energies

Review
Comprehensive Analysis and Evaluation of the Operation and
Maintenance of Offshore Wind Power Systems: A Survey †
Cheng Yang 1, * , Jun Jia 1 , Ke He 1 , Liang Xue 1 , Chao Jiang 1 , Shuangyu Liu 2 , Bochao Zhao 3 , Ming Wu 4
and Haoyang Cui 1, *

1 College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power,

Shanghai 201306, China; jiajun@mail.shiep.edu.cn (J.J.); ke.he2357@gmail.com (K.H.);
xueliangokay@gmail.com (L.X.); jiangchao@shiep.edu.cn (C.J.)
2 Shanghai Guoyun Information Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201210, China;
liushuangyu@gocloud.cn
3 School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China;
bochaozhao@tju.edu.cn
4 China Electric Power Research Institute, State Grid Corporation of China, Beijing 100192, China;
wuming@epri.sgcc.com.cn
* Corresponding authors: cheng.yang@shiep.edu.cn (C.Y.); cuihy@shiep.edu.cn (H.C.)
† This paper is an extended version of our paper published in ACPEE 2023 Conference, Jia, J.; Yang, C.; Cui, H.;
Wu, M.; Shao, J.; Zhao, B.; He, K. Systems and Challenges in Operation and Maintenance of Offshore Wind
Power: A Review. In Proceedings of the 2023 8th Asia Conference on Power and Electrical Engineering
(ACPEE), Tianjin, China, 14–16 April 2023; pp. 1407–1412. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACPEE56931.2023.10135790.

Abstract: Offshore Wind Power Systems (OWPS) offer great energy and environmental advantages,
but also pose significant Operation and Maintenance (O&M) challenges. In this survey, we analyze
these challenges and propose some optimization strategies and technologies for OWPS comprehen-
sively. The existing literature review mainly focuses on a certain field of offshore wind power O&M,
but lacks a comprehensive introduction to offshore wind power. We consider the energy efficiency,
reliability, safety, and economy of OWPS from various aspects, such as offshore wind and wave
energy utilization, offshore wind turbine components, and wind power operation parameters, and
Citation: Yang, C.; Jia, J.; He, K.; Xue,
L.; Jiang, C.; Liu, S.; Zhao, B.; Wu, M.;
compare them with onshore wind power systems. We suggest that OWPS can benefit from advanced
Cui, H. Comprehensive Analysis and design optimization, digital twin, monitoring and forecasting, fault diagnosis, and other technologies
Evaluation of the Operation and to enhance their O&M performance. This paper aims to provide theoretical guidance and practical
Maintenance of Offshore Wind Power reference for the technological innovation and sustainable development of OWPS.
Systems: A Survey. Energies 2023, 16,
5562. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: offshore wind power; O&M; systems and challenges; optimization methods and strategies;
en16145562 wind turbine components; digital twin technology
Academic Editor: José António
Correia

Received: 4 July 2023 1. Introduction

Revised: 16 July 2023
Offshore wind farms offer a promising avenue for generating clean and low-carbon
Accepted: 20 July 2023
energy rapidly. Several countries, such as the European Union and the United Kingdom,
Published: 23 July 2023
have adopted ambitious net-zero plans to decarbonize their economies by 2050 [1]. Ref. [2]
examined the main features of offshore wind projects in Europe that are operational or
under development (e.g., countries, installed capacity, number of turbines, water depth,
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. project area, distance offshore, transmission technology, and investment costs). They
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. reported that offshore wind in Europe has expanded at an average annual rate of 36.1%
This article is an open access article since 2001. There are currently 76 offshore wind projects in European waters with a
distributed under the terms and cumulative installed capacity of 7748 MW and an additional 3198 MW under construction.
conditions of the Creative Commons Despite having a larger carbon footprint than onshore wind projects, offshore wind
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// projects have almost achieved similar Energy Payback Periods (EPP) due to increased re-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ newable electricity production resulting from better wind resources [1]. The offshore wind
4.0/).

Energies 2023, 16, 5562. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145562 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 5562 2 of 39

power industry has to overcome various obstacles and seize potentials, such as marine geo-
logical survey, floating foundation design, flexible DC transmission technology, intelligent
O&M, standardization, parity, and research and development [3]. First, marine geological
surveys are conducted to better determine the site selection, design, and construction of
wind farms. The second is the floating foundation design, a structure that can float on the
surface of the water in the deep water area and is connected to the wind turbine, called
the floating foundation. The third is the flexible DC transmission technology, which is an
efficient, low-loss, and easy-to-control transmission technology. Intelligent operation and
maintenance refer to the use of digital, intelligent, automation, and other technologies to
achieve real-time monitoring, fault diagnosis, predictive maintenance, and other functions
of wind turbines and other equipment.
Before implementing an offshore wind power project, it is necessary to evaluate its
technical and economic feasibility, whether the project can operate stably technically and
is economically cost-effective [4]. Ref. [5] proposed a design model for offshore wind
power plants that can be derived from either a systematic theoretical analysis based on
a comprehensive understanding of the system dynamics or a systematic experimental
analysis using identification methods. The factors affecting the cost of offshore wind power
were studied, scenarios with different wind turbine capacities and wind farm sizes were
set up, and then the average electricity price under each scenario was calculated using a
technical economic model [6].
Offshore Wind Turbines (OWT) are broadly divided into stationary and floating types,
and Floating Wind Turbines (FWT) can overcome the environmental impact and cost
constraints of Conventional Stationary Wind Turbines (CSWT) [7]. Strong winds and
wave effects combine to shock OWT, creating vibration, fatigue, and heavy loads on the
structure and other components of the wind turbine. From a control point of view, cost
reduction can be achieved by operating the turbine close to its optimal operating point in
the partial load, ensuring reliability by reducing the structural load, and regulating the
power generated under strong wind conditions [8,9]. Economically, the support structure
affects the cost of system balances and O&M. The purpose of cost reduction can be realized
by operating the turbine close to its optimal operating point in partial load. The cost of
the support structure and environmental factors significantly impact the energy parity
level of offshore wind power [10]. Life-Cycle Engineering Services (LCES) is a method of
evaluating and optimizing the O&M of wind turbines. A generic LCES method has been
proposed, and a case study of an offshore wind farm gearbox has been presented [11]. A
life-cycle cost analysis framework of offshore wind farms has been developed to help wind
farm developers reduce costs of the medium to long term [12].
Historically, the approach to maintenance has been purely passive, and there is a
shift towards a more active, condition-based approach to maintenance [13]. Offshore wind
farms need better methods of O&M to improve economics and sustainability [14]. Some
researchers have proposed a method of Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM) that can
predict and prevent failures based on operational data [15]. Two different maintenance
strategies have also been introduced, one predictive and the other prescriptive. They also
explain how to optimize the maintenance measures to make them more suitable for the
actual situation. Although existing models have been able to help formulate maintenance
strategies, we still need to apply more advanced mathematical methods, include input
uncertainties, and consider more influencing factors [16]. The uncertainty of failures has
led to increasing scientific interest in how to deal with offshore wind farm failures in recent
years [17]. The O&M of OWT covers strategic selection, plan optimization, site operation,
repair, evaluation criteria, recycling, and environmental issues. Several approaches have
been summarized and compared, and limitations in OWT operations and maintenance
research and deficiencies in industrial development have been described [18]. The existing
gaps, needs, and challenges in the industry have been analyzed to guide research and
innovation to facilitate the development of the offshore wind industry [19].
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 3 of 39

The important role of condition monitoring instruments in improving the reliability

and efficiency of offshore wind farms has been reviewed, as well as the trends and chal-
lenges of automation and digital transformation that the offshore maintenance industry
is facing [20]. The application of data-driven technology in offshore asset management
has been discussed, especially the latest progress and value calculation of digital twin
technology in the optimization of offshore wind farm O&M [21]. The application of artifi-
cial intelligence technology in the field of wind energy includes the application of various
intelligent algorithms and decision-making technologies in wind turbine design, control,
fault diagnosis, prediction, and optimization [22]. The main challenges and future re-
search directions of offshore wind farm maintenance management include maintenance
strategy selection, path optimization solution, maintenance scheduling decision model
establishment, etc.
Regarding the environmental and economic impacts of offshore wind farms,
refs. [23,24] include case studies in Brazil, China, and Aland Islands, as well as com-
parisons between offshore and onshore wind farms. It mainly analyzes the following
aspects: environmental impact, economic benefits [25], life-cycle generation and energy
and environmental footprint, construction scale and solutions [10], and possibilities and
options for sustainable energy systems. Related impact categories include fossil fuels and
respiratory inorganic substances [26]. A preliminary analysis has been made on the impact
of operators, treatment objects, and living and artificial environment objects of a 2 MW
wind power plant on the possible increased profits and reduced costs of compensation for
damage to the system, environment and people [5].
To reduce the cost of offshore wind and improve profits, offshore wind farms should
be expanded in size and number. At the same time, wind farms should change their opera-
tional strategy from power maximization to profit maximization and reduce interference
between wind turbines by utilizing wind farm flow control technology. To better evaluate
the value of wind farm flow control technology, more advanced models need to be used,
considering different price and system demand scenarios [14].
At present, most of the review articles are a review and summary of certain research
content related to offshore wind farms. e.g., offshore wind turbine performance or fail-
ure monitoring forecast [15,22,27–31], the vibration of gear wear monitoring [27], and
refs. [13,16,18,20,32] reviewed the types and characteristics of operation, scheduling and
maintenance strategies required by offshore wind farms, as well as the related technologies
of wind farm transmission and grid connection [33,34].
Instead, this paper provides a comprehensive review and analysis of the various
research content involved in offshore wind power. Compared with our previous work [35],
the number of literature citations in this paper is more than four times that of it, the
content of the review is richer and clearer, and the current situation of research content and
technology development is interpreted in more detail. The main contributions of this paper
are as follows:
• This paper comprehensively analyzes the challenges and optimization strategies of
offshore wind power system operation and maintenance and analyzes the energy
efficiency, reliability, safety, and economy of offshore wind power systems from
the aspects of offshore wind and wave energy utilization, offshore wind turbine
components, digital twin technology, operation and maintenance, and transmission
and grid connection.
• This paper summarizes several solutions to improve the operation and maintenance
performance of offshore wind power systems, including advanced design optimiza-
tion, digital twin technology, monitoring and forecasting, fault diagnosis, and other
technologies, and puts forward some directions and suggestions for reference.
• This paper aims to provide theoretical guidance for the technological innovation and
sustainable development of offshore wind power systems.
• This review can be used as a practical reference for researchers and practitioners in
the field of offshore wind power system operation and maintenance.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 4 of 39

The writing idea of this paper is based on the process of offshore wind farm power
generation, operation, and maintenance to transmission and grid connection, as shown
in Figure 1. Sections 2–6 comprehensively analyze and evaluate the offshore wind power
system from different perspectives and levels, covering the problems and methods of
offshore wind and wave energy utilization, offshore wind turbine components, digital
twin technology, O&M, technological innovation, and sustainable development. These five
sections are closely related and interactive, and they support, complement, and influence
each other. For example:
• The use of optimized methods and strategies for offshore wind and wave energy can
improve the performance and life of components of OWT, reduce their costs and risks,
and thus improve the economy and reliability of OWPS;
• Technologies and methods for optimizing components of OWT can improve the
application effect and value of digital twin technology in OWPS, thereby improving
the intelligence level of OWPS;
• The application of digital twin technology in OWPS can improve the efficiency and
reliability of O&M, thereby improving the stability and life of OWPS;
• The systems and challenges of O&M can promote technological innovation and sus-
tainable development of offshore wind systems, thereby enhancing the important
role and value of offshore wind systems in the future energy transition and low
carbon development;
• Technological innovation and sustainable development can promote the development
and innovation of methods and strategies for optimizing the use of wind and wave
energy at sea, thereby improving the diversity and inclusiveness of the system.

Distribution network
Centralized
Maintenance
control
vessel

Data

Wind turbine
cluster

Voltage reduction

Onshore substation
Offshore substation

Boost voltage

Figure 1. Offshore wind farm to power user process.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. We review the state-of-the-

art works on OWPS in the above five aspects in Sections 2–6, respectively. The content
framework of these five chapters is shown in Figure 2. We discuss this in Section 7. Finally,
we conclude this paper in Section 8.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 5 of 39

Figure 2. Framework of the full paper.

2. Optimization of Offshore Wind and Wave Energy Utilization

The ocean is the largest reservoir of renewable energy resources on the earth, which
contains huge wind, wave, tidal and current energy, and other forms of energy. Offshore
wind and wave energy utilization refers to the use of OWT and wave energy converters and
other devices to convert wind and wave energy in the ocean into electricity, which has the
advantages of being clean, efficient, and sustainable, and is one of the important directions
of future energy transformation. However, offshore wind and wave energy utilization also
face many challenges, such as the complexity and badness of the marine environment, the
inefficiency and instability of power conversion and transmission, and the high cost and
high risk of system construction and O&M. Wind energy resources and their utilization
were evaluated by analyzing wind speed probability distribution, average wind speed,
average wind energy density, effective utilization time of wind energy, and wind power
output ratio [36]. Therefore, how to optimize the technology and strategy of marine wind
and wave energy utilization and improve its economy and reliability is the hot and difficult
point of current research.
This section aims to comprehensively analyze and summarize their main contents and
contributions to the optimization of marine wind and wave energy utilization, analyze
the correlation and differences between them, point out the current research gaps and
deficiencies, and propose some feasible methods and strategies to optimize the utilization
of marine wind and wave energy, including power converter, ocean-atmospheric boundary
layer, Offshore Pumped Storage (OPS), rotary energy harvesting, fault-tolerant control,
energy storage concept, wave energy converter, etc.

2.1. Sea Wind and Wave Utilization Optimization

The various aspects of optimizing the utilization of wind and wave energy at sea can
be divided into the following categories:
• Power converters: [37] provided a comprehensive overview of power converters
used in high-power wind turbines, analyzing key challenges and potential solutions
for improving system efficiency, reducing costs, and enhancing flexibility. A fault-
tolerant control strategy based on reconfiguration control was proposed to improve
the reliability of parallel converters in permanent magnet synchronous generator wind
power generation systems [38].
• Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer (MABL): An experimental platform for charac-
terizing the structure and dynamics of the MABL was presented to support offshore
wind energy research [39]. The platform includes an unmanned aerial system, a
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 6 of 39

weather tower system, and a remote sensing system that can provide MABL data with
high spatiotemporal resolution.
• OPS: A predictive operation strategy based on an event-triggered Model Predictive
Control (MPC) approach was proposed to achieve the complementary power of OPS
and real-time offshore waves [40]. This strategy can effectively smooth output power
fluctuation and improve the operation efficiency of the OPS system. Similar to the
concept of energy storage, Ref. [41] discussed the use of wind energy in low wind
speed areas to provide microgrid solutions for offshore oil and gas platforms to
improve the timeliness of wind energy utilization.
• The application of rotary energy harvesting technology in the field of self-powered
sensing was reviewed in detail in [42]. Its performance characteristics at different
scales, frequency ranges, and operating modes were analyzed, and its application in
rotary machines and renewable energy systems was discussed.
• Energy storage concept: A novel offshore wind energy storage concept was proposed,
whereby excess wind power is stored in underwater spherical tanks through com-
pressed air and released through turbines to meet demand [43]. This concept can
significantly reduce rated power costs and improve system stability. The studied
Reversible Solid Oxide Cell (rSOC) system is compatible with the auxiliary system
requirements of 2.3 MW wind turbines and can cover the auxiliary needs during wind
speed shortages or maintenance [44].
• Wave energy converter: [45] evaluated the potential for offshore wind and wave energy
utilization on a global scale and compared differences across regions and seasons. The
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a tidal stream power generation array composed of
multiple underwater vehicles was carried out to analyze its performance in terms of
environmental impact, resource consumption, and economic benefits [46]. Strategies
to improve the sustainability of Wave Energy Converters (WEC) and offset their high
initial capital expenditures are explored, including technological innovation, strategy
support, and social engagement [47].

2.2. The Offshore Wind and Wave Energy Utilizes Optimized Methods and Strategies
Combined with the previous analysis on the optimization of wind and wave energy
utilization at sea, this paper summarizes some corresponding feasible methods and strate-
gies to optimize the utilization of wind and wave energy at sea through the investigation
of the literature:
• Power converter: The power converter is the core component of the offshore wind
and wave energy utilization system, and its performance directly affects the efficiency,
cost, and flexibility of the system. To improve the performance of the power converter,
the following methods can be used:
(a) Selection of appropriate topologies and control strategies to accommodate differ-
ent types of generators and loads and to improve the power density, efficiency,
and reliability of the converter [37];
(b) The use of modular, integrated, and intelligent technologies to reduce the volume,
weight, and heat dissipation requirements of the converter, and improve the
maintainability and fault tolerance of the converter [37];
(c) Multi-stage, multi-port, and multi-function technologies are utilized to achieve
collaborative control between converters and to improve the flexibility and com-
patibility of converters [37].
• MABL: The MABL is the operating environment of the offshore wind and wave energy
utilization system, and its structure and dynamics have an important impact on the
output power, stability, and lifetime of the system. To improve the characterization of
MABL, the following methods can be used:
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 7 of 39

(a) A variety of platforms and means such as unmanned aerial vehicles, meteoro-
logical towers, and remote sensing are used to obtain MABL data with high
spatiotemporal resolution, and perform data fusion and analysis [39];
(b) Use physical models, numerical simulation, machine learning, and other methods
to establish accurate and real-time MABL prediction models, and conduct model
validation and optimization [39];
(c) Use MABL data and models to guide the siting, design, control, and operation
of offshore wind and wave energy utilization systems and to evaluate their
performance under different MABL conditions [39].
• OPS: OPS is a technology that uses water pressure differences for energy storage and
release, which can effectively smooth the output power fluctuations of offshore wind
and wave energy utilization systems and improve the operational efficiency of the
system. To improve the performance of OPS, the following methods can be used:
(a) Select suitable energy storage media (such as air, water, or liquid metal) to im-
prove energy storage density, efficiency, and safety [40];
(b) Select suitable energy storage structures (such as spherical tanks, cylindrical tanks,
or underwater caves) to reduce energy storage costs, risks, and environmental
impacts [40,43,48].
(c) Advanced control methods such as predictive control and event-triggered control
are utilized to realize the power complementary between OPS and real-time
offshore waves, and to optimize the operation strategy of the OPS system [40].
• Rotational energy harvesting: Rotational energy harvesting is a technology that uses
rotational motion to generate electrical energy, which provides a continuous and
reliable power source for self-powered sensors in offshore wind and wave energy
utilization systems. To improve the performance of rotational energy harvesting, the
following methods can be used:
(a) Select an appropriate energy harvesting mechanism (such as electromagnetic
induction, piezoelectric effect, electrostatic induction, etc.) to adapt to rotational
motion at different scales, frequency ranges, and operating modes [42];
(b) Techniques such as multi-physical field coupling, non-linear vibration, and bi-
stable state are used to improve the output power and frequency bandwidth of
the rotating energy collector [42];
(c) Technologies such as energy management, power matching, and load regulation
are utilized to improve the electrical matching and synergy between the rotating
energy collector and the self-powered sensor [42].
• Energy storage concept: The concept of energy storage refers to the use of different
physical or chemical principles for energy storage and release technology, which can
effectively improve the economy and reliability of offshore wind and wave energy
utilization systems. To improve the performance of the energy storage concept, the
following approaches can be adopted:
(a) Select suitable energy storage media (such as compressed air, underwater vehicles,
or liquid metals) to improve energy storage density, efficiency, and safety [43,48].
(b) Select suitable energy storage structures (such as underwater spherical tanks,
underwater caves, or underwater reservoirs) to reduce energy storage costs, risks,
and environmental impacts [43,48];
(c) Optimization algorithms, multi-objective planning, and other technologies are
used to achieve optimal matching and coordinated control between the energy
storage concept and the offshore wind and wave energy utilization system [43,48].
• Wave energy converter: A wave energy converter is a device that uses wave motion
to generate electricity, which can effectively use the abundant wave resources in the
ocean and complement OWT. To improve the performance of wave energy converters,
the following methods can be used:
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 8 of 39

(a) Select suitable wave energy conversion mechanisms (such as oscillating water
columns, point absorbers, or underwater vehicles, etc.) to adapt to different types
and strengths of waves [45–47];
(b) The use of non-linear vibration, bi-stable, chaos, and other technologies to im-
prove the output power and frequency bandwidth of the wave energy con-
verter [45–47];
(c) The use of array layout, phase control, power regulation, and other technologies
to improve the synergy between wave energy converters and the overall effi-
ciency [45–47].
These methods and strategies design, analyze, evaluate, and optimize the marine
wind and wave energy utilization system from different angles and levels, involving many
factors such as system components, operating environment, storage mode, and conversion
efficiency. They not only show the progress and achievements of offshore wind and wave
energy utilization technology in recent years, but also reveal the problems and challenges in
theoretical models, experimental verification, engineering implementation, and other aspects.
In the future, there are still many directions and challenges worth further research in the
optimization of marine wind and wave energy utilization, such as:
• How to comprehensively design, model, control, and evaluate multiple types of
marine renewable energy collaborative utilization systems, such as mixed wind–wave–
tidal current systems;
• How to systematically compare and analyze the optimization performance of offshore
wind and wave energy utilization systems at different scales (such as individual
devices, arrays, or regions), different scenarios (such as normal operation or fault
conditions), and different objectives (such as maximum power or minimum cost);
• How to comprehensively assess and optimize the sustainability of offshore wind and
wave energy utilization projects taking into account social and economic factors (such
as job creation, community participation, etc.);
• How to improve the intelligence level of marine wind and wave energy utilization
systems based on big data analysis and artificial intelligence technology.
The explicit methodologies employed in the process of the optimization of sea wind
and wave energy utilization are selection of appropriate topology and control strategy,
energy storage medium, and energy storage structure; and the use of various platforms and
means such as drones, meteorological towers, and remote sensing, non-linear vibration,
bi-stable state, chaos, and other technologies, and advanced control methods such as
predictive control and event-triggered control. These key technologies can guide the siting,
design, control, and operation of offshore wind and wave energy utilization systems and
evaluate their performance under different ocean-atmosphere boundary layer conditions.
They can also help offshore wind energy and wave energy utilization systems improve
their economy and reliability, reduce their costs and risks, and enhance their flexibility and
compatibility. They can promote the innovation and development of offshore wind energy
and wave energy utilization technology and enhance its important role and value in future
energy transformation and low-carbon development.

3. Optimization of Components of OWT

The main components of OWT include blades, generators, transmissions, towers,
support structures, etc. In this paper, these components and related technical methods of
offshore wind turbines are reviewed in detail, and the general composition of the wind
turbine is shown in Figure 3. However, the design of OWT faces many challenges, such
as complex design parameter space, different operating requirements and environmental
conditions, and high construction and maintenance costs. To overcome these challenges,
advanced optimization techniques are needed to improve the performance and lifetime of
the components of OWT, balancing power generation efficiency and structural reliability.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 9 of 39

Figure 3. Framework of components of offshore wind turbine.

3.1. The Main Components of Offshore Wind Turbines

Blades are one of the core components of wind turbines, which directly bear wind
loads and convert wind energy into mechanical energy. The design of the blade needs to
consider its geometry, material selection, structural strength, aerodynamic performance,
noise control, and other factors [49]. Based on numerical simulation, the variation law
of blade angle of attack of floating OWT under different yaw conditions is studied, and
corresponding suggestions are given [50]. The bending moment at the bottom of the tower
and the root of the blade of an offshore wind turbine is also measured by the strain-electric
method [51]. Ref. [52] indicated that the blade mode plays an important role in capturing the
part of the torque dynamic higher than 1.5 Hz. Ref. [53] reviewed the atmospheric driving
factors of wind turbine blade front erosion and proposed suggestions for future research.
Offshore wind power generation technology is one of the foundations and key points
of offshore wind power technology, involving structure design, performance analysis,
control strategy, fault diagnosis, etc. The effects of different types, sizes, temperatures, and
faults on the performance and reliability of generators [54,55] have also been discussed.
Additionally, the advantages and design suggestions of new generator technologies, such
as silicon carbide MOSFETs [56], high-temperature superconductivity excited double-stator
direct-drive wind turbine [57], permanent magnet synchronous generator [58–61] (Ref. [62]
proposed E-type modularization), hydraulic transmission [63], etc. (for example, analysis
of mechanical characteristics [59]), and their corresponding analysis and evaluation have
been carried out.
The transmission is one of the important components of the wind turbine, which
connects the blades to the generator and regulates the speed ratio and torque transfer. The
design of the transmission needs to consider its working mode, gear type, transmission
efficiency, fault detection, and other factors. A fault-tolerant single-paddle control method
based on predictive repetitive control was proposed in Ref. [64] for floating OWT, which
effectively suppressed transmission torque fluctuations and improved system stability.
Gear wear monitoring and prediction techniques based on vibration signals were reviewed
in Ref. [27], and their application prospects in OWT were analyzed. In Ref. [65], flexible
dynamic modeling and analysis were carried out on the transmission chain of floating
OWT, and the influencing factors under different working conditions were considered.
The tower is one of the main supporting components of the wind turbine, which carries
the entire wind turbine system and is connected to the supporting structure. The design
of the tower needs to consider its height selection, section form, material consumption,
structural stiffness, and other factors. Ref. [66] analyzed the influence of three-legged
suction bucket foundations on the dynamic characteristics of offshore wind turbine towers
through full-scale tests, and gives corresponding suggestions. In Ref. [67], an acceleration
sensor and data acquisition system were used to monitor the structural vibration of an
offshore wind turbine tower, and its modal parameters were identified by the operational
modal analysis method. Based on the finite-element method, ref. [51] analyzed the impact
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 10 of 39

of ship collision on the load of offshore wind turbine tower structure, and provided
corresponding evaluation methods.
The support structure is one of the main supporting components of OWT, which
connects the tower with the seabed or floating body and bears complex and variable en-
vironmental loads [68]. The design of the support structure needs to consider its type
selection, topology optimization, reliability analysis, and other factors to improve its
performance and life and reduce its cost and risk. The optimal design of wind turbine
support structure is an important research topic, which involves many techniques and
methods. Some literature has reviewed and summarized the research in this aspect, such
as Refs. [69,70]. In other literature, specific optimization schemes have been proposed,
and numerical simulation or experimental verification has been carried out, such as in
Refs. [71–73]. These optimizations take into account the reliability of the support struc-
ture, topological shape, load conditions, multi-objective performance, and other factors to
improve the efficiency and lifetime of the offshore wind turbine and reduce its cost and risk.
The above describes the information on the components of offshore wind turbines and
discusses the current research status and optimization methods of these components. A
brief Figure 4 of an intuitive offshore floating wind turbine and its components is presented.

Actuating
shaft
Blade
Gearbox
Anemoscope

Control cabinet

Alternator

Tower barrel

Floating base

Figure 4. Structure diagram of offshore floating wind turbine.

At present, the most widely used Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) is due to
its efficient, reliable, and easy-to-control characteristics. However, when we need a wind
turbine that can adapt to changing winds, is easy to maintain, and has a simple structure,
then the Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) may be a suitable choice. The VAWT has
some potential advantages over HAWT that could make it suitable for offshore wind power
scenarios. For example, the VAWT’s small size allows electrical components to be installed
close to the water surface, reducing the difficulty and cost of construction, transportation,
and maintenance. In addition, the VAWT is insensitive to wind direction and requires no
complex yaw control system to adjust the direction of the turbine. Vawts also typically
operate at a lower Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR) and therefore may produce less noise [74,75]. On
the other hand, the VAWT also faces some challenges and limitations, such as low power
conversion efficiency, large structural loads, and dynamic stall phenomena. Therefore, in
order to improve the application potential of VAWT in offshore wind power generation, it
is necessary to optimize the design of its blade geometry, rotation speed, array layout, etc.,
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 11 of 39

and consider its interaction with the marine environment and turbulent flow field. The
spiral blade studied in [76] is one possible optimization that can reduce the time variability
of torque and power, and reduce noise levels.
Digital twin technology is a technology that uses digital models and data analysis to
simulate and predict the behavior and performance of real physical systems [77,78], which
has wide application potential in the design, monitoring, maintenance, and other aspects of
offshore wind turbine support structures. In recent years, some studies have reviewed and
summarized the research in this field, pointing out existing problems and future directions,
such as uncertainty modeling, data quality, computational efficiency, etc. [79]. Some other
studies have proposed specific application cases and carried out numerical simulation or
experimental verification, such as predictive management system [80], uncertain fatigue
analysis [81], reliability update [82], virtual sensor [83], etc. Weibull distributions were used
to describe the failure time of individual components to reflect their degradation properties,
and Monte Carlo simulations were used to assess the reliability, availability, and O&M
costs of FOWT systems [84]. These studies demonstrate the potential and value of digital
twin technology in improving the efficiency and reliability of support structures for OWT.
The optimization techniques and characteristics found in the literature for components
of OWT are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Optimization technology and characteristics of components of OWT.

Technique Characteristic
Flexible, efficient, and innovative, but needs to consider the
Topology optimization method manufacturability of the structure, reliability,
multi-purposeness, and other factors
Intelligent, efficient, and visible, but requires the creation of
Digital twin technology accurate and real-time digital models, as well as the processing
of large and complex data
Saves costs, improves accuracy, and enhances robustness, but
Virtual sensor you need to choose a suitable and efficient estimation
algorithm, as well as ensure data quality and model accuracy
Distributed, parallel, self-organizing, but requires the design of
Multi-Agent approach a reasonable and efficient agent structure, coordination
mechanism, and communication protocol
Accurate, efficient, and versatile, but factors such as cell type,
Finite-element method
mesh division, and boundary conditions need to be considered

3.2. Progress and Future Directions

We can also think about the progress and prospects of some researchers in the diversi-
fied support structure, dynamic wake-up management, and multidisciplinary design and
analysis optimization of offshore wind power. Refs. [10,85] studied the possibility of using
a multi-element fixed-base structure to replace the single-pile support structure in future
American offshore wind power plants, analyzed the impact of such changes on system
balance and O&M cost, and pointed out the importance of reducing energy parity level.
Ref. [86] reviewed the progress of dynamic wake-up management for offshore wind farms
and analyzed its impact on energy harvesting and load reduction. Ref. [87] reviewed the
application of multidisciplinary design analysis and optimization framework in floating
offshore wind turbine design and pointed out existing problems and future directions.
The optimization of components of OWT is an important research topic that involves
many problems and methods. Ref. [69] reviewed the research progress and future direc-
tion in this field and pointed out the challenges and problems in optimization models,
algorithms, objectives, constraints, uncertainties, and reliability [88,89]. Some novel opti-
mization methods have been proposed in the literature, including the integrated method
(combining fluid mechanics method and mathematical model) [73], the buoyancy balance
control technique [90], the multi-agent method [91], the integer programming model [92],
etc. They have been used to solve the problems of array layout, wake-up interference [93],
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 12 of 39

O&M, and transportation and installation [92,94] of OWT, and corresponding analyses and
evaluations have been carried out.

4. Monitoring and Forecasting of Wind Power Operation Parameters

Wind power operation parameter monitoring and forecasting also face some chal-
lenges and problems, such as:
• The prediction of a wind speed or wind power is very difficult because the wind
speed or wind power is affected by meteorological conditions, terrain characteristics,
seasonal changes, and other factors, and has the characteristics of randomness, un-
certainty, and non-linear, which brings difficulties to the operation and scheduling
of wind power generation system. A comprehensive approach was proposed that
combines climate model data, resource impact analysis, and energy system modeling
to assess the impact of climate change on energy systems [95].
• The fault diagnosis of a wind power system or its components is difficult because the
wind power system or its components are affected by harsh environments, complex
loads, a variety of faults, and other factors, with diversity, complexity, and concealment
characteristics, which brings difficulties to the maintenance and security of wind
power systems.
• The control of the wind power generation system or its components is difficult because
the wind power system or its components are affected by a variety of objectives,
constraints, control technologies, and other factors, with the characteristics of multi-
objectives, multi-constraints, and multi-technologies, which brings difficulties to the
optimization and safety of wind power generation system.
A wind power system is made up of multiple subsystems, and any one of these
subsystems can fail or become abnormal, resulting in reduced performance or loss of
downtime. According to [96], common failure modes include blade cracking, gearbox
bearing damage, transmission slip ring wear, generator winding short circuit, converter
switch failure, etc. These failure modes can be caused by a variety of reasons, such as
material aging, load fluctuations, temperature changes, humidity effects, corrosion erosion,
etc. To detect and identify these fault modes in time, it is necessary to carry out condition
monitoring and fault diagnosis for wind power generation systems.
To solve these challenges and problems, the wind power system needs to be effectively
predicted, diagnosed, and controlled. This section classifies and summarizes the diagnostic,
control, and forecasting literature related to wind power generation, and analyzes the
advantages, disadvantages, and challenges of each study.

4.1. Wind Power Generation Fault Diagnosis Class

Condition monitoring refers to the observation of individual components of a wind
power system to identify changes in operation that may be indicative of developing failures.
Condition monitoring methods rely primarily on the analysis of specific measurement and
operational aspects (e.g., vibration analysis, strain measurement, thermal imaging, and
acoustic emission). A power curve Health Value (HV)-based approach was used to identify
and prioritize low-performance Wind Turbines (WTS) [97]. Different data sets were also
utilized to validate the applicability of HV methods for detecting short- and long-term
power curve anomalies, predicting failures and outages, and monitoring performance
degradation. The innovation of [98] is that it combines qualitative analysis and quantitative
analysis to propose a reliable, economical, and robust condition monitoring and decision-
making method. A low-cost and high-efficiency wind turbine condition monitoring method
based on Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) data was proposed [99]. The
methods presented in these three papers can effectively monitor the status of wind turbines
and reduce maintenance costs and risks.
Wind power fault diagnosis is to locate and identify anomalies or faults of the wind
power system or its components based on condition monitoring to determine the type,
location, and extent of the fault. Fault diagnosis of wind power generation can improve
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 13 of 39

the reliability and safety of wind power generation systems and reduce O&M costs. Wind
power generation fault diagnosis methods are mainly divided into two categories: model-
based methods and data-based methods, each of which has advantages and disadvantages.
The process of fault diagnosis of a wind power system or its components can be
clearly understood from Figure 5. The model-based fault diagnosis method first establishes
the physical model or mathematical model of the offshore wind power system or its
components to describe its operating characteristics and dynamic behavior under normal or
fault conditions. Then, the measured data after pre-treatment are input into the established
physical model or mathematical model, the model output is calculated, and the residual
or deviation is calculated by comparing it with the measured data. The residual error
or deviation is analyzed to determine whether it exceeds the set threshold or tolerance
range; if so, it is considered that there is an anomaly or fault, and the corresponding
alarm signal is output. Finally, the diagnostic results were evaluated according to four
indexes: accuracy, real-time, robustness, and interpretability. The data-based approach
focuses on collecting historical or online data on offshore wind systems or their components,
including temperature, pressure, rotational speed, power, vibration, and other parameters.
Based on the existing rule base or historical data and expert opinions, determine the
cause and impact of anomalies or failures, and output the corresponding maintenance or
control recommendations.

Fault
diagnosis
method

Model-based approach A data-based approach

Build a physical or mathematical Analyze historical data

model of a system or component or expert advice

Compare the measured data with Build normal or abnormal patterns

the model output for a system or component

accuracy Fault interpretability

diagnos
is result

real-time robustness

Wind power generation system

scheduling and operation
optimization

Figure 5. Fault diagnosis flow chart of offshore wind farm.

The power electronic system in the offshore wind power system mainly includes the
power converter, back-to-back converter and wind energy converter of the wind turbine,
etc. The failure of this equipment will affect the performance and safety of the wind
power system. A large number of statistical studies have pointed out that the fault of the
power converter is the main cause of the fault shutdown of the turbine system [33]. The
main steps of fault diagnosis in power electronic systems are signal acquisition, feature
extraction, feature fusion, and fault classification. Different fault diagnosis methods employ
different techniques and algorithms in these steps to improve the accuracy, robustness,
and efficiency of diagnosis, for example, Dempster–Shafer and Deng entropy fusion multi-
scale approximate entropy (DSDEMAE) [100], intelligent fault diagnosis method based
on knowledge and data driven [101], Long Short-Term Memory Network (LSTM) [102],
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 14 of 39

Multivariate Empirical Mode Decomposition (MEMD), Fuzzy Entropy (FE), and Artificial
Fish Swarm Algorithm (AFSA)–Support Vector Machine (SVM) [103].
DSDEMAE uses multi-scale approximate entropy to extract the features of the fault
signal, and then uses Dempster–Shafer theory and Deng entropy to fuse the features of
different scales, which effectively deal with the uncertainty and conflict between different
features [100]. In [103], MEMD is used to decompress the three-phase output voltage signal
synchronously and extract the common mode with the same time scale. Then, FE is used
to calculate the complexity of each mode as the fault feature. Finally, AFSA is used to
optimize the SVM parameters to realize the identification of fault types. The research of
Refs. [101,102] focuses on the open-circuit fault. The method proposed in [101] is used
to detect and locate the open-circuit fault of IGBT in the three-phase power electronic
energy conversion system. Then, the data-driven method (random forest algorithm) is
used to train the fault diagnosis classifier, which has the ability to adapt to different loads.
The fault diagnosis method based on the Long Short-Term Memory Network (LSTM)
in [102] is used to detect multiple open-circuit switch faults of back-to-back converters in a
doubly-fed induction generator wind power system. All four papers show some advanced
fault diagnosis methods for power electronic systems, each with its own advantages and
limitations, which can be selected and combined according to different application scenarios
and requirements.
According to [30,104–114], we can learn about some of the latest methods of wind
power generation fault diagnosis. These cover the latest wind power generation fault
diagnosis methods. Let us make a comprehensive analysis of their characteristics: First,
Ref. [30] indicated that the use of machine learning in fault detection, diagnosis, and
prediction is a promising approach to improving the reliability and efficiency of wind
turbines. Secondly, Ref. [104] used the Gaussian Process Algorithm (GPA) to estimate
operating curves and key variables to optimize power performance and detect critical
failures of wind turbines. Ref. [114] focused on the condition monitoring of the gearbox,
and uses envelope analysis technology to detect and locate faults, thereby improving
the reliability of the fan. In addition, Ref. [112] used Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
(FMEA) methods to improve the reliability and safety of OWT. Furthermore, Ref. [115]
discussed the power change rates of co-located offshore wind farms and wave energy farms
and their effects on system stability. Finally, based on the vibration characteristics of the
wind turbine power chain, a condition monitoring and fault diagnosis method based on
frequency domain analysis was proposed in [114] to effectively detect the faults of bearings,
gearboxes, and blades.
Taken together, these methods include the use of reinforcement learning, GPA, SCADA
data and non-parametric models, power spectral density analysis, FMEA methods, etc., to
improve the performance, reliability, and safety of wind power generation systems, and to
achieve this through condition monitoring and fault diagnosis. In summary, we can see that
wind power generation fault diagnosis is a field involving a variety of sensors, a variety
of signal processing, and a variety of diagnostic technologies, with high complexity and
challenge. With the progress of sensor technology, signal processing technology, artificial
intelligence technology, and other aspects, more and better fault diagnosis methods for
wind power generation are expected to appear in the future. Different types of fault
diagnosis methods have their advantages and disadvantages, and appropriate methods
should be selected according to actual engineering requirements and system conditions [33].

4.2. Wind Power Generation Control Class

Wind power generation control refers to adjusting the speed of the fan, blade angle,
or overall direction according to the change in wind speed or wind power, to achieve the
optimal or safe operation of the wind power generation system. Wind power generation
control can be divided into two goals: one is to optimize control, that is, to maximize
the power coefficient of the fan under the rated power, to improve the utilization rate of
wind energy. A detailed investigation was carried out on the turbulence effect existing
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 15 of 39

in the operation of the offshore wind power fleet [116], and the downstream wind power
generation loss was caused by the turbulence effect. The other is limiting control; that
is, when the rated power is above, the output power of the fan is limited to protect the
fan from overload or fatigue damage. The purpose of limiting the rate of change of wind
power generation is to produce more stable electricity [117]. Control strategies used to
enforce restrictions, including the use of energy storage systems or direct control of wind
turbines, are designed to reduce costs and reduce energy waste. The power fluctuations of
wind turbines significantly affect the lifetime of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
modules. Ref. [9] proposed a new IGBT thermal management strategy to obtain the best
economic benefits.
Wind power generation control methods are mainly divided into two categories:
model-based methods and data-based methods [28,116]. A model-based approach requires
building a mathematical model of a wind power system or its components and using
techniques such as feedback or prediction to design the controller and adjust the control
inputs according to the control objectives. Model-based methods have a theoretical basis
and physical significance, but require accurate and complete mathematical models, and may
be affected by noise, interference, uncertainty, and other factors. For example, Ref. [118]
proposed a robust control strategy based on MPC and Spatial Vector Modulation (SVM).
Data-based approaches do not require mathematical modeling but rather use historical
or real-time data to learn control strategies and leverage techniques such as optimization or
search to adjust control inputs. Data-based methods do not rely on mathematical models,
but on the actual data, and can handle non-linear and high-dimensional data, but they
require enough high-quality data and may have problems such as overfitting or insufficient
generalization ability. Ref. [119] used the data-driven control method of Bayesian. The
ascent algorithm proves that it has the potential to be used for real-time wind farm control.
A passive fault-tolerant control method is summarized in [28]; that is, the response is made
by the data collected by the monitoring device and the preset fault control mechanism. In
the absence of unexpected failures, the failure of the turbine can be effectively reduced,
although there will be some performance degradation.
In Refs. [120–125], some of the latest research results and development trends were
mainly introduced. These involve wind turbine control strategy, optimization control,
digital framework, reliability and fault cost modeling, digital twin application, load distri-
bution, and mooring line management. Four different control strategies were introduced
in [125], namely, sliding mode controller, PI neural network controller, reverse thrust con-
troller, and H-FL controller, all of which take generator torque as the control input and rotor
angular speed tracking as the control target to achieve the optimal power coefficient. The
paper compares the performance of these control strategies in terms of energy capture and
robustness and finds that the reverse thrust controller has the highest efficiency, but the
control signal fluctuates more, while the H-FL controller has the lowest efficiency, but the
torque is smoother. An optimal control strategy is also introduced for the co-positioning
of wind farms and wave fields to meet the requirements of power system operators [120].
This control strategy can increase power production, reduce power fluctuations, and im-
prove the power reserve of the system. A wind farm MPC is also proposed to optimize
load distribution to extend wind turbine life, taking into account wake effects, as well as
the effects of fluid dynamics on floating systems [124]. The controller can satisfy power
generation and load distribution, and reduce system stress.
We can see that wind power generation control is a field involving a variety of objec-
tives, a variety of constraints, and a variety of control technologies, with high complexity
and challenge. With the progress of mathematical modeling technology, artificial intelli-
gence technology, optimization search technology, and other aspects, more and better wind
power generation control methods are expected to appear in the future.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 16 of 39

4.3. Wind Power Forecasting Class

Wind power generation prediction refers to the estimation of a wind speed or wind
power in the future period based on historical data or real-time data, using mathematical
models or machine learning methods, and the prediction and evaluation of possible faults
that may occur or worsen in the future based on fault diagnosis. Fault prediction methods
mainly use historical data or real-time data to build prediction models, and use regression or
classification techniques to predict the remaining life or failure probability. Fault prediction
can help you make a reasonable and effective maintenance plan to avoid resource waste
or loss caused by early or late maintenance. Wind power generation forecasts can be
divided into different time scales, such as ultra-short-term (e.g., 15 min, 30 min ago), short-
term (days before), medium-term (weeks, months before), and long-term (more than a
month before). Different time scales correspond to different application scenarios, such
as scheduling, trading, planning, etc. The accuracy of wind power forecasting is of great
significance for improving the economy and reliability of wind power systems and reducing
the uncertainty and stability of the power grid.
Wind power generation prediction methods are mainly divided into two categories:
physical methods and machine learning methods. The physical approach is based on
numerical weather prediction models that use meteorological data and geographic informa-
tion to predict wind speed or wind power over some time in the future. Physical methods
are suitable for medium- and long-term forecasting, but require significant computational
resources and expertise. Ref. [126] mentioned that there is no single optimal model setup to
accurately simulate all events. The combination of physical parameterizations is observed
to play an important role in model sensitivity. The use of scale-aware physical parameteri-
zation shows the potential for better performance but is largely driven by a combination of
model physics and event types. The statistical method is based on historical data or real-
time data [127], and uses techniques such as time-series analysis [31] or regression analysis
to establish the relationship between wind speed or wind power and other variables [7],
and makes predictions based on this relationship.
The machine learning method is based on artificial intelligence technology, using
neural networks, support vector machines, fuzzy logic, and other algorithms to learn the
complex mapping between wind speed or wind power and other variables and make
predictions based on this mapping. Machine learning methods are flexible and adaptable,
and can handle non-linear and high-dimensional data, but they require suitable parameter
selection and training processes and may have problems such as overfitting or insufficient
generalization ability. Figure 6 defines several learning methods associated with machine
learning and shows some algorithms applied to the field of wind power prediction and
their characteristics.

A mass of data

Reinforcement
learning ICA

Deep DDPG
GPA SARIMA SVM Machine learning
learning
CNN

statistical LSTM
learning

Wind
Optimization Mathematic Fitting data power Nonlinear
method mode generation mapping
forecast relation

Figure 6. Application of artificial intelligence technology in wind power forecasting.

Energies 2023, 16, 5562 17 of 39

Statistical learning methods are suitable for ultra-short or short-term predictions but
require sufficient and high-quality data and can be affected by factors such as mutations or
non-linearities. Refs. [29,31,128–134] mainly used machine learning, deep learning, wavelet
transform, time-series analysis, and other methods to predict wind speed, wind power,
wave height, and wave period, and to design optimal maintenance strategies. These studies
have been empirically validated in different sea areas and time frames, and the results show
that they outperform other traditional models. They mainly use the following methods:
• The performance of different neural network training methods for wind prediction
was then compared using a reproduction plot and correlation analysis to select the
appropriate set of inputs [31]. It is proved that the neural network optimized by
Imperialist Competitive Algorithm (ICA) has the lowest prediction error and the
fastest convergence speed, showing superior prediction ability.
• Refs. [29,128] used a mix of DWT, Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average
(SARIMA), and Long Short-term Memory (LSTM) Network models for wind power
forecasts for Scotland and the south coast of the UK.
• Refs. [129,130] used a hybrid model of high-frequency SCADA data, depth auto coding,
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), and LSTM for wind power prediction in the
East China Sea and other seas.
• Ref. [131] used high-frequency vibration data and a supported vector machine algo-
rithm for wind turbine fault prediction.
• A deep convolutional recurrent neural network and inverse weighted loss function
were used for the spatiotemporal prediction of extreme wind speed events [134].
• A Markov decision process was used for the design of optimal maintenance strategies
for wave energy converters [132].
• Support vector regression was used for wave height and wave period prediction [133].
In particular, offshore weather uncertainty has a significant ongoing impact on off-
shore wind farm siting, turbine reliability, power output, operations, and maintenance.
This depends on breakthroughs in existing technology to enable more effective weather
forecasting. As a traditional weather forecasting method, the bottleneck of numerical
weather forecasting is becoming more and more prominent with the slow growth of com-
puting power and the gradual complexity of physical models. However, the accuracy
of existing AI forecasting methods is still significantly lower than that of numerical fore-
casting methods, and is restricted by the lack of interpretability and inaccurate prediction
of extreme weather. Recently, the Huawei Cloud Pangea Meteorological Model broke
through the worldwide problem that the accuracy of AI weather forecasts is less than
that of traditional numerical forecasts. This model is the first AI prediction model whose
accuracy exceeds that of traditional numerical forecast methods, the prediction speed is
10,000 times faster than that of traditional methods, and the global weather prediction can
be completed in seconds [135]. Different from existing weather prediction models based
on 2D neural networks, the Huawei Cloud Pangea Meteorological Large Model adopts
3D Earth-specific transformer (3DEST) deep network architecture, which can well handle
uneven 3D meteorological data.
The content of the Huawei Cloud Pangea Meteorological Grand Model is a major
breakthrough in the field of weather prediction, and readers who are interested in this
field can get an in-depth understanding of this article. It is necessary for us to actively
apply more valuable AI weather forecasting technology (such as the Huawei Cloud Pangea
Meteorological Model) to the operation process of offshore wind farms, which will cer-
tainly generate a lot of benefits for offshore wind power projects, such as better strategy
development in the operation and maintenance process of wind farms.
The above aspects of fault diagnosis, control, and prediction are based on the relevant
parameters of offshore wind power generation operations. In the future, in-depth research
can be carried out from the following aspects:
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 18 of 39

• Improve the accuracy and robustness of wind speed or power forecasts with more
diversified, refined, and real-time meteorological data sources combined with more
advanced, accurate, and faster numerical weather prediction models.
• Improve the efficiency and accuracy of fault diagnosis of wind power systems or their com-
ponents by leveraging more types, locations, frequencies, and channels of sensor devices
combined with more efficient, intelligent, and adaptive signal processing technologies.
• Improve the flexibility and adaptability of the control of wind power systems or
their components by optimizing search technologies with more levels, dimensions,
constraints, and targets, combined with more flexible, adaptive, and collaborative
AI technologies.
To sum up, wind power operation parameter monitoring and prediction is a complex
and diverse field, involving multi-data sources, multi-time scales, and multi-prediction
techniques. With advances in computing power, artificial intelligence technology, and big
data management, there will be more and better monitoring and forecasting methods in the
future. The algorithms involved in the monitoring and prediction of wind power operation
parameters in this chapter are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Wind power operation parameters monitoring and forecasting.

Arithmetic Year Literature Resources

ICA 2013 [31]
GPA 2018 [104]
FMEA 2022 [112]
CNN 2021 [129]
LSTM 2022, 2021, 2020, 2020 [29,128–130]
DWT 2022 [128]
SARIMA 2022 [128]
SVM 2019 [131]

5. Offshore Wind Farm Maintenance Strategy

The O&M of offshore wind farms also faces many challenges, such as fan failure,
marine environment, transportation difficulties, and high costs. Therefore, formulating
a reasonable and effective maintenance strategy for offshore wind farms to improve the
reliability, efficiency, and benefit of wind farms is an important and complicated problem.
In this section, we review the research on maintenance strategies of offshore wind farms
in recent years, classify and analyze the types of maintenance strategies and optimization
objectives, and point out the existing problems and future development directions.

5.1. Maintenance Strategy Type

According to the decision basis and execution mode of maintenance strategies, three
types of maintenance strategies are mainly proposed in the literature: Condition-Based
Maintenance (CBM), Preventive Maintenance (PM), and Opportunistic Maintenance (OM).

5.1.1. Condition-Based Maintenance Strategy

The CBM strategy determines the maintenance time and mode based on the fan run-
ning status and environment information. This strategy can effectively avoid early or late
maintenance, thereby improving maintenance efficiency and reducing costs. CBM strate-
gies require the use of a variety of sensors, monitoring systems, and data analysis methods
to collect and process real-time data on fans and wind farms to identify failure patterns,
assess remaining life, predict when failure will occur, and more. [42] suggested that the use
of rotational energy in offshore wind systems to power distributed or embedded sensing
electronics will enable a paradigm shift from timetable-driven to CBM. This paper mainly
studies the application of the CBM strategy in wind turbines, including the following
aspects: (1) Wind turbine condition monitoring method based on power curve HV and ge-
netic algorithm optimization uncertain hierarchical analysis process (GA-UHAP) [136,137];
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 19 of 39

(2) Path planning method for offshore wind farm O&M based on a Multi-Agent System
(MAS) [138]; (3) Technical and economic analysis method of offshore wind farms based
on the stochastic O&M model and Monte Carlo simulation [139]; (4) Wind turbine fault
diagnosis, remaining life estimation, fault prediction, and other methods based on failure
rate, maintenance time, and cost [140].

5.1.2. Preventive Maintenance Strategy

The PM strategy for offshore wind farms refers to the strategy of developing regular or
regularly spaced maintenance plans based on historical fault data and reliability models of
wind turbines to improve the reliability and availability of wind farms. To achieve this goal,
Refs. [98,141–143], respectively, proposed different optimization techniques and methods,
including multi-objective optimization, meta-heuristic optimization, Monte Carlo simula-
tion, etc., taking into account the uncertainties of the marine environment, fan failure, ship
transportation, etc. Through mathematical models, simulation models, and test methods,
optimal or sub-optimal maintenance strategies, logistics schemes, and access fleet schemes
were generated and evaluated, and their robustness was tested. This study provides a
valuable reference for PM strategies of offshore wind farms. Ref. [144] applied the concept
of Maintenance 4.0 to wind turbines and proposed an implementation procedure that
combines reliability modeling, algorithm design, real-time performance monitoring, failure
prediction, and preventive task prescription. For reliability modeling, a robust two-layer
programming method was proposed, which fully considers the influence of prediction
errors on multi-source system planning schemes [145].
In a CBM strategy, different generator types may have different reliability, efficiency,
and maintenance requirements that affect their O&M costs. For example, Double-fed
Induction Generators (DFIG) and Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators (PMSG) are
two common types of wind turbine generators.
DFIG is suitable for variable-speed wind turbines with gearboxes, which allow
variable-speed operation over a smaller power range, but require more complex controllers
and converters, as well as additional slip rings and brushes [146]. For DFIG, too-high
or too-low machine parameters will affect its performance in the transient state, while
moderately equivalent machine parameters can improve its performance [147]. PMSG
is suitable for gearless variable-speed wind turbines, which can achieve variable-speed
operation over a large power range, but require larger permanent magnets and higher man-
ufacturing costs [146]. For PMSG, too-low machine parameters will affect its performance
in the transient state, and the stator winding resistance parameters have a great influence
on its variables [147].
Therefore, the impact of different generators on wind asset maintenance and inspection
plans may be as follows:
• First of all, both DFIG and PMSG need to pay attention to the change of their stator
resistance parameters, because it has a great impact on their variables. This parameter
may need to be measured and adjusted more frequently to guarantee its stability
and reliability.
• Maintenance and inspection plans for DFIG need to consider the wear and failure of
these components, as well as the protection and stability of the grid.
• PMSG maintenance and inspection plans need to consider demagnetization and
damage to permanent magnets, as well as regulation and control of the power grid.
• Environmental impact assessments were carried out for different types of wind tur-
bines and factors such as their failure rate, replacement rate, and recovery rate were
analyzed [148]. These factors need to be considered in wind energy asset maintenance
and inspection programs to improve efficiency and save costs.

5.1.3. Opportunistic Maintenance Strategy

The OM strategy refers to the strategy that dynamically adjusts the maintenance plan
and priority according to the operation status and production demand of the wind farm, as
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 20 of 39

well as the mutual influence and cooperation between the fans. This strategy can improve
the maintenance effect and the overall performance of the wind farm, but it needs to use
various scheduling algorithms and decision models to analyze and model the dependency
relationship between the fans, the operational constraints of the wind farm, the market
demand, and other factors to determine the optimal maintenance time and way. The
research on OM strategy mainly includes the following aspects:
• The impact of weather forecasts on the O&M of offshore wind farms. Ref. [127] pro-
posed a performance comparison method for long-term weather forecasting models
based on sequential data. This method compares the performance of different sequen-
tial data-driven models (such as recurrent neural networks, long short-term memory
networks, gated cyclic unit networks, etc.) in terms of prediction accuracy, robust-
ness, and computational efficiency. To provide more reliable and efficient weather
forecasting information for offshore wind farms.
• OM scheduling approach. Refs. [149,150] proposed an OM scheduling method, which
adopts mixed-integer linear programming. Opportunity is defined as based on crew
scheduling (initiated by maintenance crews already dispatched to adjacent turbines),
based on production (initiated by projected low production levels), or based on access
(initiated by a temporary opening of turbine access Windows) [150]. The branch
and bound method and cut plane method are used to solve MILP problems, which
improves the efficiency and accuracy of solving [149].
• The joint use of service vessels and safe transfer vessels in offshore wind farms. In
Ref. [151], it was modeled as a multi-period position and maintenance problem, the
influence of uncertainty factors on problem-solving was considered, and a method
based on mixed-integer programming and random programming was proposed to
find the optimal layout and path planning scheme. Ref. [151] provided an effective
model and method for the layout and path planning of OWT.
• Offshore wind turbine rotor blades have a variety of internal and external damage
conditions. In response to this problem, Ref. [152] proposed an opportunistic PM
strategy. The model employs secondary, primary, and OM strategies. The model
refers to the blades of wind turbines, and the ultimate goal is to determine the optimal
secondary and primary maintenance rates to maximize asymptotic availability. A
numerical example based on empirical data was used to illustrate the effectiveness of
the proposed model and maintenance strategy.
• The impact of wind turbine production losses on maintenance scheduling and routing
issues. Ref. [153] proposed a new mathematical model to optimize maintenance
scheduling and routing problems, highlighting the significance of PL items before
and during maintenance activities. In the proposed method, the PL term takes the
latest wind turbine power curve and predicted wind resources as model inputs.
Subsequently, a new GA solver was designed to minimize wind turbine PL along with
technician wages and transportation costs.
• The application of Internet of Things (IoT) technology and multi-agent systems in
OWPS. Ref. [154] proposed a research method for offshore wind power systems based
on IoT technology. This method uses IoT technology to realize real-time collection
and transmission of status information of each subsystem of the offshore wind power
system (such as fans, substations, transmission lines, etc.) and carries out data analysis
and processing through a cloud computing platform. To improve the operational
efficiency and safety of OWPS. Ref. [155] proposed a modeling and simulation method
for the maintenance strategy of offshore wind farms based on multi-agent systems.
This method utilizes the autonomous and cooperative mechanism among various
agents in the multi-agent system to realize real-time sharing and updating of status
information of various subsystems (such as fans, ships, warehouses, etc.) in offshore
wind farms. The simulation platform is used to evaluate the impact of different
maintenance strategies on the operating costs and benefits of offshore wind farms.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 21 of 39

CBM refers to a strategy that predicts the time of failure according to the operating
state of the equipment and carries out maintenance at an appropriate time [156]. CBM
generally improves equipment availability and reduces maintenance costs compared to
Age-Based Maintenance Strategies (ABMS) because it avoids unnecessary PM and un-
planned downtime [157]. PM refers to the strategy of carrying out regular or quantitative
maintenance according to the preset life or cycle of the equipment [156]. Compared with
corrective maintenance strategies, PM can generally reduce the failure rate of equipment
and extend the life of equipment because it can detect and eliminate potential sources
of failure promptly [157]. OM refers to the strategy of taking advantage of planned or
unplanned maintenance of one device to maintain other devices [156]. OM generally saves
maintenance resources and time compared to performing maintenance alone because it
reduces repetitive preparation and downtime [157].
Figure 7 briefly shows the characteristics of three maintenance strategies through
some elements of offshore wind farm maintenance. Readers can better understand these
three strategies through this figure combined with the information in the paper. The three
colors of the wind turbine are used to represent different states, with green indicating good
operation, red indicating failure, and yellow indicating uncertainty of state. At the bottom
is a timeline, the periodic maintenance of PM has periodic time points on the top, and
the maintenance time points of the other two maintenance strategies must be determined
based on other circumstances.

Optimal
decision

Environmental
conditions,
market
Condition Preventive Opportunity
demand,
maintenance maintenance maintenance
equipment
performance,
etc

Time

Figure 7. Classification of maintenance strategies.

The above three maintenance strategies have their advantages and disadvantages and
apply to different situations and conditions. However, both require the accessibility of
offshore wind farms, which may not be able to arrive or complete maintenance in time due
to the limitations of marine weather and maintenance resources [158]. Generally speaking,
CBM is suitable for equipment with certain regularity or monitoring characteristics of fault
occurrence, PM is suitable for equipment with certain periodicity or distribution of fault
occurrence, and OM is suitable for the situation where multiple devices have economic
correlation or common shutdown impact [159,160]. Periodic maintenance is necessary
to ensure the reliability and safety of OWT, but it should be carried out at an optimal
frequency to minimize the maintenance cost [161]. Comprehensive inspection after major
repairs can make efficient use of maintenance resources and detect potential faults in
advance. Condition monitoring systems can reduce the burden of periodic maintenance,
and reduce downtime and maintenance costs by providing real-time data and early warning
signals [162]. However, the cost of installing and operating a condition monitoring system
needs to be considered to avoid making the operation of OWT uneconomical. In practical
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 22 of 39

applications, these three maintenance strategies can be flexibly combined according to

specific conditions to achieve optimal or sub-optimal maintenance effects.
This paper proposes a framework for the formation of maintenance strategies for off-
shore wind farms. The determination of the maintenance strategy should consider the cur-
rent situation of wind turbines, the marine environment, market demand, and other factors
that affect the operation and maintenance of offshore wind farms. The framework consists
of five steps: (1) Data collection and analysis; (2) Determining maintenance requirements;
(3) Making maintenance plan; (4) Maintenance execution and control; (5) Maintenance
evaluation and improvement. The flow diagram of this framework is shown in Figure 8:
• Step 1: Data collection and analysis. This step is mainly through various sensors, mon-
itoring equipment, IoT technology, real-time or regular collection, and transmission
of offshore wind farm operating data, and the use of data analysis and processing
technology, such as fault diagnosis, fault prediction, and remaining life assessment, to
evaluate and predict the status and performance of the fan, to provide information
support for subsequent maintenance decisions.
• Step 2: Determine maintenance requirements. This step is mainly based on the
results of data analysis, as well as the marine environment, market demand, and
other factors, to determine the maintenance needs of offshore wind farms, that is,
which fans need to be maintained, and the type, timing, and priority of maintenance.
Maintenance requirements are classified into planned maintenance and unplanned
maintenance. Planned maintenance refers to periodic or quantitative maintenance
based on the preset service life or period of the fan. Unplanned maintenance refers to
emergency maintenance or conditional-triggered maintenance based on actual faults
or performance degradation of the fan.
• Step 3: Make a maintenance plan. This step is mainly based on the maintenance
needs of offshore wind farms, as well as the available maintenance resources, such as
personnel, materials, ships, etc., to develop a reasonable and effective maintenance
plan, that is, to determine the maintenance tasks, time and sequence of each fan.
Maintenance planning needs to consider a variety of factors and objectives, such as
cost, efficiency, reliability, benefit, etc., and use a variety of optimization models and
algorithms to solve the optimal or sub-optimal solution.
• Step 4: Maintenance execution and control. This step is mainly to organize and
dispatch the corresponding maintenance resources according to the maintenance plan
of the offshore wind farm, carry out specific maintenance operations, and monitor
and control the maintenance process in real-time or regularly to ensure the smooth
completion of the maintenance plan. Maintenance implementation and control need
to consider the impact of uncertain factors, such as weather changes, failures, market
fluctuations, etc., and use a variety of information systems and intelligent systems to
provide information sharing and decision support.
• Step 5: Maintenance assessment and improvement. This step mainly evaluates and
analyzes the maintenance process and effect according to the results of maintenance
implementation and control of the offshore wind farm, and proposes improvement
measures and suggestions for the maintenance strategy according to the results of
evaluation and analysis, to improve the effect and level of the offshore wind farm
maintenance strategy. Maintenance evaluation and improvement need to consider a
variety of evaluation indicators and standards, such as cost, efficiency, reliability, bene-
fit, etc., and use a variety of evaluation models and methods to carry out qualitative
or quantitative evaluation.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 23 of 39

Figure 8. The formation process of offshore wind farm maintenance strategy.

5.2. Optimization Goals of Maintenance Strategies

According to the evaluation indexes and expected effects of maintenance strategies,
five types of optimization objectives are mainly proposed in the literature: cost mini-
mization, efficiency maximization, reliability maximization, benefits maximization, and
multi-objective optimization.

5.2.1. Cost Minimization

Cost minimization refers to the maintenance optimization method of offshore wind
farms to ensure the normal operation of offshore wind farms. This method uses Bayesian
networks to model the failure probability and maintenance cost of fans and determines
the optimal maintenance time and the way by solving a stochastic programming model
to maximize the reliability and benefits of offshore wind farms. Refs. [163,164] are about
uncertainty analysis and control in the operation of offshore wind farms. Parametric risk
control strategies and time-series methods are used respectively to model and predict
uncertain factors, and to evaluate the impact of different strategies on the reliability and
revenue of offshore wind farms. Refs. [165,166] used a two-stage stochastic programming
model and a multi-step probabilistic wave prediction model, respectively, to determine
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 24 of 39

the optimal fleet configuration and the transport path, taking into account the uncertainty
of weather conditions and the occurrence of failures. The concept of self-reconfiguration
of wind turbine position in Floating Offshore Wind Farms (FOWF) is discussed. Self-
restructuring mechanisms move degraded turbines to different farm locations to delay
failure and reduce power loss [167].

5.2.2. Benefit Maximization

Benefit maximization means to improve various benefits, including economic benefits
and environmental benefits, in the maintenance process of offshore wind farms under the
premise of ensuring the normal operation of offshore wind farms. This is a comprehensive
and meaningful optimization goal because the benefits of an offshore wind farm reflect not
only its operation but also its contribution to society and the environment. To maximize the
benefits, various income models and evaluation methods are mainly used in the literature
to analyze and model the income and loss generated during the O&M of offshore wind
farms and formulate corresponding maintenance measures and programs.
The O&M of offshore wind farms is an important factor affecting their economics and
sustainability, which needs to consider multiple aspects such as uncertainty, safety, cost,
and environment. A risk control strategy based on simulation was proposed to improve
the profitability of offshore wind farms by adjusting the number and speed of ships and
personnel [163]. To optimize maintenance operations, a repair kit determination method
based on mixed-integer programming was proposed [168], which can select appropriate
tools and vessel routes according to different weather conditions and maintenance needs.
A new motion stabilization technique was proposed to reduce the vertical, roll, and pitch
motions of ships under different wave conditions, especially in the resonant frequency
region [169]. A sustainable O&M method was proposed to reduce the number of transmis-
sion changes and transportation distance by using on-site inspection, online monitoring,
remote diagnosis, and other technologies [170].

5.2.3. Multi-Objective Optimization

Multi-objective optimization refers to balancing multiple objectives that may conflict
or compete during the maintenance of offshore wind farms, such as cost and efficiency,
or cost and reliability, on the premise of ensuring the normal operation of offshore wind
farms. This is a complex and challenging optimization goal because the maintenance
process of offshore wind farms involves several related or mutually restrictive factors, such
as human resources, material resources, transportation resources, time resources, etc. To
achieve multi-objective optimization, various multi-objective programming models and
solving algorithms are mainly used in the literature to solve the optimal or sub-optimal
maintenance plan and maintenance resource allocation [171].
The O&M scheduling strategy of offshore wind farms refers to arranging appropriate
maintenance tasks and power generation tasks according to the operating status, main-
tenance requirements, resource conditions, and other factors of wind farms, to improve
the economy and reliability of wind farms. Based on the relevant literature, this paper
introduces the following four operation and maintenance scheduling strategy models: The
maintenance strategy combination model based on multi-objective mixed-integer non-
linear programming can balance the objectives of operating cost, reliability, and availability,
and consider different types of maintenance tasks [141]. The O&M scheduling model
based on O&M task priority and O&M scheduling constraints can arrange the optimal
maintenance sequence and path according to task urgency and actual constraints to reduce
maintenance costs [136]. The strategic decision support model based on the two-layer
stochastic model can simultaneously consider the uncertainty of long-term strategy and
short-term operation, and support strategic decisions such as ship leasing [172]. The asyn-
chronous O&M scheduling strategy model based on the two-stage model can arrange
maintenance tasks and power generation tasks respectively, and balance maintenance
costs, power generation income, wind farm stability, and other objectives [173]. These
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 25 of 39

models are all based on optimization methods and take into account multiple objectives
and constraints, but they also have their characteristics and differences. They provide
different methods and ideas for the O&M scheduling of offshore wind farms.
The relevant models or algorithms of offshore wind farm maintenance strategies in
recent years are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Related models or algorithms for offshore wind farm maintenance strategies.

Model or Algorithm Year Literature Resources

Monte Carlo simulation 2015, 2017 [142,174]
Multi-Agent systems 2022, 2015 [138,155]
Genetic Algorithm 2022, 2019 [116,153]
Internet of Things 2022 [154]
Mixed-integer linear programming 2022 [150]

5.3. The Existing Problems and the Future Development Direction

Through the review of recent studies on offshore wind farm maintenance strategies, it
can be found that many valuable and meaningful methods and models have been proposed
in the literature, and the offshore wind farm maintenance strategies have been analyzed
and optimized from different perspectives and levels. However, offshore wind farm
maintenance strategies remain a complex and dynamic issue, with several issues that have
not been resolved or need to be improved, such as:
• The modeling and solving process of offshore wind farm maintenance strategy in-
volves many uncertain factors, such as fan failure, marine environment, market
demand, etc. Changes in these factors may lead to the failure or inefficiency of the
maintenance strategy. Therefore, how to deal with and utilize this uncertain informa-
tion effectively to improve the robustness and adaptability of the maintenance strategy
is a problem worth studying.
• The evaluation and optimization of an offshore wind farm maintenance strategy
involve multiple potentially conflicting or competing objectives, such as cost, efficiency,
reliability, effectiveness, etc., and the weights and preferences between these objectives
may change over time and circumstances. Therefore, how to balance and coordinate
these objectives effectively to achieve multi-objective optimization of offshore wind
farm maintenance strategy is a problem worth studying.
• The development and implementation of maintenance strategies for offshore wind
farms involve several related or mutually restricted subsystems, such as fans, ships,
warehouses, etc. The information exchange and collaboration among these subsystems
have an important impact on the effect of maintenance strategies. Therefore, how to
effectively use data-driven and intelligent system technologies to improve information
sharing and decision support among subsystems in offshore wind farm maintenance
strategy is a problem worth studying.
Based on the above analysis, this paper believes that future research on offshore wind
farm maintenance strategies can be developed from the following aspects:
• Introduce more uncertain information processing and utilization methods, such as
probability theory, fuzzy theory, evidence theory, etc., to improve the robustness and
adaptability of offshore wind farm maintenance strategies.
• Introduce more multi-objective optimization methods, such as genetic algorithm,
particle swarm optimization, simulated annealing algorithm, etc., to achieve multi-
objective optimization of offshore wind farm maintenance strategies.
• Introduce more data-driven and intelligent system technologies, such as IoT, cloud
computing, artificial intelligence, etc., to improve information sharing and decision
support among the various subsystems in the offshore wind farm maintenance strategy.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 26 of 39

6. Grid Connection Technology for Offshore Wind Farms

This section introduces the basic concepts, main features, key problems, solutions,
and future directions of offshore wind power technology from eight aspects, such as
grid connection, transmission, power generation, array cable, digital twin, transformer,
microgrid planning, and fault control.

6.1. Offshore Wind Farm Power Transmission

Offshore wind power transmission technology refers to the technology of transfer-
ring electric energy from offshore wind farms to the onshore power grid, mainly in the
form of AC or direct flow. Offshore wind power transmission technology involves the
output fluctuation of offshore wind farms, the loss and protection of transmission lines, the
control and stability of the converter, and other factors, which is one of the key problems
and difficulties faced by offshore wind power technology. Refs. [34,175–177], respectively,
introduced Multi-Terminal Direct Current Transmission (MTDCT) systems based on Modu-
lar Multi-Level Converter High-Voltage Direct Current (MMC-HVDC) wind farms based
on Voltage Source Converter (VSC) high-voltage direct current (HVDC) connections and
dual-rotor bidirectional flux modulation; four kinds of offshore wind power transmission
methods, including a Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG) and VSC-HVDC parallel op-
eration system; and a hybrid HVDC converter composed of M2C and a diode rectifier.
Their basic principle and topology, control strategy and protection scheme, performance
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, development prospects, and challenges
are analyzed.
Transmission fault control technology of offshore wind power refers to the technology
to ensure the safe and stable operation of offshore wind power systems when a failure
occurs, mainly including fault detection, fault isolation, fault recovery, and so on. Offshore
wind power fault control technology is one of the important guarantees of offshore wind
power technology, which involves the complexity, uncertainty, and dynamic characteristics
of offshore wind power systems. Ref. [178] summarized the application of artificial intelli-
gence technology to realize big data service in distribution networks, introduced the basic
concept and classification of artificial intelligence technology, analyzed the main application
scenarios and challenges of artificial intelligence technology in distribution networks, and
looked forward to the future development trend of artificial intelligence technology in the
distribution network. A fault-crossing control method for offshore wind farms connected by
MMC-HVDC based on harmonic injection was proposed. The harmonic injection was used
to realize fault detection and location [179]. An adaptive control strategy was designed,
and the effectiveness and reliability of the control method are verified by simulation. A
method to reduce the frequency fluctuation of hybrid power systems by variable speed
and variable pitch control was proposed [180]. Considering the output characteristics of
offshore wind farms and diesel generators, a dynamic variable discharge control strategy
was designed. The effectiveness and reliability of the control strategy were verified through
simulation and testing.
Offshore wind power transformer technology refers to the technology of increasing
or decreasing the voltage of offshore wind farms, mainly including transformer types,
parameters, faults, protection, and so on. Offshore wind power transformer technology
involves the electrical characteristics, environmental conditions, safety performance, and
other factors of offshore wind farms, and is one of the important components of offshore
wind power technology. Ref. [181] analyzed the causes of over-temperature combustion
failure of the transformer of a 4 MW offshore wind turbine; detected and analyzed the
structure, materials, and working state of the transformer; found out the main factors
leading to the failure; and put forward measures and suggestions to prevent the failure.
A method was proposed to optimize the dynamic design of transformers for offshore
wind farms, taking into account the reliability and emergency of transformers, and using
mixed-integer linear programming to solve the optimization problem [182]. The cost and
performance of different design schemes were compared through case analysis.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 27 of 39

Submarine cables are an important part of connecting OWT to the onshore power grid,
but they are also vulnerable to erosion and stress from seabed sediments, affecting their
performance and longevity. Therefore, analyzing the deposition and stress conditions of
submarine cables to improve their reliability and safety is a key issue for offshore wind
power generation. Some literature has studied this. For example, the erosion parameters
of submarine cables under different conditions were obtained by numerical simulation
and experiment citer196, and their effects on the stress state of cables were analyzed. A
multi-beam sounding system and side-scan sonar technology were used to detect and
evaluate the safety of underwater structures in offshore wind farms [183]. These studies
provide effective methods and data support for sediment and stress analysis of submarine
cables, but there are still some shortcomings, such as the influence of sediment type, water
velocity, water depth and other conditions on the erosion parameters and stress state is not
clear enough, and the erosion detection technology needs to further improve the accuracy
and efficiency.
Offshore wind power array cable technology refers to the technology that connects
the fans inside the offshore wind farm, mainly including the type, length, weight, cost,
reliability, and protection of the cable. Offshore wind power array cable technology in-
volves the scale, layout, environment, and other factors of offshore wind farms, and is
one of the important components of offshore wind power technology. A method for opti-
mizing cable configuration between floating OWT was proposed [184]. Considering cable
length, weight, cost, reliability, and emergency conditions, a genetic algorithm is used
to solve the optimization problem, and the advantages and disadvantages of different
configuration schemes are compared through case analysis. A method was proposed to
compare the internal grid topologies of different offshore wind farms, taking reliability and
economy into consideration [185]. The performance indexes of different topologies were
calculated through Monte Carlo simulation, and the influence of different parameters on
the performance indexes was evaluated through sensitivity analysis.
Therefore, future research can be improved from the following aspects: (1) Establish
more precise numerical models and experimental devices, consider more influencing
factors, and reveal the erosion and stress mechanism of submarine cables; (2) Develop more
advanced scour detection technology to improve the measurement accuracy and real-time
performance of scour parameters; (3) Design a more optimized submarine cable layout and
protection measures to reduce the risk of erosion and stress of submarine cables.

6.2. Digital Twin Technology for Offshore Wind Power

Digital twin technology of offshore wind power refers to the technology that combines
the physical entity and digital model of offshore wind power system, mainly including
the construction of a digital twin model, data interaction, synchronous update, system
monitoring, fault diagnosis, optimization control, and so on. The digital twin technology
of offshore wind power involves the complexity, uncertainty, and dynamic characteristics
of offshore wind power systems, and is one of the frontiers and hotspots of offshore wind
power technology. Ref. [186] discussed the digital twin technology of large-scale offshore
wind power flexible direct transmission system, constructed the digital twin model and
platform, realized the data interaction and synchronous update between the digital twin
and the physical system, and used the digital twin for system monitoring, fault diagnosis,
and optimization control. The validity of the Electromagnetic Transient (ET) digital twin
model for evaluating the dynamic voltage performance of a 66 kV offshore transmission
network was verified [187]. The experimental data were used to identify and calibrate the
parameters of the digital twin model, and the accuracy and reliability of the digital twin
model were proved through comparison and analysis with physical experiments.

6.3. Offshore Wind Power Grid-Connected Technology

The grid-connected technology of offshore wind power refers to connecting offshore
wind farms with onshore power grids to realize the transmission and consumption of
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 28 of 39

offshore wind power. The grid-connected technology of offshore wind power involves
the output characteristics of offshore wind farms, the loss of transmission lines, and the
stability of power grids, which is one of the core and difficult points of offshore wind power
technology. A grid connection scheme for offshore wind power based on multi-objective
optimization was proposed, taking into account the output characteristics of offshore wind
farms, the loss of transmission lines, and the stability of the grid [188]. The optimal grid
connection scheme was obtained by solving the optimization problem through a genetic
algorithm. Ref. [189] summarized the current situation and trend of the integration of off-
shore wind power into the future power system, analyzed the advantages and challenges
of offshore wind power, discussed the coordinated operation and complementarity of
offshore wind power and other renewable energy sources, and put forward some future re-
search directions. Ref. [190] introduced the operational practice and regulatory framework
of the grid-connected offshore wind power system, analyzed the technical requirements
and standards of the grid-connected offshore wind power system, summarized the oper-
ational experience and lessons of the grid-connected offshore wind power system, and
put forward improvement measures and suggestions for the grid-connected offshore wind
power system. Based on the finite-element method, Ref. [191] analyzed the influence of
grid connection of large-scale offshore wind farms on the stability of sub-synchronous
oscillation, and provided corresponding evaluation methods. The integration technology
of offshore wind farms and the power grid was reviewed, and the integration of offshore
wind farms and the power grid was analyzed [192]. The article also compared previous and
recent developments, including power quality and stability challenges and their solutions;
discussed Low-Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) schemes and related grid specifications, as
well as various power quality issues and mitigation measures; and summarized recommen-
dations and future trends for improving power quality. Three aspects of future research
should be focused on: OWP special equipment technology, OWP-integrated optimization
technology, and complementary power generation technology [193]. The relevant technical
methods and their advantages and disadvantages are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Offshore wind power grid-connected technology.

Method Advantage Shortcoming

It can comprehensively
consider the output
Grid connection scheme of
characteristics of offshore It takes a lot of computing
offshore wind power based on
wind farms, the loss of resources and time
multi-objective optimization
transmission lines, and the
stability of the grid
The characteristics and
It can reduce the impact and
Coordinated operation and constraints of multiple energy
fluctuation of the power grid
complementarity of offshore sources need to be
and increase the flexibility and
wind power with other considered,increasing the
robustness of the power
renewable energy sources complexity and operating
system
costs of the system
It can sum up the operation
Develop appropriate technical
Operational practices and experience and lessons of
requirements and standards to
regulatory framework for offshore wind power
ensure the safety and
offshore wind power grid-connected system, and
compatibility of offshore wind
grid-connected systems put forward improvement
power grid-connected systems
measures and suggestions
It is necessary to solve various
Improve the output quality
Integration technology of technical problems
and stability of offshore wind
offshore wind farm and power encountered in the integration
farms and reduce the impact
grid process, such as LVRT
and loss on the grid
solutions
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 29 of 39

The offshore wind power microgrid planning technology refers to the technology that
combines offshore wind farms with other energy sources and loads to form an independent
or semi-independent power system, mainly including the structure, capacity, location,
control, and other aspects of the microgrid. Offshore wind power microgrid planning
technology involves the economy, reliability, environmental benefits, and other factors of
offshore wind farms, and is one of the innovation and development directions of offshore
wind power technology. A two-layer multi-objective planning method was proposed for
microgrid planning containing offshore wind power, taking into account the economy,
reliability, environmental benefits, and other objectives of microgrid, using an improved
genetic algorithm to solve the planning problem, and comparing the performance indica-
tors of different planning schemes through case analysis [194]. A method was proposed
to comprehensively optimize the position and capacity of the reactive power compen-
sation device at the offshore wind farm and its connection point with VSC-HVDC [195].
Considering the output characteristics of offshore wind farms, loss of transmission line,
cost and benefit of reactive power compensation device, and other factors, mixed-integer
non-linear programming is adopted to solve the optimization problem. The results of
different optimization schemes are compared by case analysis.
The types of technologies covered in this section are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Grid connection technology for offshore wind farms.

Type of Technology Year Literature Resources

MMC-HVDC 2022, 2021, 2023 [176,177,179]
MTDCT 2016, 2021 [34,175]
VSC 2021, 2022, 2021 [175,176,195]
HVDC 2016, 2021 [34,177]
ET 2020 [187]
LVRT 2021 [192]

7. Discussion
There are also some differences and contradictions between these five sections, which
need to be coordinated and balanced. For example:
• Methods and strategies for optimizing the use of offshore wind and wave energy may
increase the complexity and uncertainty of components of OWT, thereby increasing
their failure rates and maintenance difficulties;
• Technologies and methods for the optimization of components of OWT may in-
crease the cost and data volume of the application of digital twin technology in
offshore wind systems, thereby increasing their computational efficiency and data
quality requirements;
• The application of digital twin technology in OWPS may increase the dependency
and security of O&M, thus increasing the requirements for network communication
and data protection. The latest research progress of digital twin technology for OWF
O&M is reviewed, and an O&M optimization framework based on data mining is
proposed [32]. Figure 9 illustrates the application and value of digital twin technology
in offshore wind power systems;
• Systems and challenges of O&M may constrain technological innovation and sustain-
able development of offshore wind systems, thereby increasing their requirements for
support and community engagement;
• Technological innovation and sustainable development may affect the adaptability
and compatibility of methods and strategies for optimizing the use of wind and wave
energy at sea, thereby increasing the need for standardization and integration.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 30 of 39

‎The application and value of

‎digital twin technology in
‎offshore wind power system
‎Match real physical objects with virtual models and
‎update them synchronously in real time

‎ he core concepts and

T ‎Physical models, sensor data, operational analysis and
‎visualization techniques are used to map and simulate
‎characteristics of digital twin ‎real physical objects in real time
‎technology ‎Provides intelligent services such as data analysis, fault
‎diagnosis, performance evaluation, and optimization
‎suggestions

‎Based on physical laws and mathematical equations

‎Accurate parameters and boundary conditions are

‎Physical model ‎required

‎Applicable to deterministic and linear systems

‎Built on historical data and machine learning methods

‎Data-driven model
‎Different digital models ‎Large amounts of high-quality data are required

‎Combine the benefits of physical and data-driven models

‎Make up for the shortcomings and limitations of a single

‎Hybrid model ‎model

‎The need to balance physical knowledge and data

‎information

‎The state or behavior of a physical object

‎Sensor data ‎Sensor layout, calibration, communication, etc

‎High frequency, high precision, high dimensional data

‎Indirectly reflects the running or control status of

‎physical objects

‎SCADA data ‎SCADA system configuration, sampling rate,

‎Different data sources ‎compatibility and other issues

‎Low frequency, low precision, low dimension data

‎A property or characteristic of a physical object

‎Metadata acquisition, management, update and other

‎Metadata ‎issues

‎Static, sparse, diverse data

Figure 9. The application and value of digital twin technology in offshore wind power system.

Artificial intelligence technology and digital twin technology are two important tech-
nologies in offshore wind power O&M, and they have a wide range of applications and
opportunities in OWPS. Artificial intelligence technology can make use of big data analysis,
machine learning, deep learning, and other methods to intelligently process and analyze
the operating data of the offshore wind power system, to realize functions such as fault
diagnosis, predictive maintenance, and optimization control, and improve the intelligence
level of the offshore wind power system [22]. Digital twin technology can use digital
models and data analysis to simulate and predict the real physical state of the offshore
wind power system, to realize functions such as operation monitoring, performance evalu-
ation, and reliability update, and improve the efficiency and reliability of the offshore wind
power system [77,78].
To better leverage the applications and opportunities of artificial intelligence technol-
ogy and digital twin technology in offshore wind power O&M, the following recommenda-
tions and directions are proposed:
• Strengthen the integration and collaboration of artificial intelligence technology and
digital twin technology in the operation and maintenance of offshore wind power and
use artificial intelligence technology to provide data support and intelligent decision-
making for digital twin technology. For example, Ref. [32] used machine learning,
deep learning, neural network, and other methods to analyze, predict and optimize
the data of offshore wind power, and use physical models, simulation models, data-
driven models, and other methods to update, visualize and evaluate the status of
offshore wind power in real-time. The artificial intelligence model of offshore wind
power is verified, improved, and optimized by information value calculation and
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 31 of 39

value-driven development. Digital twin technology can also be used to provide model
verification and feedback adjustment for artificial intelligence technology, such as [32]
using physical models, simulation models, data-driven models, and other methods
to update, visualize and evaluate the status of offshore wind power in real-time.
The artificial intelligence model of offshore wind power is verified, improved, and
optimized by information value calculation and value-driven development.
• Strengthen the innovation and development of artificial intelligence technology and
digital twin technology in offshore wind power operation and maintenance and ex-
plore more advanced algorithms, models, methods, and application scenarios to adapt
to the complexity, uncertainty, and multi-objective nature of offshore wind power
systems [186]. It is pointed out that the implementation of digital twin technology in
large-scale offshore wind power flexible direct transmission systems provides great
help for unmanned operation and maintenance, remote management, and real-time
scheduling of offshore wind power flexible direct transmission systems, and is an
innovative application of digital twin technology in power system. Even the au-
thor [77] used game engines to develop digital twin technology for offshore wind
power. Game engines can provide high-quality physical environment simulation and
a rich 3D content library, which provides strong support for offshore wind power
digital twin technology.
• Strengthen the standardization and standardization of artificial intelligence technol-
ogy and digital twin technology in the O&M of offshore wind power, and establish
uniform data formats, interface protocols, evaluation indicators, etc., to ensure the
compatibility and credibility of artificial intelligence technology and digital twin
technology in OWPS.

8. Conclusions
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art technologies and
challenges for OWPS, with a focus on their O&M. It covers the optimization of offshore
wind power components, the integration and utilization of offshore wind and wave energy,
and the monitoring and forecasting of offshore wind power operating parameters. It also
discusses the future research directions and suggestions for enhancing the performance,
sustainability, and intelligence of OWPS, such as designing, simulating, controlling, and
evaluating collaborative marine renewable energy systems, comparing and analyzing the
optimal wind and wave energy utilization systems under different scales, scenarios, and
objectives, considering the social and economic factors in offshore wind power project
evaluation and optimization, and applying big data analysis and artificial intelligence
techniques to OWPS. This paper aims to provide a useful reference for researchers in
related fields.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.Y. and J.J.; methodology, C.Y. and J.J.; formal analysis,
C.Y. and J.J.; investigation, C.Y., K.H., L.X., B.Z. and M.W.; resources, C.J.; writing—original draft
preparation, C.Y. and J.J.; writing—review and editing, C.Y., L.X., S.L., B.Z. and M.W.; visualization,
J.J.; supervision, C.Y. and H.C.; project administration, C.Y. and H.C.; funding acquisition, C.Y. and
H.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
under Grant 62202286.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2023, 16, 5562 32 of 39

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

OWPS Offshore Wind Power Systems

O&M Operation And Maintenance
EPP Energy Payback Periods
FWT Floating Wind Turbines
FOWF Floating Offshore Wind Farms
CSWT Conventional Stationary Wind Turbines
LCES Life Cycle Engineering Services
OWT Offshore Wind Turbines
MABL Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer
MPC Model Predictive Control
OPS Offshore Pumped Storage
rSOC Reversible Solid Oxide Cell
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
WEC Wave Energy Converters
HV Health Value
GA Genetic Algorithm
UHAP Uncertain Hierarchical Analysis Process
ICA Imperialist Competitive Algorithm
GPA Gaussian Process Algorithm
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
FMEA Failure Mode And Effect Analysis
MAS Multi-Agent System
DWT Discrete Wavelet Transform
SARIMA Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average
LSTM Long Short-term Memory
CNN Convolutional Neural Networks
SVM Support Vector Machine
ABMS Age-Based Maintenance Strategies
CBM Condition-Based Maintenance
PM Preventive Maintenance
OM Opportunistic Maintenance
MTDCT Multi-Terminal Direct Current Transmission
ET Electromagnetic Transient
MMC Modular Multi-Level Converter
VSC Voltage Source Converter
HVDC High-voltage Direct Current
PMG Permanent Magnet Generator
IoT Internet of Things
LVRT Low-Voltage Ride Through

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