MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Chifundo Polska Mlangeni

 Introduction to magnetism and magnetic circuits

• The study of magnetism began in the thirteenth century with many

eminent scientists and physicists such as William Gilbert,∗ Hans
Christian Oersted,∗ Michael Faraday,∗ James Maxwell,∗ André
Ampère∗ and Wilhelm Weber ∗ all having some input on the subject
since. The association between electricity and magnetism is a fairly
recent finding in comparison with the very first understanding of basic
magnetism.
• Today, magnets have many varied practical applications. For example,
they are used in motors and generators, telephones, relays,
loudspeakers, computer hard drives and floppy disks, anti-lock brakes,
cameras, fishing reels, electronic ignition systems, keyboards,TV and
radio components and in transmission equipment.
• The full theory of magnetism is one of the most complex of subjects;
this chapter provides an introduction to the topic.
 Magnetic fields
• A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which
has properties of attracting other pieces of these materials.
• A permanent magnet will position itself in a north and south direction when freely suspended.
The north seeking end of the magnet is called the north pole, N, and the south-seeking end
the south pole, S.
• The area around a magnet is called the magnetic field and it is in this area that the effects of
the magnetic force produced by the magnet can be detected.
• A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelled or heard and therefore is difficult to represent.
Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field could be represented pictorially, by
imagining the field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which enables investigation of the
distribution and density of the field to be carried out.
• The distribution of a magnetic field can be investigated by using some iron filings. A bar
magnet is placed on a flat surface covered by, say, cardboard, upon which is sprinkled some
iron filings. If the cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume a pattern similar to that
shown NEXT.
• If a number of magnets of different strength are used, it is found that the stronger the field
the closer are the lines of magnetic flux and vice-versa. Thus a magnetic field has the property
of exerting a force, demonstrated in this case by causing the iron filings to move into the
pattern shown.
• The laws of magnetic attraction and
repulsion can be demonstrated by using
two bar magnets. with unlike poles
adjacent, attraction takes place. Lines
of flux are imagined to contract and the
magnets try to pull together. with
similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north
poles), repulsion occurs, i.e. the two
north poles try to push each other
apart, since magnetic flux lines running
side by side in the same direction repel.
Magnetic flux and flux density
• Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force)
produced by a magnetic source.
• The symbol for magnetic flux is (Greek letter ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic flux is
the weber,∗ Wb.
• Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:
 Example
• A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section having dimensions
200mm by 100mm. If the total flux emerging from the pole is
150μWb, calculate the flux density.
• The maximum working flux density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.8 T and the
effective area of a pole face is circular in cross-section. If the total magnetic flux
produced is 353mWb, determine the radius of the pole face.
 Magnetomotive force and magnetic field
strength
• Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the cause of the existence of a magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit,
mmf,Fm=NI amperes
• where N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I is the current in amperes.
The unit of mmf is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However, since ‘turns’
have no dimensions, the SI unit of mmf is the ampere.
• Magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force),
H= NI/L ampere per metre
• where l is the mean length of the flux path in metres. Thus mmf =NI= Hl
amperes.
Permeability and B–H curves
• For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of magnetic flux density
to magnetizing force is a constant, i.e. B/H = a constant.
• This constant is μ0, the permeability of free space (or the magnetic
space constant) and is equal to 4π ×10−7 H/m, i.e. for air, or any non-
magnetic medium, the ratio B/H=μ0. (Although all non-magnetic
materials, including air, exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can
effectively be
• μr varies with the type of magnetic material and, since it is a ratio of flux densities, it has no unit.
From its definition, μr for a vacuum is 1. μ0μr=μ, called the absolute permeability.
• By plotting measured values of flux density B against magnetic field strength H, a magnetization
curve (or B–H curve) is produced. For non-magnetic materials this is a straight line. Typical
curves for four magnetic materials are shown

• The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic

material is proportional to the slope of the B–H
curve and thus varies with the magnetic field
strength.
• The approximate range of values of relative
permeability μr for some common magnetic
materials are:
Cast iron μr = 100–250 Mild steel μr = 200–800
Silicon iron μr = 1000–5000 Cast steel μr = 300–900
Mumetal μr = 200–5000 Stalloy μr = 500–6000
 Example
• A flux density of 1.2 T is produced in a piece of cast steel by a
magnetizing force of 1250 A/m. Find the relative permeability of the
steel under these conditions.
• A coil of 300 turns is wound uniformly on a ring of non-magnetic material. The
ring has a mean circumference of 40 cm and a uniform cross-sectional area of
4𝑐𝑚2 . If the current in the coil is 5 A, calculate
(a) the magnetic field strength,
(b) the flux density and
(c) the total magnetic flux in the ring.
Reluctance
• Reluctance S (or RM) is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of a magnetic circuit to the
presence of magnetic flux.

• The unit of reluctance is 1/H (or 𝐻 −1 ) or A/Wb. Ferromagnetic materials have a low
reluctance and can be used as magnetic screens to prevent magnetic fields affecting
materials within the screen.
Example
• Determine the reluctance of a piece of mumetal of length 150mm and cross-sectional
area 1800𝑚𝑚2 when the relative permeability is 4000. Find also the absolute
permeability of the mumetal.
• A mild steel ring has a radius of 50mm and a cross-sectional area of 400𝑚𝑚2 . A
current of 0.5A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the ring and the flux produced
is 0.1mWb. If the relative permeability at this value of current is 200, find
(a) the reluctance of the mild steel and
(b) the number of turns on the coil.
Composite series magnetic circuits

• For a series magnetic circuit having n parts, the total reluctance S is

given by:
S=S1+S2 +··· +Sn
• (This is similar to resistors connected in series in an electrical circuit.)
Example
• closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6cm long path of cross-sectional
area 1 cm2 and a 2 cm path of cross-sectional area 0.5 cm2. A coil of 200 turns is
wound around the 6 cm length of the circuit and a current of 0.4 A flows.
Determine the flux density in the 2cm path, if the relative permeability of the cast
steel is 750.
• A section through a magnetic circuit of uniform cross-sectional area 2cm2 is
shown in figure below. The cast steel core has a mean length of 25 cm. The air
gap is 1mm wide and the coil has 5000 turns. The B–H curve for cast steel is
shown on slide 10. Determine the current in the coil to produce a flux density of
0.80 T in the air gap, assuming that all the flux passes through both parts of the
magnetic circuit.
Solution

= 5151000/H
Hysteresis and hysteresis loss
• Let a ferromagnetic material which is completely
demagnetized, i.e. one in which B = H = 0 be subjected to
increasing values of magnetic field strength H and the
corresponding flux density B measured.
• The resulting relationship between B and H is shown by the
curve Oab .
• At a particular value of H, shown as Oy, it becomes difficult
to increase the flux density any further. The material is said
to be saturated.
• Thus by is the saturation flux density. If the value of H is
now reduced it is found that the flux density follows curve
bc. When H is reduced to zero, flux remains in the iron.
• This remanent flux density or remanence is shown as Oc in When H is increased
in the opposite direction, the flux density decreases until, at a value shown as Od,
the flux density has been reduced to zero.
• The magnetic field strength Od required to remove the residual magnetism, i.e.
reduce B to zero, is called the coercive force.
• Further increase of H in the reverse direction causes the flux density to increase
in the reverse direction until saturation is reached, as shown by curve de.
• If H is varied backwards from Ox to Oy, the flux density follows the curve efgb,
similar to curve bcde.
• It is seen from figure that the flux density changes lag behind the changes in the
magnetic field strength.
• This effect is called hysteresis. The closed figure bcdefgb is called the hysteresis
loop (or the B/H loop).
Hysteresis loss
• A disturbance in the alignment of the domains (i.e. groups of atoms) of a
ferromagnetic material causes energy to be expended in taking it through a cycle of
magnetization.
• This energy appears as heat in the specimen and is called the hysteresis loss.
• The energy loss associated with hysteresis is proportional to the area of the
hysteresis loop.
• The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type of material. The area, and thus the
energy loss, is much greater for hard materials than for soft materials.
(a) hard material, which has a high remanence Oc and a large coercivity Od
(b) soft steel, which has a large remanence and small coercivity
(c) ferrite, this being a ceramic-like magnetic substance made from oxides of iron,
nickel, cobalt, magnesium, aluminium and mangenese; the hysteresis of ferrite is very
small.
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