CLASS X

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

INTRODUCTION
118 elements have been discovered up to now. Carbon and its compounds form a separate branch of chemistry called
‘Organic chemistry’. ‘Organic’ means natural. It is given this name because most of the carbon compounds are available
from nature (plants and animals).
Scientists thought that organic compounds cannot be synthesized due to a vital force which is acting between them. This
force was assumed to be non destructible. Fredrich Wohler disproved the vital force theory by synthesizing urea
(NH2CONH2) from ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO).
Earth crust consists of 0.02% carbon and the atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon.
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Allotropy is the phenomenon by which the same element exists in two or more different forms. The different forms of the
elements are called allotropes.
Carbon exists in the following three allotropic forms:
1. Diamond
2. Graphite
3. Fullerene (C- 60)
DIAMOND
Diamond is made up of tetrahedral units of carbon. These tetrahedral units join together and form a cage like structure
which makes the diamond very hard. This hardness is used for making cutting tools and surgical knives. It is the hardest
naturally occurring substance.
The refractive index of diamond is very high (2.41) due to which it is very lustrous. So it is used for making jewels. Each
carbon atom is shared with 4 more carbon atoms in diamond. So no free electron is available and it makes the diamond a
poor conductor of electric current.

GRAPHITE
Graphite is the second important allotrope of carbon. It consists of hexagonal units which join together to form a layer like
structure. These layers are piled upon one another. So the layers can slide easily even by the application of small force.
This makes the graphite very soft and doused for making e to this it is used as a lubricant. Only 3 carbon atoms are shared
with each other and one electron is left free. This free electron is responsible for good electrical conductivity. So graphite
is used for making electrodes in dry cells. Moreover they are used for making pencil leads.
BUCKMINSTER FULLERENE (C – 60)
C-60 is the recently discovered allotrope of carbon. It is also called Buckminster Fullerene. One unit of C-60 has 60
carbon atoms. They join together to form 32 rings in which 20 are hexagonal and 12 are pentagonal rings. The structure of
C – 60 looks like a football.

BONDING IN CARBON ATOM

Carbon has the atomic number 6. Its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It needs 4 more electrons to get octet configuration.
Gaining 4 electrons is almost impossible. If it loses 4 electrons then cation formed will become very unstable as the
nucleus which has 6 protons will easily attract the 2 electrons present in C4+ ion. So carbon atom shares 4 electrons to
form covalent bonds.

Since most of the carbon compounds are covalent in nature, they exist either in gaseous state or in liquid state. Their
aqueous solutions do not conduct electric current. They have low melting and boiling points.
e.g. Ethanol (C2H5OH ) ----→ B.P = 78OC
Acetic acid ( CH3COOH ) ----→ B.P = 118OC
Carbon atom is capable of forming millions of compounds which leads to a separate branch of chemistry called organic
chemistry. It is due to the 2 properties namely tetravalency and catenation.
Tetravalency is the property by which the carbon atom is capable of reacting with 4 atoms due to the presence of 4
valence electrons. This tetravalency leads to the formation of many different compounds.
Catenation is the phenomenon by which the atoms of same elements join together to form straight chains, branched chains
or ring structures.
e.g.

Cyclobutane(C4H8)
Straight chain Branched chain Ring structure
ISOMERISM
The phenomenon in which the compounds have same molecular formula but different structures is called
isomerism. The different structures of the same compound are known as isomers.
e.g.
 HYDROCARBONS
The compounds which are made up of only carbon and hydrogen are called ‘hydrocarbons’. They are the simplest
carbon compounds. They can be classified as follows:

The hydrocarbon in which the two terminal carbon atoms are joined to only 1 carbon atom is called open chain
hydrocarbons.
If each and every carbon atom is joined to one or two carbon atoms then it will be called straight chain hydrocarbons.
e.g.

(C4H10) n – butane
The hydrocarbons in which any one of the carbon atom is joined to 3 or 4 carbon atoms is called branched chain
hydrocarbon.
e.g.

If each and every carbon atom of the hydrocarbon is attached to two or more carbon atoms then it is called closed chain
hydrocarbon.
e.g.

Cyclobutane
ISOMERS OF PENTANE AND HEXANE
A hydrocarbon can have isomers only if it has more than 3 carbon atoms because if the hydrocarbon has minimum 4
carbon atoms then only it can form a branched chain. The following table shows the number of carbon atoms in the
hydrocarbon and the number of isomers corresponding to the particular hydrocarbon.
No. of Name of the No. Of No.of Name of the No. Of
Carbons Hydrocarbon Isomers Carbons Hydrocarbon Isomers
1 Methane 1 5 Pentane 3
2 Ethane 1 6 Hexane 5
3 Propane 1 7 Heptane 9
4 Butane 2 8 Octane 18
ISOMERS OF PENTANE

ISOMERS OF HEXANE

CLOSED CHAIN HYDROCARBONS

They are also called cyclic compounds. They are classified into two types namely alicyclic hydrocarbons and aromatic
hydrocarbons.
The closed chain hydrocarbon which has only single bond is known as alicyclic hydrocarbon. They are said to be
saturated.
e.g. Cyclohexane(C6H12)

The closed chain hydrocarbon which has double or triple bond is called aromatic hydrocarbon. They are said to be
unsaturated.
e.g. Benzene(C6H6), Naphthalene(C10H8)
 OPEN CHAIN HYDROCARBONS
They are also called aliphatic hydrocarbons. They are further classified into saturated and unsaturated.
ALKANES
1. Alkanes are the saturated open chain hydrocarbons.
2. They have only single bonds.
3. Their general molecular formula is CnH2n+2.
4. The first member of alkanes has only one carbon atom.
5. The first ten alkanes and their molecular formulas as follows:
CH4 Methane
C2H6 Ethane
C3H8 Propane
C4H10 Butane
C5H12 Pentane
C6H14 Hexane
C7H16 Heptane
C8H18 Octane
C9H20 Nonane
C10H22 Decane
6. Alkanes are called ‘paraffins’
7. If one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane then it forms an alkyl group.
Alkane – H ----→ Alkyl group
CH4 - H ----→ Methyl(-CH3)
C2H6 - H ----→ Ethyl (- C2H5)
ALKENES
1. Alkenes are unsaturated open chain hydrocarbons.
2. They have double bonds.
3. Their general molecular formula is CnH2n.
4. The first member of alkenes has 2 carbon atoms.
The first nine members of alkenes are:
C2H4 Ethene
C3H6 Propene
C4H8 Butene
C5H10 Pentene
C6H12 Hexene
C7H14 Heptene
C8H16 Octene
C9H18 Nonene
C10H20 Decene
5. Alkenes are also called ‘olifenes’.
ALKYNES
1. Alkynes are the unsaturated open chain hydrocarbons.
2. They have triple bonds.
3. Their general molecular formula is CnH2n-2.
4. The first member of alkynes has 2 carbon atoms.
The first nine members of alkynes are:
C2H2 Ethyne
C3H4 Propyne
C4H6 Butyne
C5H8 Pentyne
 C7H12 Heptyne
C8H14 Octyne
C9H16 Nonyne
5. Alkynes are also called ‘olifenes’.

NOMENCLATURE OF HYDROCARBONS
The study about the names of hydrocarbons and carbon compounds is called nomenclature. International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) have framed the following rules:
1. The condensed formula is to be written if the structural formula of the compound is given.
2. The parent chain (the chain that has most carbon atoms) is to be determined if the hydrocarbon is a branched
compound.
3. The root word is fixed based on the number of carbon atoms present in the parent chain.
4. The given structure is checked for the presence of any double or triple bonds.
5. The corresponding suffix ‘ane, ene, yne’ is added to the root word.
6. If a double or triple bond is present, then its position is to be mentioned in between the root word and the suffix.
7. The branched chain name is written as a prefix to the root word by mentioning its position.
e.g. 1) CH3 --- CH2 --- CH == CH --- CH3
Pent – 3 – ene Wrong
Pent – 2 – ene Right
2) CH3
|
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH3
4 – Methyl hexane Wrong
3 – Methyl hexane Right
3) CH3
|
CH3 – CH – CH – CH2 – CH3
|
3,4 – Dimethyl pentane Wrong
1,2 – Dimethyl pentane Right
4) CH3
|
CH3 – C – CH2 – CH3
|
CH3
3,3 – Dimethyl butane Wrong
2,2 – Dimethyl butane Right
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A group of carbon compounds which have same molecular formula, similar structure and similar chemical properties but
the consecutive (successive) or very next member differ by a CH2 group and 14U mass is called a homologous series.
e.g. Alkanes ( CnH2n+2)
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10
An atom or a group of atoms which is responsible for the properties of the compound is known as a functional group.
e.g.
O
║
Aldehyde -----→ -CHO ( − C − H)
O
║
Ketone -----→ -CO − ( − C − )
O
║
Carboxylic acid -----→ -COOH (− C − H)
O
║
Ester -----→ -COO − ( − C − O−)
Single, double and triple bonds are known as primary functional groups and others are called secondary functional groups.
The functional groups like ketone and ester always come in the middle of the compound and so they are called non
terminal functional groups. The functional groups which do not come in the middle of the compound are known as
terminal functional groups.
ALKANES [ane]
1. The functional group is single bond.
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2n+2
3. The first member has 1 carbon atom.
4. The molecular formula of 1st member is CH4.
5. The IUPAC name is Methane.
6. The common name is ‘Marsh gas or Natural gas’.
7. The structure is

ALKENES [ene]
1. The functional group is double bond.
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2n.
3. 1st member has 2 carbon atoms.
4. The molecular formula of the 1st member is C2H4.
5. The IUPAC name is Ethene.
6. The common name is ‘Ethylene’.
7. The structure is

ALKYNES [yne]
1. The functional group is triple bond.
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2n-2.
3. 1st member has 2 carbons.
4. The molecular formula of the 1st member is C2H2.
5. The IUPAC name is Ethyne.
6. The common name is Acetylene.
7. The structure is H–C≡C–H
ALCOHOLS [ −ol]
1. The functional group is – OH.
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2n+2O
3. The 1st member has 1 carbon atom.
4. The molecular formula of the first member is
C1H(2x 1)+ 2O -------→ CH3OH (CH4O)
5. The IUPAC name is Methanol.
6. The common name is Methyl alcohol.
7. The structure is

ALDEHYDES [ − al ]
O
║
1. The functional group is – CHO ( − C – H )
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2nO.
3. The 1st member has 1 carbon atom.
4. The molecular formula of the first member is C1H(2 x 1)O -----→ CH2O ( HCHO )
5. The IUPAC name is Methanal.
6. It has the common name of Formaldehyde.
7. The structure of methanol is

KETONES [ ̶ one ]
O
║
1. The functional group is − CO – ( − C − ). It is a non terminal functional group which means that it always comes in the
middle of the compound.
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2nO.
3. Ketones are isomeric with aldehydes.
4. Since it is a non terminal functional group, the first member of the ketones needs 3 carbons.
5. The molecular formula of the first member is C3H(2 x 3)O ===⊳ C3H6O ===⊳ CH3COCH3
6. The IUPAC name is Propanone.
7. The common name is Acetone.
8. The structure is
CARBOXYLIC ACID [ − oic acid ]
O
║
1. The functional group is – COOH ( − C – O − H ).
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2nO2.
3. The first member has 1 carbon.
4. The molecular formula is C1H(2 x 1)O2 ===⊳ CH2O2
5. The IUPAC name is Formic acid.
6. The common name is formic acid.
7. The structure is

ESTERS [ alkyl ------ oate ] O

║
1. The functional group is – COO − ( − C – O – ). It is also a non terminal functional group.
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2nO2. It is isomeric with carboxylic acid.
3. The first member has 3 carbons.
4. The molecular formula is C3H(3x2)O2 ==⊳ C3H6O2 ( CH3COOCH3)
5. The IUPAC name is Methyl Ethanoate.
6. The common name is dimethyl ester.
7. The structure is

ETHERS
1. The functional group is − O – [ Non terminal ]
2. The general molecular formula is CnH2n+2O [Isomeric with alcohols]
3. The first member needs two electrons.
4. The molecular formula for the first member is C2H(2x2)+2O ==⊳ C2H6O ( CH3OCH3 )
5. Its IUPAC name is methoxy methane.
6. The common name is dimethyl ether.
7. The structure is
HALOALKANES

1. The functional group is – X ( X may be F, Cl, Br, I or At )

2. The general molecular formula is CnH(2n+1)X
3. The first member has 1 carbon atom.
4. The molecular formula for the first member is C1H(2x1)+1X ==⊳ CH3X
5. The IUPAC name is halo methane.
6. The common name is methyl halide. H
7. The structure is |
H−C−X
|
H
The following table gives the overall summary of all the above functional groups.
NAME OF THE FUNCTIONAL GENERAL C ATOMS MOLECULAR IUPAC NAME COMMON NAME
HOMOLOGOUS GROUP MOLECULAR IN 1ST FORMULA OF
SERIES FORMULA MEMBER THE 1ST MEMBER
Alkanes Single bond CnH2n+2 1 CH4 Methane Marsh or natural
gas
Alkenes Double bond CnH2n 2 C2H4 Ethene Ethylene
Alkynes Triple bond CnH2n - 2 2 C2H2 Ethyne Acetylene
Alcohols ̶ OH CnH2n+2O 1 CH3OH Methanol Methyl alcohol
Aldehydes ̶ CHO CnH2nO 1 HCHO Methanal Formaldehyde
Ketones ̶ CO ̶ CnH2nO 3 CH3COCH3 Propanone Acetone
Carboxylic ̶ COOH CnH2nO2 1 HCOOH Methanoic acid Formic acid
acids
Esters ̶ COO ̶ CnH2nO2 3 CH3COOCH3 Methyl ethanoate Dimethyl ester
Ethers ̶ O ̶ CnH2n+2O 2 CH3OCH3 Methoxy methane Dimethyl ether
Fluoroalkanes ̶ F CnH2n+1 F 1 CH3F Fluoro methane Methyl fluoride
Chloroalkanes ̶ Cl CnH2n+1 Cl 1 CH3Cl Chloro methane Methyl chloride
Bromoalkanes ̶ Br CnH2n+1 Br 1 CH3Br Bromo methane Methyl bromide
Iodoalkanes ̶ I CnH2n+1 I 1 CH3I Iodo methane Methyl iodide

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

COMBUSTION
Combustion is the process in which substances react with oxygen and form heat and light.
C + O2 -----→ CO2 + Heat + Light
Generally hydrocarbons undergo combustion and form CO2 With water and and release heat and light.
CH4 + O2 -----→ CO2 + 2H2O + Heat + Light
[ Methane ]
CH4 + O2 -----→ 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heart + Light
[ Ethane ]
2C6H6 + 15O2 -----→ 12CO2 + 6H2O + Heart + Light
[ Benzene ]
Ethanol also forms CO2 and H2O with the release of heat and light.
C2H5OH + 3O2 -----→ 2CO2 + 3H2O + Heart + Light
[ Ethanol]
These substances which undergo combustion are called fuels. So, all hydrocarbons and ethanol can be used as fuels.
The fuels which vaporize form flames and which do not vaporize burn without flames. There are 2 kinds of flames. They
are Blue flame and yellow flame.
Blue flame is formed due to the complete combustion of fuels and it produces more heat. Yellow flame is formed due to
the incomplete combustion of fuels which produce less heat.
Gas stove produces very rarely yellow flames. It means that the combustion of fuels is incomplete. It results in the
deposition of sot at the bottom of the vessel. It can be corrected by cleaning the holes of the burner to promote the oxygen
supply.
OXIDATION
It is a reaction in which oxygen is added and hydrogen is removed or electrons are lost. Generally alcohols undergo
oxidation and form the corresponding carboxylic acids in the presence of oxidizing agents like alkaline potassium
permanganate [KMnO4] or acidified potassium dichromate [K2Cr2O7].
[O]
CH3CH2OH -----------------→ CH3COOH + H2O
[ Ethanol ] Alkaline KMnO4 [ Ethanoic acid ]
ADDITION REACTION
Generally, unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction with hydrogen and form the corresponding alkanes. It is
also possible with alkynes.
Alkene + H2 -----→ Alkane
Alkyne + H2 -----→ Alkane

C2H4 + H2 -----→ C2H6

Ethene Ethane

Alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reaction with bromine and form the corresponding dibromoalkane.
Alkene + Br2 -----→ Dibromoalkane
Ethene undergoes addition reaction with bromine and forms dibromoethane.
C2H4 + Br2 -----→ C2H4Br2
Ethene Dibromoethane
Saturated and unsaturated compounds can be differentiated by using bromine water. When the brown coloured bromine
water is added to unsaturated compound, the brown colour is decolourised due to the addition reaction. The saturated
hydrocarbon does not undergo any change as it does not react with bromine as such.
Unsaturated hydrocarbon + Br2 ----→ Dibromo substituted hydrocarbon.
[ Decolourisation takes place ]
Saturated hydrocarbon + Br2 ----→ No reaction. [Brown colour remains ]
The industrial use of addition reaction is hydrogenation of oils. It is a process in which unsaturated oil is converted into
saturated fat by passing hydrogen gas through it in the presence of nickel catalyst at a temperature of 250 OC.

Oil+ H2 ----→ Fat

Unsaturated Saturated
SUBSTITUTION
It is the reaction in which one atom is replaced by another atom in a compound.
Methane undergoes substitution reaction with chlorine in the presence of sunlight and forms chloromethane and hydrogen
chloride.
CH4 + Cl2 ----→ CH3Cl + HCl
Methane Chloromethane
 ETHANOL
The second member of alcohol homologous series is ethanol. It is commonly called ethyl alcohol. Its molecular formula is
C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH.
Ethanol is manufactured by the fermentation of molasses. Fermentation is the process in which a molecule is broken into
smaller molecules by the action of enzymes. Molasses is a thick black liquid that is left over the extraction of sugar from
sugar juice. It still consists of 50% of sugar from which ethanol is manufactured.
Invertase
C6H12O11 + H2O ----------------→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
Zymase
C6H12O6 ---------------→ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2↑
15% ethanol which is derived from the fermentation tank is known as ‘wash’. When wash undergoes fractional
distillation it forms 96% ethanol which is known as ‘rectified spirit’. When rectified spirit is reacted with quicklime
(CaO) it forms 100% ethanol which is known as ‘absolute alcohol’. When ethanol is mixed with some amount of
methanol or pyridine , it forms ‘denatured spirit’ which causes death or blindness on consumption.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is a colourless liquid.
2. It has a peculiar alcoholic odour.
3. Its boiling point is 78OC.
4. Ethanol is miscible with water in any proportion.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. WITH SODIUM METAL
Ethanol reacts with sodium metal to form sodium ethoxide with the release of hydrogen gas.
2C2H5OH + 2Na ----→ 2C2H5ONa + H2↑
2. COMBUSTION
Ethanol undergoes combustion and forms CO2 and H2O with the release of heat and light.
C2H5OH + 3O2 -----→ 2CO2 + 3H2O + Heat + Light
3. OXIDATION
Ethanol undergoes oxidation in the presence of alkaline potassium permanganate and forms ethanoic acid.
[O]
CH3CH2OH ---------------------→ CH3COOH + H2O
Alkaline KMnO4
4. DEHYDRATION
Ethanol undergoes dehydration when it is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443K and forms ethane.
443K
C2H5OH ---------------------→ C2H4 + H2O
USES
1. It is used as a very good solvent.
2. Ethanol is used as a fuel.
3. It is used as an additive in petrol.
4. Beverages are made from ethanol.
EVIL EFFECTS
1. Ethanol causes mental confusion.
2. It depresses central nervous system.
3. Continuous consumption of ethanol causes damage to the liver.
 ETHANOIC ACID
1. The second member of carboxylic acid homologous series is ethanoic acid.
2. Its molecular formula is CH3COOH.
3. It is commonly called acetic acid.
PREPARATION
It is prepared by the oxidation of ethanol.
[O]
CH3CH2OH ---------------------→ CH3COOH + H2O
Alkaline KMnO4
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid.
2. It has the odour of vinegar.
3. The boiling point of ethanol is 118OC.
4. It is miscible with water. [5 to 8% aqueous solution of ethanoic acid is vinegar.]
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. WITH NaOH
Ethanoic acid reacts with NaOH and forms sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH ------→ CH3COONa + H2O
Sodium ethanoate
2. WITH BICARBONATE / CARBONATE
Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonate or bicarbonate and produces sodium ethanoate, water and CO2. Carbon dioxide is
released as brisk effervescence.
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ------→ CH3COONa + H2O + CO2↑
3. ESTERIFICATION
The reaction in which the carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol and forms an ester and water is known as esterification.
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid (which acts as a dehydrating agent) and
forms ethyl ethanoate and water.
Conc.H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ----------→ CH3COO C2H5 + H2O
Ethyl ethanoate
Hydrolysis of ester is the process in which the ester gives rise to the corresponding carboxylic acids and alcohol.
CH3COO C2H5 + H2O -----------→ CH3COOH + C2H5OH
Ethyl ethanoate Ethanoic acid Ethanol
When the ester is reacted with sodium hydroxide it forms the sodium salt of carboxylic acid and alcohol. This reaction is
called saponification, because it is used in the preparation of soaps.
CH3COO C2H5 + NaOH -----------→ CH3COONa + C2H5OH
Ethyl ethanoate SodiumEthanoate Ethanol
USES
1. Ethanoic acid is used as a preservative in the form of vinegar.
2. An artificial fibre Cellulose acetate is prepared from ethanoic acid.
3. It is used in the preparation of dyes, plastics and pharmaceuticals.
4. Ethanoic acid is used coagulate rubber from latex.
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ETHANOL AND ETHANOIC ACID.
LITMUS TEST
When a drop of ethanoic acid is put on the blue litmus paper it is changed to red but ethanol cannot make any change in
the colour of the litmus paper.
SODIUM BICARBONATE TEST [CHEMICAL TEST]
If sodium bicarbonate is added to ethanol then there will be no change. If sodium bicarbonate is added to ethanoic acid
then it forms brisk effervescence due to the release of carbon dioxide.
C2H5OH + NaHCO3 ------→ No reaction
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ------→ CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid. Their general molecular formula is RCOONa
(where R is the alkyl group of any long chain carboxylic acid).
e.g. Sodium stearate, potassium palmitate
Some of the long chain carboxylic acids are mentioned below:
Stearic acid : C17H35COOH
Oleic acid : C17H33COOH
Linoleic acid : C17H31COOH
Linoleinic aci : C17H29COOH
Palmitic acid : C15H31COOH
Myristic acid : C11H23COOH
Oil is the trimester of glycerol and unsaturated fatty (long chain) carboxylic acid.
Fat is the trimester of glycerol and saturated fatty (long chain) carboxylic acid.
The process in which oil or fat reacts with sodium hydroxide and forms soap and glycerol is known as saponification.
PREPARATION OF SOAP
1. Oil or fat is taken in a big pan and heated.
2. 20% NaOH solution is added to it with constant stirring.
3. Saponification reaction occurs which results in the formation of soap and glycerol.

4. A mixture of soap and glycerol is formed as a thick and oily mixture.

5. A calculated quantity of common salt [NaCl] is added to separate them.[This process is known as salting out of salts]
6. The mixture is allowed to cool.
7. Since soap is lighter than glycerol the former floats on the latter.
Detergents are the sodium salts of long chain sulphonic acids.
e.g. Sodium n – dodecyl benzene sulphonate, Sodium n – dodecyl sulphate.
HARD AND SOFT WATER
The water which consists of bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate salts of calcium and magnesium ions is called hard water.
It does not give good lather with soap.
The water which is free from the bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate salts of calcium and magnesium ions is called soft
water. It gives good lather with soaps.
DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN SOAP AND DETERGENT
Soap and detergent can be differentiated by using hard water as follows:
1. Hard water is taken in two boiling tubes in equal quantities.
2. A small quantity of the given two samples are taken in equal amounts and added to each tube.
3. The contents of both boiling tubes are shaken well.
4. It can be observed that lather is formed in large quantity in one boiling tube and small quantity in another tube.
5. The boiling tube in which large quantity of lather is formed consists of soap.
6. The boiling tube which consists of small quantity of lather consists of detergents.
7. It is due to the fact that both soap and detergent are capable reacting with the hard water ions. Soap forms an insoluble
precipitate [scum] which does not allow the lather to be formed in large quantity. Detergents also react with the hard water
ions but they are soluble in water and so large amount of lather is formed.

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Soaps and detergents have almost similar cleansing action.
1. A soap molecule consists of two parts.
2. The head part is ionic part and is hydrophilic in nature.
3. The tail part is the hydrocarbon part and is hydrophobic in nature.
4. The dirt is nothing but the oil or grease on which dust is deposited.
5. When the dirty cloth is soaked in soap water the hydrophobic part of soap molecule gets attached with the dirt.
6. A three dimensional arrangement of soap molecule which is formed around the dirt is known as ‘micelle’.

7. All hydrophilic [head] parts are facing towards the water.

8. When the dirty cloth is agitated the hydrophilic head part of soap molecule slowly moves towards water.
9. This results in the movement of micelle.
10. So the dirt which is also attached with the tails is also removed.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

SOAPS DETERGENTS
1. Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of the long chain Detergents are the sodium salts of long chain sulphonic
carboxylic acids. The ionic group is – COO-Na+ acids. The ionic group is – SO3-Na+
2. Soaps are not suitable for washing in case of hard water. Detergents are used for washing even in case of hard water.
3. Soaps are prepared from animal fats or from vegetable Detergents are prepared by from the hydrocarbons obtained
oils. from petroleum.
4. Soaps are biodegradable. Detergents are non – biodegradable.
5. Soaps have a poor cleansing action. Detergents have better cleansing effect than soaps.

NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q.1. What would be the electron dot structure of carbon dioxide which has the formula CO 2?
Ans: C ----→ 6 ----→ 2, 4
O----→ 8 ----→ 2, 6 O = C = O

Q.2. What would be the electron dot structure of a molecule of sulphur which is made up of eight atoms of
sulphur?
Ans: S ----→ 16 ----→ 2, 8, 6

Q.3. How many structural isomers can you draw for pentane?
Ans: Three isomers are possible for pentane. They are:
1. n – pentane
2. iso – pentane
3. neo – pentane
Q.4. What are the two properties of carbon which lead to the huge number of carbon compounds we see around
us?
Ans: Tetravalency and catenation
Q.5. What will be the formula and electron dot structure of cyclopentane?
Ans: The formula for cyclohexane is C6H12
The electron dot structure for cyclohexane is

Q.6. Draw the structures of the following compounds:

i) Ethanoic acid ii) Bromopentane
iii) Butanone iv) Hexanal
Are structural isomers possible for bromopentane?
Ans:

.
4. Bromopentane

Yes. Structural isomers are possible for bromopentane.

Q.7. How would you name the following compounds?
i) CH3CH2Br ii) H iii) H H H H
| | | | |
H− C=O H − C − C − C −C − C ≡ C − H
| | | |
H H H H
Ans: i) Bromoethane ii) Methanal iii) Hexanyne
Q.8. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?
Ans: [O]
CH3CH2OH ---------------------→ CH3COOH + H2O
Alkaline KMnO4
Two hydrogen atoms are removed from ethanol and one oxygen atom is added to the same molecule. So this reaction is
considered to be an oxidation reaction.
Q.9. A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of ethyne and air is not
used?
Ans: When a mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt it produces a large amount of heat [nearly 3300OC] which is used for
welding. Air consists of four volume of nitrogen and one volume of oxygen and so the heat produced when ethyne is
burnt with air may not be sufficient for welding purpose.
Q.!0. How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid?
Ans: LITMUS TEST
When a drop of ethanoic acid is put on the blue litmus paper it is changed to red but ethanol cannot make any change in
the colour of the litmus paper.
SODIUM BICARBONATE TEST [CHEMICAL TEST]
If sodium bicarbonate is added to ethanol then there will be no change. If sodium bicarbonate is added to ethanoic acid
then it forms brisk effervescence due to the release of carbon dioxide.
C2H5OH + NaHCO3 ------→ No reaction
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ------→ CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Q.11. What are oxidizing agents?
Ans: The substances which can add oxygen to another compound or which can remove hydrogen from another compound
is called oxidizing agent.
e.g. Alkaline KMnO4, Acidified K2Cr2O7
Q.12. Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent?
Ans: A detergent would be unable to check whether the water is hard or not because detergent forms good lather with
both soft water and hard water. The salt formed by the hard water with detergent is soluble in water and so id will not
affect the formation of lather.
Q.13. People use a variety of methods to wash clothes. Usually after adding the soap, they ‘beat’ the clothes on a
stone, or beat it with a paddle, scrub with a brush or the mixture is agitated in the washing machine. Why is
agitation necessary to get clean clothes?
Ans: Agitation is helpful to loosen the attraction between the dirt and the fibre such that the dirt can be easily removed.
The agitation induces the hydrophilic head parts of the soap molecules such that they move towards water during which
the attraction between the dirt and the fibre is overcome.

NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q.1. Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in CH3Cl.
Ans: The Chloro methane [CH3Cl] molecule has one carbon, three hydrogen and one chlorine atom. The atomic number
of carbon atom is 6 and so its electronic configuration is 2,4. Since it has four valence electrons it is very difficult for the
carbon atom to attain the octet configuration either by gaining or losing 4 electrons. The only possibility is to share with
four atoms. Carbon atom shares three electrons with three hydrogen atoms and one electron with chlorine atom. So
chloroform molecule has four single covalent bonds and it is a covalent molecule. The electron dot structure for
chloroform molecule is drawn as follows:
C ------→ 6 ------→ 2,4 (+4e-)
H ------→ 1 ------→ 1 (+1e-)
Cl ------→ 17 ------→ 2,8,7 (+1e-)
Q.2. Draw the electronic structures for
a) Ethanoic acid b) H2S c) Propanone d) F2
Ans:

Q.3. What is an homologous series? Explain with an example.

Ans: A series of compounds in which the members present have the same functional group, same chemical properties and
any two successive members in a particular series differ in their molecular formula by a ̶ CH2 group and 14U in their
molecular mass is called homologous series.
e.g. CH3OH - Methanol
CH3CH2OH - Ethanol
CH3CH2CH2OH - Propanol
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH - Butanol
1. All these compounds have the same functional group namely ( ̶ OH) alcohol group.
2. Their chemical properties are similar.
3. Any two successive members differ by a ̶ CH2 group and a mass of 14U.
So it is called alcogol homologous series.
Q.4. How can ethanol and ethanoic aid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and chemical properties?
Ans:
LITMUS TEST
When a drop of ethanoic acid is put on the blue litmus paper it is changed to red but ethanol cannot make any change in
the colour of the litmus paper.
SODIUM BICARBONATE TEST [CHEMICAL TEST]
If sodium bicarbonate is added to ethanol then there will be no change. If sodium bicarbonate is added to ethanoic acid
then it forms brisk effervescence due to the release of carbon dioxide.
C2H5OH + NaHCO3 ------→ No reaction
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ------→ CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Q.5. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water? Will a micelle be formed in other
solvents such as ethanol also?
Ans: Micelle formation takes place when soap is added to water because the hydrophobic tail part of soap molecule gets
attached with dirt. When soap is added to other solvents like ethanol there will be no formation of micelle. Other solvents
do not have water and so the soap molecules cannot form micelle.
Q.6. Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
Ans: Most carbon compounds release a large amount of heat and light and so they are used as fuels in many applications.
Q.7. Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
Ans: The ions which are responsible for the hardness of water are calcium and magnesium ions. These ions react with the
soap molecules and form the salts which are insoluble in water. These insoluble salts are called ‘scum’. The formation of
scum does not enhance the formation of lather and so a large amount of soap is to be used. Detergents also react with
these hard water ions but they are soluble in water and so they do not form scum.
Q.8. What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus (red and blue)?
Ans: If the soap is tested with red litmus then it will be changed to blue but there will be no change in the blue limus. It
confirms that soap is a basic substance.
Q.9. What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
Ans: The process of converting unsaturated hydrocarbons into saturated hydrocarbons by passing hydrogen gas through it
in the presence of a catalyst is called ‘hydrogenation’.
This reaction is used to convert the unsaturated vegetable oils into saturated vegetable fat in the presence of nickel
catalyst.

Q.10. Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions:

C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4
Ans: C3H6, and C2H2 undergo addition reactions as they are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Q.11. Give a test that can be used to differentiate chemically between butter and cooking oil.
Ans: Butter is a saturated compound and cooking oil is an unsaturated compound. When bromine is added to butter the
bromine colour of bromine water remains as such because there is no addition reaction between butter and bromine water.
When bromine water is added to cooking oil the brown colour is decolourised due to the addition reaction of bromine
water and cooking oil.
Butter + Bromine water ------→ No reaction.
Cooking oil + Bromine water ------→ Dibrominated cooking oil.
Q.12. Explain the mechanism of the cleansing action of soaps.
Ans: 1. A soap molecule consists of two parts.
2. The head part is ionic part and is hydrophilic in nature.
3. The tail part is the hydrocarbon part and is hydrophobic in nature.
4. The dirt is nothing but the oil or grease on which dust is deposited.
5. When the dirty cloth is soaked in soap water the hydrophobic part of soap molecule gets attached with the dirt.
6. A three dimensional arrangement of soap molecule which is formed around the dirt is known as ‘micelle’.

7. All hydrophilic [head] parts are facing towards the water.

8. When the dirty cloth is agitated the hydrophilic head part of soap molecule slowly moves towards water.
9. This results in the movement of micelle.
10. So the dirt which is also attached with the tails is also removed.