Module 1

1.1 Underground Construction

Underground structures refer to constructions that are built beneath the Earth's surface,
either partially or entirely. These structures serve a wide range of purposes, from transportation
and utilities to storage, shelter, and research. Designing and constructing underground structures
requires careful consideration of factors such as geology, engineering, safety, and environmental
impact. Tunnels, subway and metro systems, underground parking garages, underground storage
and transportation facilities are some examples of underground structures.

Tunnel shafts are vertical passages that connect the ground surface to the tunnel roof. Shafts have
many advantages and are used in constructing tunnels. When the position and course of the
tunnel are correctly aligned and accordingly set out on the surface, shafts are sunk at defined
points on the tunnel line to aid tunneling operations.

1.2 Types of Shafts

1. Inclined Shafts

These shafts are used when the shaft depth is less. The excavation of such shafts proceeds
in the upward direction. The excavated material falls downward and is removed from the tunnel.
The removal of muck by gravity is achieved by using a suitable gradient of 45 degrees or less.

2. Vertical Shafts

This type of tunnel shaft is usually easier and more economical to excavate when
compared to the inclined shaft. In some cases, a pilot shaft is first driven upward before the shaft
is excavated to the full section in the downward direction. Then, the pilot shaft is used for
mucking out—the widening of the shaft to full-size proceeding downwards.

3. Circular Shafts

These shafts are usually circular and are lined with pre-stressed steel liner plates or
concrete.
Types of Tunnel Shafts based on Nature of Soil

1. Shafts in rock/hard soil

2. Shafts in soft ground
1.3 Tunnel-Shaft construction

1. Drilling of Shaft

The center cut or pyramidal cut pattern of drill holes is adopted in soil consisting of rocks
or in hard soil. For shafts in soft shallow soils, an open excavation is adopted to a suitable depth
at the given location. In the case of large shafts, the stepping method is employed to facilitate
mucking and drilling simultaneously.
2. Mucking

The mucking process is carried out by hand, and the soil is loaded into buckets, and
lifted. However, two buckets could be used so that one descends as the other rises.

The explosive charge should be controlled so that the blasted pieces in the tunnel weigh between
9 kg and 90 kg for easy handling. Mucking loader is also used in case the size of the shaft is big.

3. Timbering

Though there is generally no horizontal pressure exerted, timbering is necessary to carry

guides for the cages and support lagging in rock shafts. Lagging is used to avoid small pieces of
rock from breaking loose and falling on and injuring workers.

4. Pumping

Shafts are usually wet due to the groundwater table. The wet seams are sealed off by
cement grouting. A "sinking pump" is used when pumping is necessary to drain the excess water
logged in the shaft. The pump must be disconnected and hoisted up before commencing blasting.

5. Raising
 If the rock is hard and strong, shafts are also "raised" from the tunnel heading instead of
sunk from above. This has the advantage that the blasted muck drops into the tunnel, and
pumping will not be necessary.

1. Shallow Shaft

For shafts in soft shallow soils, an open excavation is adopted to a suitable depth at the
given location.

1. Two timber sets are placed at the proper interval and braced with a diagonal piece of
timber.

2. The sheeting consisting of 1.5 inches to 3-inch thick board is placed around the sets and
kept in position by the backfilling.

3. The sheets are driven into the ground, and simultaneous digging below the sheets is
carried out, ensuring that the sheets are kept vertical.

4. The frames are correctly strutted and wedged after this first sheeting set is entirely driven.

5. A slight benching or margin is given, and the second stage of excavation is commenced
and completed similarly.

6. The timber sets should be located and fixed at pre-designed depths to withstand the side
pressures as sheets are driven.
2. Deep Shafts

A modified system of vertical fore-polling is implemented where the shaft depth is more.
Short poling sheets of 5 ft to 6 ft are used and driven flaring out from timber sets, and the sheets
are kept in the position by double wedges.

1.4 Tunnel driving in hard and soft strata

Hard Strata

1. Equipment: Tunneling machines like tunnel boring machines (TBMs) or roadheaders are
often used. These machines are designed to handle the high resistance of hard rock.
 2. Drilling and Blasting: In some cases, controlled blasting may be necessary to break up
the rock before excavation. This requires careful planning to ensure safety and minimize
vibrations.
3. Support Systems: Immediate rock support systems (e.g., shotcrete, steel sets, rock bolts)
are critical to prevent collapse. The geological conditions need to be continuously
monitored.
4. Groundwater Management: Hard strata may have lower permeability, but groundwater
can still pose risks. Proper drainage and water management techniques must be
employed.

Soft Strata

1. Excavation Techniques: Soft ground can be excavated using various methods, including
open-cut, cut-and-cover, or using soft-ground TBMs. The choice depends on the depth
and environmental conditions.
2. Stabilization: Ground stabilization techniques like grouting, soil mixing, or the use of
ground anchors may be necessary to support the tunnel walls and prevent ground
movement.
3. Support Systems: More flexible support systems, such as prefabricated liners or
continuous support, are often required to manage the potential for deformation.
4. Soil Behavior: Soft ground may exhibit significant plasticity or flow, so understanding
soil behavior under load is crucial for maintaining tunnel stability.

General Considerations

 Geotechnical Investigation: Comprehensive geological and geotechnical assessments

are essential before beginning tunneling to understand the strata and select appropriate
methods.
 Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of ground movements and tunnel conditions is vital
in both hard and soft strata to address issues promptly.
 Safety Protocols: Given the risks associated with both types of strata, stringent safety
protocols must be in place to protect workers and the surrounding environment.
1.5 Micro Tunneling

Micro tunneling is a specialized method of underground construction that allows for the
installation of small-diameter tunnels without the need for large surface excavation. Here’s an
overview of the key aspects:

Key Features of Micro Tunneling

1. Equipment:
o Micro Tunnel Boring Machines (MTBMs): These are used to excavate the
tunnel while simultaneously installing a pipe or casing. They are typically smaller
than traditional TBMs and designed for diameters ranging from about 4 inches to
48 inches (100 mm to 1,200 mm).
o Remote Operation: MTBMs are often remotely operated, allowing for precise
control in difficult underground conditions.
2. Process:
o Boring: The MTBM bores through the soil or rock, creating a tunnel.
o Pipe Installation: As the MTBM advances, it installs the lining (usually pipe
sections) in a continuous process, which minimizes the disturbance of
surrounding soil.
o Face Control: The machine can maintain pressure at the tunnel face to prevent
collapses and manage groundwater ingress.
3. Applications:
o Micro tunneling is commonly used for the installation of utilities such as sewer
lines, water pipes, and electrical conduits, especially in urban areas where
minimizing surface disruption is critical.
4. Advantages:
o Minimal Surface Disruption: Because the method is largely underground, there
is less impact on the surface environment, making it ideal for urban areas.
o Reduced Traffic Disruption: Less excavation means fewer road closures and
disruptions for residents and businesses.
 o Precision: The ability to navigate around existing infrastructure with minimal
disturbance.
5. Challenges:
o Soil Conditions: The method relies on understanding the geotechnical conditions.
Soft soils, rock, or unstable ground can pose challenges.
o Cost: While it can reduce surface disruption, the technology and equipment can
be expensive, which may increase overall project costs.
6. Monitoring:
o Continuous monitoring of ground conditions and the operation of the MTBM is
crucial to ensure safety and maintain alignment throughout the boring process

1.6 Soil excavation and Compaction Technology

Soil excavation and compaction are crucial processes in construction and civil engineering,
ensuring the stability and integrity of structures. Here’s an overview of the technologies and
methods involved:

Soil Excavation

1. Methods of Excavation:
o Mechanical Excavation: Using heavy machinery like excavators, backhoes, and
bulldozers. This is common for larger projects where speed and efficiency are
required.
o Hand Excavation: Involves manual tools for small-scale projects or in tight
spaces where machinery cannot operate.
o Hydraulic Excavation: Uses high-pressure water jets to loosen soil before
removal, often used in soft or saturated soils.
o Auger Boring: A rotating drill removes soil, useful for creating holes for
foundations or utility installations.
2. Excavation Technologies:
o GPS and Laser Systems: These technologies enhance precision in excavation
depth and alignment, ensuring that excavation meets design specifications.
 o Drones and 3D Scanning: Used for surveying and monitoring excavation sites,
providing real-time data on progress and soil conditions.
3. Safety Considerations:
o Regular monitoring of the site for stability and potential hazards (e.g., cave-ins).
o Use of protective systems like trench boxes or shoring in deeper excavations.

1.7 Soil Compaction

1. Compaction Methods:
o Static Compaction: Involves heavy rollers or plates applying steady pressure to
compact the soil.
o Dynamic Compaction: Involves dropping a heavy weight from a height to
densify the soil through impact.
o Vibratory Compaction: Uses vibration to rearrange soil particles, increasing
density; commonly used with vibratory rollers and plates.
2. Types of Compaction Equipment:
o Rollers: Including smooth drum rollers, padfoot rollers, and trench rollers, each
suited for specific soil types and applications.
o Tamping Machines: Compact soil by repeatedly pressing down on it; useful for
granular soils.
o Plate Compactors: Portable devices ideal for compacting small areas, such as
around foundations or in trenches.
3. Compaction Technologies:
o Moisture Content Control: Monitoring and adjusting soil moisture content
before compaction is critical for achieving optimal density.
o Density Testing: Techniques like nuclear density gauges or sand cone tests are
used to ensure the required compaction levels are achieved.
4. Benefits of Compaction:
o Increases soil strength and load-bearing capacity, essential for building
foundations and roadways.
o Reduces settlement and improves drainage, minimizing future maintenance issues
 Module 2

Under water construction

2.1 Problems encountered in excavation

Excavation is a critical phase in construction and civil engineering, but it can present various
challenges and problems. Here are some common issues encountered during excavation:

1. Soil Conditions

 Unforeseen Soil Types: Encountering unexpected soil conditions (e.g., rocky, sandy, or
clayey soils) can complicate excavation.
 Weak or Unstable Soil: Loose or saturated soil may lead to collapses or sloughing,
posing risks to workers and equipment.

2. Water Ingress

 Groundwater Issues: High water tables can lead to flooding of the excavation site,
making it difficult to work and compromising stability.
 Surface Water Runoff: Rainwater can accumulate in excavated areas, requiring
effective drainage solutions.

3. Ground Movement

 Subsidence or Settlement: Excavation can cause adjacent ground to settle or shift,

potentially damaging nearby structures.
 Cave-Ins: Inadequate shoring or bracing can lead to dangerous collapses in deeper
excavations.

4. Environmental Concerns

 Contaminated Soil: Encountering contaminated soil or hazardous materials requires

specialized handling and disposal procedures.
  Erosion and Sedimentation: Excavation can lead to soil erosion, affecting nearby water
bodies and ecosystems.

5. Utilities and Infrastructure

 Underground Utilities: Unexpectedly encountering buried utilities (water, gas,

electricity) can cause service interruptions and safety hazards.
 Existing Structures: Proximity to existing buildings or infrastructure can complicate
excavation efforts and increase the risk of damage.

6. Weather Conditions

 Extreme Weather: Rain, snow, or high winds can delay excavation work and create
unsafe conditions.
 Temperature Variations: Cold weather can affect material handling and equipment
performance.

2.2 Underwater drilling and blasting,

Underwater drilling is a specialized technique used in various applications, including

construction, oil and gas exploration, environmental assessments, and scientific research. Here’s
an overview of the key aspects of underwater drilling:

Applications

1. Oil and Gas Exploration:

o Used to drill for hydrocarbons beneath the seabed. Offshore platforms and drill
ships are equipped with advanced drilling rigs for deepwater exploration.
2. Marine Construction:
o Involves drilling for foundation piles, underwater structures, or bridges. This
includes work for docks, marinas, and other waterfront facilities.
3. Environmental Studies:
o Used for sampling sediments and assessing underwater ecosystems. This can help
in studies of pollution, habitat conditions, and geological formations.
 4. Scientific Research:
o Underwater drilling is crucial for geological and oceanographic studies, including
the extraction of core samples from the ocean floor.

Techniques

1. Conventional Drilling:
o Uses traditional rotary drilling rigs adapted for underwater conditions. These may
include drill ships or fixed platforms.
2. Suction Drilling:
o A method that employs a suction system to draw sediments into a drill pipe. It's
often used in softer seabed conditions.
3. Auger Drilling:
o Involves a rotating helical screw to bore into the seabed. This technique is suitable
for shallow depths and softer materials.
4. Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs):
o Equipped with drilling tools, ROVs can operate in challenging environments,
allowing for precise drilling in difficult-to-reach areas.
5. Dredging:
o While primarily used for sediment removal, dredging can also facilitate drilling
operations by clearing the area and providing access to the seabed.

Equipment

1. Drilling Rigs:
o Specialized rigs designed for underwater operations, including floating rigs
(semisubmersibles, drill ships) and fixed rigs (platforms).
2. Subsea Tools:
o Tools and equipment designed to operate underwater, including drill bits, casing
systems, and blowout preventers (BOPs) for safety.
3. Monitoring and Control Systems:
 o Advanced systems for real-time monitoring of drilling parameters, seabed
conditions, and equipment status.

2.3 Grouting methods in soft and hard soil including Jet grouting and chemical grouting

Grouting is a technique used to improve soil properties, fill voids, and stabilize structures.
Different grouting methods are employed based on soil conditions, including soft and hard soils.
Here’s an overview of key grouting methods, including jet grouting and chemical grouting:

Grouting Methods

1. Jet Grouting

 Description: Jet grouting involves injecting a high-pressure grout (a mixture of cement,

water, and additives) into the soil using a special drill. The process creates soil-cement
columns by eroding and mixing the surrounding soil with the grout.
 Applications: Used for ground stabilization, excavation support, and foundation
improvements. It's effective in soft to medium soils.
 Process:
o Drilling: A drilling rig with a jet grouting tool is used to create holes in the soil.
o Injection: Grout is injected at high pressure, eroding and mixing with the soil.
o Column Formation: As the grout is injected, it displaces the soil, creating a
solidified column as it sets.
 Advantages:
o Can be used in varied soil conditions.
o Minimizes soil disturbance and maintains surrounding structure integrity.
o Produces strong, reliable soil-cement columns.

2. Chemical Grouting

 Description: Chemical grouting involves injecting chemical solutions that react with soil
or groundwater to form a solid mass. Common chemicals include polyurethane, sodium
silicate, and acrylate.
  Applications: Used for groundwater control, reducing permeability, and improving soil
strength, often in soft or loose soils.
 Process:
o Injection: The chemical solution is injected into the soil under controlled
pressure.
o Reaction: The chemicals react with soil particles or water to form a gel or solid
mass, stabilizing the ground.
 Advantages:
o Effective in sealing and stabilizing soils with high permeability.
o Rapid setting time and can be used in limited-access areas.
o Reduces water flow and enhances load-bearing capacity.

Other Grouting Methods

3. Cement Grouting

 Description: Traditional cement grouting involves injecting a cement-based grout into

the ground to fill voids and improve soil properties.
 Applications: Commonly used in both soft and hard soils for void filling, stabilization,
and consolidation.
 Process:
o Grout is mixed and pumped into pre-drilled holes or voids.
o Can be used in combination with pressure grouting techniques.

4. Compaction Grouting

 Description: This method involves injecting a thick, low-slump grout into the soil to
displace and compact surrounding soil.
 Applications: Effective for soil densification, particularly in loose or granular soils.
 Process:
o Grout is injected at low pressure, compacting the soil as it flows into voids.
2.4 Dewatering in shallow and deep excavations using different methods

Dewatering is a critical process in construction and excavation that involves removing water
from the ground to create a dry work environment. The methods used can vary significantly
based on the depth of the excavation and the surrounding soil and groundwater conditions.
Here’s an overview of dewatering techniques for shallow and deep excavations.

Dewatering in Shallow Excavations

Shallow excavations typically involve depths less than 10-15 feet and can often be managed with
simpler methods. Common techniques include:

1. Gravity Drainage
o Description: Using trenches or ditches to direct surface water away from the
excavation site.
o Applications: Effective for managing surface water runoff, especially in areas
with minimal groundwater.
2. Well Points (Dewatering Wells)
o Description: A series of small-diameter wells installed around the excavation
site, where water is pumped out to lower the groundwater level.
o Applications: Suitable for shallow excavations, especially in sandy or loose soils.
3. Sump Pumps
o Description: Temporary pumps placed in the excavation to remove accumulated
water.
o Applications: Often used for small excavations or areas where water infiltration
is minimal.
4. Interceptor Drains
o Description: Installing trenches or drains to intercept and redirect groundwater
away from the excavation.
o Applications: Common in shallow excavations near water bodies or high water
tables.
2.5 Dewatering in Deep Excavations

Deep excavations require more advanced techniques due to higher groundwater pressures and the
risk of soil instability. Methods include:

1. Deep Well Pumping

o Description: Installing deep wells that can pump water from significant depths to
lower the groundwater level around the excavation.
o Applications: Suitable for deep excavations in varying soil types, especially
where high groundwater levels are present.
2. Bentonite Slurry Walls
o Description: Creating a wall of bentonite clay slurry to prevent water inflow into
the excavation. The slurry wall can be used to form a barrier that limits
groundwater movement.
o Applications: Effective in controlling water inflow for very deep excavations,
especially in unstable soils.
3. Cofferdams
o Description: Temporary structures built to keep water out of the excavation area.
These can be made of steel sheet piles, concrete, or earthen materials.
o Applications: Used in deep excavations near bodies of water or where substantial
groundwater inflow is expected.
4. Soil Freezing
o Description: Temporarily freezing the soil around the excavation to create a solid
barrier against water inflow.
o Applications: Effective in deep excavations, particularly where groundwater is
under pressure and in sensitive areas where minimal disturbance is required.
5. Continuous Grout Curtains
o Description: Injecting grout into the soil around the excavation to create a barrier
that reduces groundwater flow.
o Applications: Used in deep excavations to manage water inflow effectively,
especially in permeable soils.
2.6 Vacuum Dewatering

Overview: Vacuum dewatering is a technique used to remove excess water from soils or
construction sites using vacuum pressure. It is particularly effective in fine-grained soils where
water is held tightly within the soil matrix.

Key Features:

1. Process:
o A series of wells or pipes are installed around the excavation site.
o A vacuum pump creates a low-pressure environment, drawing water from the soil
into the pipes.
o This method effectively reduces pore water pressure, allowing the soil to
consolidate and gain strength.

2. Applications:
o Used in construction projects where ground stabilization is necessary, such as for
foundations, roadways, and embankments.
o Particularly beneficial for sites with high water tables or saturated fine-grained
soils.

3. Advantages:
o Rapid dewatering and soil consolidation.
o Minimizes soil disturbance compared to other methods.
o Effective for controlling groundwater levels in sensitive environments.

4. Limitations:
o Requires careful monitoring to avoid excessive soil drying, which can lead to soil
instability.
o Initial setup can be more complex and expensive than traditional methods.

Well Point System

Overview: The well point dewatering system is a common method for lowering the groundwater
level around excavations. It involves a series of small-diameter wells equipped with perforated
pipes (well points) that are connected to a pump.

Key Features:

1. Process:
o A series of well points are installed at strategic locations around the excavation
site, typically 10-15 feet apart.
o These well points are connected to a vacuum or centrifugal pump.
o The pump draws water from the well points, lowering the groundwater level and
creating a dry work environment.

2. Applications:
o Suitable for shallow to moderate depth excavations, particularly in sandy or
gravelly soils.
o Commonly used in construction, mining, and environmental remediation projects.

3. Advantages:
o Effective in managing groundwater levels and preventing flooding during
construction.
o Can be adjusted or expanded based on changing site conditions.
o Relatively simple to install and operate.

4. Limitations:
o Less effective in clay or silt soils where water may not flow freely to the well
points.
o Requires continuous monitoring and maintenance of the pump and well points