Anatomy and Physiology

CHAPTER 2 - THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

Basic Chemistry Ion and Ionic Bonding

Matter: anything that occupies space and has Ion — a charged atom formed because of a
mass (solid, liquid, or gas) donation or gain of an electron(s)
Mass: amount of matter in an object • Example: Na+
Weight: gravitational force acting on object
Ionic bonding — occurs when there is an
Elements and Atoms attraction between two oppositely charged ions
• Example: NaCl
Element:
●​ simplest form of matter
●​ Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl
Covalent Bonding
Atom: Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share
●​ smallest particle of an element one or more pairs of electrons
●​ contains protons, electrons, and neutrons • Example: hydrogen molecule

Polar covalent bonds form when there is an

Subatomic Particles unequal sharing of electrons
Proton: positive charged particle located inside • Example: water (H2O)
the nucleus
Neutron: neutral charged particle located inside Polar molecules have an asymmetrical
the nucleus electrical charge
Electron: negative charged particle located Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical
outside the nucleus electrical charge

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Hydrogen Bonding
Atomic number: the number of protons in each
atom Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end
Mass number: the number of protons and and a negative end
neutrons in each atom
A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end
of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the
Chemical Bonds
negative end of another polar molecule
Chemical bonds occur when outermost The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the
electrons (valence shell electrons) are ionic or covalent bonds
transferred or shared between atoms
Types of chemical bonds
●​ Ionic Polar Covalent Bonding
●​ Covalent
●​ Hydrogen Polar covalent bonded molecules, like water,
have a positive end and a negative end
 Reversible reactions occur when the reaction
Molecules and Compounds can run in the opposite direction, so that the
products are converted back to the original
Molecule:
reactants.
●​ 2 or more atoms chemically combine
●​ Example: water (H2O)
CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3
Compound:
Equilibrium: when the rate of product formation
●​ chemical combination of 2 or more
equals the rate of reactant formation
different types of atoms
●​ Example: NaCl

Energy
Chemical reactions Energy is the capacity to do work.
Work is the moving of matter.
Chemical reactions occur when there is a
Kinetic energy is energy in motion
formation or breaking of chemical bonds
Potential energy is stored energy
between atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds.

Reactants: substances that enter into the

reaction Chemical Energy
Products: substances that result from the Chemical energy is a form of potential energy
reaction stored in chemical bonds
Food molecules such as glucose contain
Types of chemical reactions potential energy
Synthesis reaction:
An example of a reaction that releases energy is
●​ build a new molecule
the breakdown of ATP (adenosine
●​ energy-requiring
triphosphate) to ADP (adenosine
●​ Example: ADP + P ATP
diphosphate) and a phosphate group
ATP ADP + P
Decomposition reaction:
●​ break down molecule
●​ energy-releasing
●​ Example: ATP ADP + P Rate of chemical reactions
The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds
is influenced by several factors:
Energy and Chemical Reactions • concentration of the reactants
• temperature
Exchange reaction:
• catalyst
• combination of synthesis and decomposition
reactions
• Example: AB + CD AC + BD
Concentration of the reactants: within limits
• Example: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
the higher the concentration of reactants the
faster the rate
 Carbohydrates
Temperature: within limits, the higher the Characteristics of Carbohydrates
temperature the faster the rate ●​ Contain C, H, O
●​ H:O is a 2:1 ratio
Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction without ○​ Example: C6H12O6
itself being permanently changed or depleted.
●​ Monosaccharides are the building
blocks.
Acids and Bases
Acid: a proton H+ donor Monosaccharide
●​ pH below 7 ●​ simple sugar (1 sugar)
●​ Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid) ●​ Examples: glucose and fructose

Base: a proton H+ acceptor Disaccharide:

●​ pH above 7 ●​ 2 sugars
●​ Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide) ●​ Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
●​ Example: glucose + galactose = lactose

Inorganic Chemistry vs Organic Chemistry Polysaccharide:

●​ many sugars
Inorganic chemistry deals with those
●​ Example: starch, grain, vegetables,
substances that do not contain carbon
glycogen

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon- Functions of Carbohydrates

containing substances
-​ Short-term energy storage
-​ Converted to glucose quickly
Exception: some carbon containing compounds
-​ Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
are not organic in that they do not also contain
-​ Brain cells require glucose
hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Lipids
Organic molecules Characteristics of Lipids
●​ Contain C, H, O
Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with
●​ Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to
other atoms makes it possible the formation of
carbon than do carbohydrates
large, diverse, complicated molecules for life.
●​ Insoluble in water
The four major groups of organic molecules
Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,
essential to living organisms are
phospholipids
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids.

Functions of Lipids
-​ Long term energy storage
-​ Insulates against heat loss
 -​ Protective cushion for organs Protein denaturation
-​ Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane -​ occurs when the hydrogen bonds that
structure maintain shape of a protein are broken
and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
-​ Factors that can cause denaturation are:
Types of Lipids high temperatures and/or improper pH
Saturated:
• single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
• Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, Enzymes
eggs Enzymes
-​ organic catalysts that increase the rate at
Unsaturated: which biochemical reactions proceed
• one or more double covalent bonds between without the enzyme being permanently
carbons changed.
• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil -​ Enzymes work by lowering the energy of
activation.

Proteins
Characteristics of Proteins Nucleic Acid
●​ Contains C, H, O, N ●​ Composed of C, H, O, N, P
●​ Amino acids are the building blocks ●​ Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
●​ 20 different naturally occurring amino and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
acids
●​ Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) -​ Nucleotides are the building blocks
group and carboxyl group -​ Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen
●​ Amino acids are not stored, so a daily base, phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar
supply is required

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Functions of Proteins
-​ Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles ATP is an especially important organic molecule
-​ Part of the hemoglobin molecule found in all living organisms.
-​ Act as enzymes
-​ Immune system functions It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with
-​ Muscle contractions (actin and myosin) the organic base adenine) and three phosphate
-​ Part of the cell membrane groups.

ATP is often called the energy currency of cells

because it is capable of both storing and
providing energy.

Protein Denaturation