12.

Wave Optics

I. MALUS’ LAW

THEORY
Natural light (sunlight, fluorescent lamp) is usually unpolarized. If natural light
is incident on the linear polarizer as in Fig. 1, the only component parallel to the
transmission axis of the linear polarizer will be transmitted. Fig. 1 shows that the
unpolarized light is firstly incident on the linear polarizer, the transmitted light is
secondly incident on the other polarizer (analyzer), and finally the intensity of the
transmitted light is analyzed by the detector.
The only component parallel to the transmission axis of the analyzer will be
allowed to be transmitted. If the angle between the transmission axis of the polarizer
and analyzer is θ and the electric field transmitted from the linear polarizer is E1 , the
electric field of the transmitted light will be E1 cos θ .
Now, we rotate the transmission axis of the analyzer and measure the irradiance
(average energy per unit area per unit time) of the transmitted light from the analyzer.
Since the irradiance is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the electric field,
the irradiance I (0) of the transmitted light from the polarizer is proportional to E12
and irradiance I (θ ) leaving the analyzer is proportional to E12 cos 2 θ . This can be
simply expressed as Eq. (1) and called as Malus’ law.

I (θ ) = I (0) cos 2 θ . (1)

METHODS
1. Observe the variation of the light intensity while rotating the transmission axis.

2. Write down the angle at which the light disappears.

Fig. 1.
II. SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION

THEORY
When the plane wave of light is incident on the narrow slit of width a , the
diffraction pattern is shown in opaque screen B . We simply calculate the position at
B where the first dark fringe appears. First, we divide the slit into two zones of equal
width a / 2 , as shown in Fig. 2. We extend to P1 a light ray r1 from the top point of
the top zone and a light ray r2 from the top point of the bottom zone. A central axis is
drawn from the center of the slit to screen C , and P1 is located at an angle θ to that
axis.
The all points within the slit are in phase. When the light waves of r1 and r2
reach point P1 , then they are out of phase by λ / 2 (remember that P1 is the first
position of the dark fringe at B ) because the light wave r2 travels a longer path than
r1 . If we assume D >> a , then we can approximate that two rays are parallel and the
path difference between the two rays will be (a / 2)sin θ .
We can repeat this analysis for any other pair of rays in the two zones. Each
such pair of rays has the same path difference λ / 2 . Therefore, the position of the first
dark fringe is simply described as shown below:

(a / 2)sin θ = λ / 2,
(2)
a sin θ = λ (first minimum) .

We can find the second dark fringe above and below the central axis as we
found the first dark fringes, except that we now divide the slit into four zones of equal
width a / 4 , as shown in Fig. 3. We then extend rays r1 , r2 , r3 , and r4 from the top
points of the zones to point P2 , the location of the second dark fringe above the central
axis. The path differences between r1 and r2 and between r3 and r4 are each equal
to λ / 2 . For D >> a , we can approximate these four rays as being parallel and the
path difference will be a / 4sin θ . The position of the second dark fringe is described as
shown below:

a / 4sin θ = λ / 2, (3)
a sin θ = 2λ (second minimum).

We can continue this analysis for the third, fourth, or any number of dark
fringes. The general equation can be expressed as shown below:

a sin θ = mλ , (4)

for m = 1, 2, 3, … (minima) , and the intensity is given by

  sin α 
2
(5)
I = Im   ,
 α 

where α = (π a / λ )sin θ , and I m = the intensity of the center bright fringe. Eq. (5)

shows that the ratio a / λ determines the shape of the diffraction.

METHODS
1. Cut a slit 1 m from the screen.

2. Make the laser light illuminate into the slit and observe the diffraction which
appears on the screen.

3. Write down the shape and the brightness of the diffraction while varying the slit
width.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
III. CIRCULAR APERTURE DIFFRACTION

THEORY
Here, we consider diffraction by a circular aperture of diameter d , such as a
circular converging lens. Fig. 4 shows the image of a distant point source of light
formed on a photographic film placed in the focal plane of a converging lens. This
image is not a point, but a circular disk surrounded by several progressively faint
secondary rings. As shown in Eq. (5), the ratio d / λ determines the scale of the
diffraction pattern.
The first minimum for the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture of diameter
d is given by

sin θ = 1.22λ / d . (6)

The main difference from Eq. (2) is the factor 1.22, which exists because of the circular
shape of the aperture.

METHODS
1. Cut a slit 1 m from the screen.

2. Make the laser light be incident on the slit and observe the diffraction pattern shown
on the screen.

3. Observe the change of the diffraction pattern while varying the shape of the slit.

4. Observe the change of the diffraction pattern while varying the size of the aperture.

Fig. 4.
IV. YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT

THEORY
In Young’s double slit experiment, they assumed that slits were narrow
compared to the wave length of the light illuminating them; that is a << λ ( a =
width of the slit). For such narrow slits, the interference of light from the two slits
produces bright fringes with approximately the same intensity.
In practice with visible light, however, the condition a << λ is often not met.
For relatively wide slits, the interference of light from two slits produces bright fringes
that do not all have the same intensity. In fact, their intensity is modified by the
diffraction of light through the slit. As an example, Fig. 5(a) shows the double slit fringe
pattern that would occur if the slits were infinitely narrow; all the bright interference
fringes have the same intensity. Fig. 5(b) shows the diffraction pattern of an actual slit:
the broad central maximum and one weaker secondary maximum. Fig. 5(c) shows the
resulting interference pattern of the two slits. The pattern is found by using the
diffraction curve of Fig. 5(b) as an envelope on the intensity curve in Fig. 5(a). The
position of the fringe is not modified; only the intensity is affected.
With diffraction effects are taken into account, the intensity of a double slit
interference pattern is given by

 sin α 
2
(7)
I = I m (cos β ) 
2
 ,
 α 

where β = (π d / λ )sin θ , and α = (π a / λ )sin θ . Here, d is the distance between the

centers of the slits and a is the slit width. The factor cos 2 β is entered due to the

interference effect of the two slits and the factor (sin α ) / α is entered due to the
diffraction effect of the slit.

METHODS
1. Make the laser light illuminate the center positions of the two slits and observe the
diffraction pattern on the screen.

2. Observe the change of the diffraction pattern while varying the width of the slit.

3. Observe the change of the diffraction pattern while varying the distance between the
two slits.
 Fig. 5.

V. INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION BY MULTIPLE SLITS

THEORY
A logical extension of a double slit interference experiment is to increase the
number of slits from two to a larger number N . An arrangement like of the one in
Fig. 6, usually involving more slits is called a diffraction grating.
A sharply defined bright fringe will occur when d sin θ , which is the path
difference between rays from adjacent slits in Fig. 7, is equal to an integer of wave
length.

d sin θ = mλ , (8)

for 𝑚𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … (maxima).
METHODS
1. Observe the diffraction pattern shown on the screen.

2. Observe the change of the diffraction pattern while varying the number of slits.

Fig. 6.

V. NEWTON’S RING

THEORY
If the two pieces of glass are forced together as a point, as might be done by
pressing on them with a sharp pencil, a series of concentric, nearly circular, fringes is
formed around that point. Known as Newton’s ring, this pattern is more precisely
examined with the arrangement of Fig. 7. The amount of uniformity in the concentric
circular pattern is a measure of the degree of perfection in the shape lens. With R as
the radius of curvature of the convex lens, the relation between the distance x and the
film thickness d is given by

x 2 = R 2 − ( R − d ) 2 = 2 Rd − d 2 . (9)

Since R >> d , this becomes x = 2 Rd . If the reflected light E1 and E2 have a path
2

difference of (m + 1/ 2)λ , the bright fringe occurs. (Notice the 180∘ relative phase
shift between internally and externally reflected light.)

Path difference of mth bright fringe = 2d = (m + 1/ 2)λ . (10)

Combining the last two expressions, the radius of the bright fringe ring is given by

1
X=
m [(m + )λ R]1/2 . (11)
2
METHODS
1. Observe the interference pattern.

2. Write down the radius of the first and second bright rings and compare it with the
theoretical values.

E2 E1

Fig. 7.

VI. HOLOGRAPHY
The procedure to make the hologram is shown in Fig. 9. The object light is
incident on the object and scattered into the film which is very sensitive to light. A
second light, known as the reference beam, also illuminates the film. Therefore, the
interference between the two lights occurs in the film, and the interference pattern is
developed on the film. After this, if the same light from the reference beam, called a
reconstruction beam, illuminates the film, the light is diffracted by the grating formed in
the film. The diffraction pattern depends on the interference pattern developed on the
film. The effect of the diffraction is to reconstruct the image of the object. An observer
looking into the other side of the film can see the image of the object.

Fig. 8.