to Huaura.
The entrance to Lima.
Works of the protectorate.
In search of the monarchy.
Military actions.
The Guayaquil Conference.
The constituent congress.
San Martin's retreat.
Main agreements of the constituent congress.
The first governing board.
The balcony riot.
Government of José Mariano de la Riva Agüero (from February to June 1823).
Government of the Marquis of Torre Tagle.
The Northern Liberating Current: Bolívar's actions in Peru.
The final campaign. The Battle of Junín. The Battle of Ayacucho.
The capitulation of Ayacucho.
Consequences of the Independence of Peru.
Independence of Trujillo.

“PERIOD OF FALSE PROSPERITY”

The exploitation of guano and saltpeter. Background.
Forms of Exploitation and Sale: Free Sale, Consignments, The Dreyfus Monopoly.
The Internal Debt Consolidation Act.
Political aspects during the period of False Prosperity.
Military Anarchy: Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco, First Government of Castile, Rufi no
Echenique, Second Government of Castile.
European intervention in America.
War with Spain: Causes, conflicts and consequences.
Second Industrial Revolution.
Energy source.
Major inventions.
Transcendence.
Emergence of socialism.
Causes.
Ideological Approaches.
Representatives.
Consequences.
Pacific War.

“THE REPUBLICAN PERU IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT” (1895 TO 1930)

The Aristocratic Republic.
Social and economic foundations of the Aristocratic Republic.
Political representatives of the Aristocratic Republic: Presidents.
Politics and social movements during the Aristocratic Republic.
North American Dependency: The Government of the Leguía Eleven Years.
Rise to Power.
The Leguía Dictatorship.
Works and policies, economic, political and social.
International policies.
The Russian Revolution.
Background.
Causes: Economic. Social. Policy.
Stages of the Revolution.
Political Trends.
Consequences. Influence of the Russian Revolution in Latin America.
World War I.
Background: Armed peace. Causes: Economic, social policies.
War of movement: Western Front, Eastern Front, Balkan Front.
Consequences. Influence of the First World War in Peru.

“THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND ANTI-COLONIAL STRUGGLES

Background.
Causes. Totalitarian Parties: Fascism.
Nazism.
World War II.
Causes of World War II.
German victories (1939-1940).
Diversification fronts. Intervention of Japan and the United States.
Allied victory.
The defeat of Germany.
The defeat of Japan.
Consequences of the Second World War.
Current events in Germany.
The decolonization process.
The ideologies of national liberation.
The Decolonization of Asia: British India, Indonesian Independence.
The Decolonization of Africa: Western Equatorial Africa, Eastern Africa, Southern Africa.
“MAJOR POST-WAR EVENTS”
Cold War: Formation of Blocks. Background of the conflict.
Formation of the large world blocks and the emergence of the 3rd world. Alliances in
Europe.
Alliances in Eastern Europe.
Development of the Cold War.
Korean War: Causes, Stages and Consequences.
Vietnam War: Causes, Stages and Consequences.
Cuban Revolution: Causes, Stages and Consequences.
Space exploration: Russia and the USA

“THE GOVERNMENTS OF PERU: (1950-1980)”

The Government of Bustamante and Rivero (1945 – 1948).
The Government of Manuel Apolinario Odria (1948 -1956).
The Second Government of Manuel Prado Ugarteche (1956 -1962).
The Government of the Military Junta (1962-1963).
The Government of Fernando Belaúnde 1. (1963 -1968).
The Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces.
Government of Juan Velasco Alvarado (1968-1975)
Phase.
Government of Francisco Morales Cerruti (1975 -1980) 2nd. Phase.

“PERU IN THE LAST DECADES: (1980-2000)”

Second government of Fernando Belaúnde Terry.
First Government of Alan García Pérez.
Governments of Alberto Fujimori.
Transitional Government of Valentín Paniagua.
Government of Alejandro Toledo Manrique.
Second Government of Alan García Pérez.
 ECONOMY
POLITICAL ECONOMY
-Introduction
- Evolution of the term Political Economy
- Definition
- Object of study
- Purposes of the economy
- Division of the economy
- Positive Economy
- Descriptive Economics
- Economic theory
- Microeconomic theory
- Macroeconomic theory
- Normative Economy
- Economic policy
- Economic systems
- Authoritarian or planned economy
- Free market economy
- Mixed economies.
Economic process
- Production
- Circulation
- Distribution
-Consumption
- Investment.

EVOLUTION OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT.

Introduction
- Economic Thought in Slavery
- Contributions of the Greeks
- Contributions of the ancient Romans
- Medieval economic thought
- Land ownership
- The Lordship - Changes in agricultural techniques
- The guild system - Technological Changes
- National economic policies
- Social struggles
- Credit operations
- Social Organization
- The church
- Economic thought in the modern age
- Mercantilist School
- 18th Century Liberalism
- Background
- Physiocratic School
- Classical School
- Scientific Revolution
- Industrial revolution
- Fundamental principles of the Classical School
- Representatives:
- Economic Thought in the Contemporary Age
- German Historical School ˆMarxist School
- Theory of Surplus Value
- Neoclassical School
- Fundamental Principles
- Keynesian School
- Fundamental Principles: Macroeconomic emphasis, Demand orientation, Economic
instability, Wage and price rigidity, Active fiscal and monetary policies
- Monetarist School
Fundamental principles: Optimizing behavior, Prices and wages, Mathematical orientation,
Rejection of Keynesianism, Limited government - Representatives
- Neoliberal School
- Fundamental principles
- Representatives
- New classical economics and the theory of real cycles
- Fundamental principles Representatives.

NEEDS GOODS AND SERVICES

Definition of Need
- Needs satisfaction process
- Characteristics of Needs: Limited in number, limited in capacity, vary in intensity, are
concurrent (They are complementary, fixation, replaceable in their satisfaction)
- Types of needs: According to their intensity
- By its nature
- According to how they should be satisfied
- According to how they should be satisfied
- According to time
- Definition of goods and services
- Types and characteristics of goods and services: By their function, by their nature, by
their use, by their duration, by their legal status
- Because of the relationship that arises from their use
- Due to its relation to Income
- Due to its relationship with international trade.

PRODUCTION - DISTRIBUTION AND CIRCULATION

Production
- Factors of production
- Nature
- Elements: Environment
- Environment
- Natural resources
- Types of natural resources: Renewable, Non-renewable, renewable resources,
permanent resources, driving force
- Characteristics of nature: Work - Characteristics: Painful, obligatory, free, involves effort,
economic purpose, conscious and rational activity, dignifies man - Classification of work:
According to relationship with the employer, independent, dependent, according to
function, according to specialization, according to work performed, according to
predominant faculty, according to attitude, according to hierarchy
- Forms of remuneration
- Salary classes
- Division of labor: Advantages
– Disadvantages Economically Active Population (EAP) - Employed
- Unemployed Underemployed
- Properly used
- Unemployment rate
- Employment rate
- Capital: Definition
- Theories that explain its appearance (Through the action of man on nature, through
savings, through economic surplus, accumulation through surplus value)
- Functions of capital: Increases labor productivity, saving human effort, efficient
exploitation of resources, increases the stock of goods
- Capital classification:
Productive
- Fixed
- Circulating
- Lucrative
-Initial-
Subscribed
- Fictional
- Liquid
- Constant
- Variable
- Commercial
- Industrial
- Banking
- Financial
- Productivity: Importance -
Factors (Internal, external)
- Circulation: Definition
- Items
- Forms of Exchange (Barter, commercial)
- Exchange flows (real, nominal) - Distribution - Definition.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND

The demand
- Quantity demanded
- Demand Curve
- Demand function
- Demand shifts
- The offer
- Factors influencing supply
- Supply function - supply shifts
- Changes in the offer
- Market equilibrium
- Price elasticity of demand
- Factors determining elasticity
- Calculation of elasticity
- Types of elasticity
- Price: Definition, function, internal factors that influence, external factors
- Price classes.
THE COMPANY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH THE ECONOMIC SECTORS
Production function
- Elements of production
- Terms - Shapes of average and marginal product curves
- Increasing and diminishing marginal returns
- The company: Definition
- Elements - Purposes
- Classification: According to size, activity or line of business, economic sector to which
they belong, origin of capital, economic activity, scope of action, legal order.

COSTS AND REVENUES AND PROFIT MAXIMIZATION

Short and long term
- Short and long-term costs (Total cost - Fixed - Variable - Marginal - Average -
Economies and diseconomies of scale - Income: Total - Average - Marginal
- Profit Maximization
- Break even point
- Closing Point.

THE MARKETS
Definition
- Classes
- Structures and/or models: Perfect competition, Imperfect competition (Monopoly,
Oligopoly, Duopoly, Monopolistic competition, Monopsony.

MONETARY SYSTEM
Money: Definition, Characteristics, Functions
- Monetary Pattern
-Economic policy instrument
- Types of money
- Currency Types of currency
- Currency values
- The Coinage
- Gresham's law
- Demand for money
- Factors determining the demand for money
- The money supply
- Quantity Theory of Money.

FINANCIAL SYSTEM
Definition
- Direct and indirect intermediation system
- Stock Exchange
- Concept
- Characteristics
- Functions
- CONASEV
-SAT
-Multilateral Financial Institutions (IMF - WB - IDB - CAF)
- Financial leasing companies
- EDPYME - Savings and Credit Cooperatives
- Savings and Credit Banks
- Central Reserve Bank of Peru
- Legal reserve - Placements
- Rediscounting - Purchase and Sale of Foreign Currency
- Buying and selling gold and silver
- Functions of the BCRP
- SBS - National Bank
- Banking operations (active, passive, neutral).

THE CREDIT
Definition
- Agents
- Items
- Classes
- Importance
- Instruments (Bill of exchange, check, promissory note, voucher, money order, warrant)
- Cost of credit and interest rate: Concept and types of interest.

THE PUBLIC SECTOR

Concept
- Structure
- Role of the State in the economy
- Legislator-ruler function, transfer
- Ensuring the functioning of markets
- Guarantee the supply of goods and services
- Develop social policies for low-income populations
- General Budget of the Republic: concept - principles
- Structure - Budget Execution
1- Public Finance
- Public debt: concept, types, characteristics, debt service.

TAX SYSTEM
Concept
- Types of Taxes
- Fundamentals
- Principles of taxation
- Tax system in Peru
- Agencies that administer taxes
- RUC and RUS
- Tax Evasion and Avoidance.

THE EXTERNAL SECTOR

Concept
- Items
- Balance of Payments: concept, functions, structure
- Foreign exchange market
- Net International Reserves: definition, importance.

THE PRODUCT AND THE ECONOMIC CYCLE

Product added
- Definition
- Forms or methods of measurement
- National accounting
- The economic cycle and crises
- Phases
- Types of cycles
- Theories on cycles and crises: Monetary, Schumpeterian, Marxist, Keynesian
- Cycles and economic policy
- Economic development and underdevelopment.

DISTURBANCES IN ECONOMIC BALANCE

Inflation
- Concept
- Classes
- Effects of inflation
- How to protect yourself from inflation
- Anti-inflationary policies
- Deflation
- Unemployment: definition
- types - causes
- to deal with unemployment.