THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

Department of Mathematics
MATH1010 University Mathematics
Functions

1 Definition of continuity

Exercise 1. (Level 1)
Let f : R → R be a function defined by

|x − 4|


 if x 6= 4;
f (x) = 4−x


0 if x = 4.

1. Sketch the graph of the function f (x).

2. Is f (x) continuous at x = 4? Why?

Solution. (a) Note that f (x) can be reformulated as the following:



 1 if x < 4;



f (x) = 0 if x = 4;




−1 if x > 4.


3.

|x − 4|
2.
f (x) =
4−x

1.

−1. 0 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

−1.

−2.

−3.

(b) Note that lim+ f (x) = lim+ −1 = −1 and lim− f (x) = lim− 1 = 1.
x→4 x→4 x→4 x→4

Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist and f (x) is not continuous at x = 4.
x→4
 2

Exercise 2. (Level 1)
Let f : R → R be a function defined by

1

 x2 cos(
 ) if x 6= 0;
f (x) = ex −1

0 if x = 0.


Show that f (x) is continuous at x = 0.

Solution. For x 6= 0, we have

−1 ≤ cos( ex1−1 ) ≤1

−x2 ≤ x2 cos( ex1−1 ) ≤ x2

−x2 ≤ f (x) ≤ x2

Since lim −x2 = lim x2 = 0, by the sandwich theorem lim f (x) = 0.

x→0 x→0 x→0
We have lim f (x) = f (0), so f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
x→0

Exercise 3. (Level 1)
√
3x−1
Briefly explain why the function f (x) = x−1 is not continuous at x = 1. How can we extend the function so
that it becomes a continuous function?

Solution. Because f (x) is undefined at x = 1, so it is not a continuous function.

√ √ √ 2 √
3
x−1 3
x−1 x + x+1
lim = lim √ 2 √
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1 x + x+1
x−1
= lim √ √
x→1 (x − 1)( x2 + x + 1)
1
= lim √ 2 √
x→1 x + x+1
1
=
3
So we can define a continuous function
(√
3
x−1
x−1 if x 6= 1
f (x) = 1
3 if x = 1

Exercise 4. (Level 1)
Discuss the continuity of the piecewise function

−x
 if x < 1,
f (x) = −x2 if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2,

x if x > 2.

 3

Solution. Because −x, x2 , x are continuous function, the function is continuous except possibly at x = 1 and
x = 2.
lim f (x) = lim (−x) = −1.
x→1− x→1−

lim f (x) = lim (−x2 ) = −1.

x→1+ x→1+

So
lim f (x) = −1 = f (1)
x→1

and hence f (x) is continuous at x = 1.

lim f (x) = lim (−x2 ) = −4.

x→2− x→2−

lim f (x) = lim x = 2.

x→2+ x→2+

So
lim f (x)
x→2

does not exists and hence f (x) is not continuous at x = 2.

Exercise 5. (Level 2)
1
Recall sec x = cos x . Discuss the continuity of the function.

Solution. Both the numerator and the dominator are continuous function, so sec x is continuous except at the
point with cos x = 0, i.e. x = (n + 12 )π for some integer π.

Exercise 6. (Level 2)

(a) Discuss the continuity of the function

(
sin x1 if x 6= 0
f (x) =
0 if x = 0

(b) Can we find a number A such that

(
sin x1 if x 6= 0
f (x) =
A if x = 0

is continuous?

Solution. (a) There are infinitely many points closed to 0 with sin x1 = 1, e.g. x = (2n + 12 )−1 for integer n. There
1
are infinitely many points closed to 0 with sin x1 = 0, e.g. x = (nπ)−1 for nonzero integer n. So limx→0 sin
x
does not exist. Hence it cannot be a continuous function.
1
(b) Because lim sin does not exist, it cannot be a continuous function no matter what A is.
x→0 x
 4

Exercise 7. (Level 2)
Discuss the continuity of the function
(
x sin x1 if x 6= 0,
f (x) =
0 if x = 0.

Solution. Obviously f (x) is a continuous function except possibly at x = 0. For x 6= 0

1
−|x| ≤ x sin ≤ |x|.
x

By the squeeze theorem

1
lim x sin = 0 = f (0).
x→0 x
Hence f (x) is a continuous function.

Exercise 8. (Level 2)
Let f : R → (−1, 1) be a function such that

f (x) + f (y)
f (x + y) =
1 + f (x)f (y)

and
lim f (h) = 0.
h→0

Show that f is a continuous function.

Solution. For any real number c,

lim f (x) = lim f (c + h)
x→c h→0

f (c) + f (h) lim (f (c) + f (h))

= lim = h→0
h→0 1 + f (c)f (h) lim (1 + f (c)f (h))
h→0

f (c) + 0
= = f (c).
1 + f (c) × 0

Hence f is a continuous function.

Exercise 9. (Level 2)
Recall the following result

Theorem. Let f, g : R → R be continuous function. Then f (g(x)) is also a continuous function on R.

Using the theorem or otherwise, show that

(a) If g(x) is a continuous function on R, then |g(x)| is a continuous function on R.

 5

(b) Let g(x) be a continuous function on R. Let c > 0 be a real number. Define

−c
 if g(x) < −c,
h(x) = g(x) if −c ≤ g(x) ≤ c,

c if g(x) > c.


Show that h(x) is a continuous function on R.

Solution. (a) Let f (x) = |x|. Then |g(x)| = f (g(x)). Because both f, g are continuous function, so |g(x)| is a
continuous function.
(b) Define

−c
 if x < −c,
f (x) = x if −c ≤ x ≤ c,

c if x > c.


We can show that f (x) is a continuous (left as an exercise). Also h(x) = f (g(x)). So h is also a continuous
function.

Exercise 10. (Level 2)

Do you agree with the following statement?

Theorem. Suppose f is a continuous function on R, g is a function on R and is discontinuous at x = 0. Then

f (g(x)) is discontinuous at x = 0.

If you think that the theorem is correct, prove it. Otherwise, give a counter example.

Solution. The theorem is incorrect. Define

(
−1 if x < 0
g(x) =
1 if x ≥ 0

Then g(x) is discontinuous at x = 0. Let f (x) = 1 (a constant function). Then f (g(x)) = 1. Hence is a continuous
function.

Exercise 11. (Level 2)

Let f : [0, 4] −→ R be the function defined by


 1 if x=0

x if 0<x≤1





 1 if 1<x<2
f (x) =


 x if 2≤x<3
0 if x=3





3 if 3<x≤4


(a) Sketch the graph of f .

(b)
 6

i. Find f (0), lim f (x). iv. Find f (3), lim f (x), lim f (x).
x→0+ x→3− x→3+

ii. Find f (1), lim f (x), lim f (x). v. Find f (4), lim f (x).
x→1− x→1+ x→4−

iii. Find f (2), lim− f (x), lim+ f (x).

x→2 x→2

(c) i. Is f continuous at 0? Why? iv. Is f continuous at 3? Why?

ii. Is f continuous at 1? Why?
iii. Is f continuous at 2? Why? v. Is f continuous at 4? Why?

Solution. (a)

y
3 bc bc

2 bc

1 bc bc

0
bc bc
1 2 3 4 x

(b) i. f (0) = 1. lim f (x) = lim x = 0.

x→0− x→0−

ii. f (1) = 1. lim f (x) = lim x = 1. lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1.

x→1− x→1− x→1+ x→1+

iii. f (2) = 2. lim− f (x) = lim− 1 = 1. lim+ f (x) = lim+ x = 2.

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2

iv. f (3) = 0. lim− f (x) = lim− x = 3. lim+ f (x) = lim+ 3 = 3.

x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3

v. f (4) = 3. lim− f (x) = lim− 3 = 3.

x→4 x→4

(c) i. f is not continuous at 0, because lim+ f (x) exists but is not equal to f (0).
x→0

ii. f is continuous at 1, because both lim f (x), lim f (x) exist and are equal to f (1).
x→1− x→1+

iii. f is not continuous at 2, because lim f (x) exists but is not equal to f (2).
x→2−

iv. f is not continuous at 3, because lim f (x) exists but is not equal to f (3).
x→3+

v. f is continuous at 4, because lim f (x) exists and is equal to f (4).

x→4−

Exercise 12. (Level 1)

√ √
q
Compute lim x + 7 − x − 2.
x→2+
 7

√
Solution. Because x is a continuous function,
√ √
lim x + 7 = 2 + 7 = 3.
x→2+

√ √
lim+ x − 2 = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2

So
q
√ √ √ √
lim+ x + 7 − x − 2 = 3 − 0 = 3.
x→2

Exercise 13. (Level 2)

Compute limπ cos(tan(cos(x))).
x→ 2

Solution. Because cos x is a continuous function on R and tan x is a continuous when x 6= (n + 12 )π for some
integer n, so the composite of the functions cos(tan(cos x)) is a continuous function when cos x 6= (n + 21 )π for
some integer n.
Since cos π/2 = 0 6= (n + 12 )π for some integer n,

π
lim cos(tan(cos(x))) = cos(tan(cos )) = cos(tan(0)) = 1.
x→ π
2 2

Exercise 14. (Level 2)

Determine, for each of the limits below, whether it exists or not. Give appropriate justification. Where the limit
exists, also evaluate its value.

(a)
1
lim x(e x − 1) x+1
x→+∞ (c) lim x ln( )
x→+∞ x
1
(b) lim (x2 + x + 1) sin( )
x→+∞ x2

Solution. (a) Provided that x > 0 and x is of large magnitude,

1 e1/x − 1
x(e x − 1) = −→ 1 as x −→ +∞.
1/x

(We have used the continuity of the function f defined near 0, given by
 t
 e −1
if t 6= 0
f (t) = t
 1 if t=0

1
and lim = 0.)
x→+∞ x
1
Hence lim x(e x − 1) = 1.
x→+∞
 8

(b) Provided that x > 0 and x is of large magnitude,

1 sin(x−2 ) sin(x−2 )
(x2 + x + 1)sin( 2
) = (x2 + x + 1)x−2 · = (1 + x−1 + x−2 ) · −→ (1 + 0 + 0) · 1
x x−2 x−2
as x −→ +∞.

(We have used the continuity of the function g defined near 0, given by

 sin(t)
if t 6= 0
g(t) = t
 1 if t = 0

1
and lim = 0.)
x→+∞ x2

1
Hence lim (x2 + x + 1) sin( ) = 1.
x→+∞ x2
(c) Provided that x > 0 and x is of large magnitude,

x+1 ln(1 + x−1 )

x ln( )= −→ 1 as x −→ +∞.
x x−1
(We have used the continuity of the function h defined near 0, given by

 ln(1 + t)
if t = 6 0
h(t) = t
 1 if t = 0

1
and lim = 0.)
x→+∞ x
x+1
Hence lim x ln( ) = 1.
x→+∞ x

Exercise 15. (Level 3)

 x 1
a −1 x
Find lim for each of the following cases:
x→+∞ a−1
(a) 0 < a < 1;

(b) a > 1.

 x1
ax − 1

Solution. Let y = , then
a−1
1
ax − 1 x

y =
a−1
 x 
a −1
ln
a−1
ln y =
x
 x 
a −1
ln
a−1
lim ln y = lim
x→+∞ x→+∞ x
 9

ax − 1
 
ln
ax − 1 1 a−1
(a) If 0 < a < 1, then lim ax = 0, lim = − and lim = 0. Therefore,
x→+∞ x→+∞ a − 1 a−1 x→+∞ x
 x1
ax − 1

lim = e0 = 1.
x→+∞ a−1

(b) If a > 1, then

ax − 1
 
ln
a−1
lim
x→+∞ x
ln(ax − 1) − ln(a − 1) ∞
= lim ( )
x→+∞ x ∞
(ln(ax − 1) − ln(a − 1))′
= lim
x→+∞ x′
(ln a)ax
= lim ax − 1
x→+∞ 1
(ln a)
= lim
x→+∞ 1 − a−x
= ln a
 x1
ax − 1

Therefore, lim = eln a = a.
x→+∞ a−1

Exercise 16. (Level 3)

 x1
ax + b x + 1

(a) Find lim , where a, b > 0.
x→0 3
 x1
cx1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn

(b) Let c1 , c2 , · · · , cn be n positive numbers. Find lim .
x→0 n
 10

 x1
ax + b x + 1

Solution. (a) Let y = , then
3
1
ax + b x + 1 x

y =
3
 x
a + bx + 1

ln
3
ln y =
x
 x
a + bx + 1

ln
3 0
lim ln y = lim ( )
x→0 x→0 x 0
 x ′
a + bx + 1
ln
3
= lim
x→0 x′
(ln a)ax + (ln b)bx
= lim
x→0 ax + b x + 1
ln a + ln b
=
3
√
3
= ln ab
 x1
ax + b x + 1 √
 √
3
= eln ab 3
Therefore, lim = ab.
x→0 3
 x1
cx1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn

(b) Let y = , then
n
1
cx1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn x

y =
n
 x
c + cx2 + · · · + cxn

ln 1
n
ln y =
x
 x
c1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn

ln
n 0
lim ln y = lim ( )
x→0 x→0 x 0
 x ′
c1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn
ln
n
= lim
x→0 x′
(ln c1 )cx1 + (ln c2 )cx2 + · · · + (ln cn )cxn
= lim
x→0 cx1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn
ln c1 + ln c2 + · · · + ln cn
=
n
√
= ln c1 c2 · · · cn
n

 x1
cx1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn

√
n c c ···c √
Therefore, lim = eln 1 2 n
= n
c1 c2 · · · cn .
x→0 n
 11

Remark. The limit of this function f (x) as x tends to infinity is as follows:

 x1
cx1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn

lim = max{c1 , . . . , cn }.
x→+∞ n
1
cx1 + cx2 + · · · + cxn x

lim = min{c1 , . . . , cn }.
x→−∞ n
 1
a+b x
Hint: first prove the formula for two variables f (x) = using L’Hospital’s rule, and then generalise to
2
n-variables.
Exercise 17. (Level 3)
Determine, for each of the limits below, whether it exists or not. Give appropriate justification. Where the limit
exists, also evaluate its value.
8e−9x + x2 ln(1 + 8x )
(a) lim (e) lim
x→+∞ 6e4x − x2 x→+∞ ln(1 + 2x )

ex + x2 ln(1 + 8x )
(b) lim (f) lim
x→+∞ ex − x2
x→−∞ ln(1 + 2x )

ln(x2 + x − 1)
(c) lim (g) lim x x
1
x→+∞ ln(x8 − x + 1)
x→+∞

ln(x2 + e3x ) 1
(d) lim (h) lim x− x
x→+∞ ln(x3 + ex ) x→+∞

Solution. (a) Provided that x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

8e−9x + x2 8e−13x + x2 e−4x 0+0

4x 2
= 2
−→ =0 as x −→ +∞.
6e − x 6−x e −4x 6−0
8e−9x + x2
Hence lim = 0.
x→+∞ 6e4x − x2

(b) Provided that x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

ex + x2 1 + x2 e−x 1+0
= −→ =1 as x −→ +∞.
ex − x2 1 − x2 e−x 1−0
ex + x2
Hence lim = 1.
x→+∞ ex − x2

(c) Provided that x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

ln(x2 + x − 1) ln(x2 )(1 + x−1 − x−2 )

=
ln(x8 − x + 1) ln(x8 )(1 − x−7 + x−8 )
ln(x2 ) + ln(1 + x−1 − x−2 )
=
ln(x8 ) + ln(1 − x−7 + x−8 )
2 ln(x) + ln(1 + x−1 − x−2 )
=
8 ln(x) + ln(1 − x−7 + x−8 )
2 + ln(1 + x−1 − x−2 )/ ln(x) 2+0 1
= −→ = as x −→ +∞.
8 + ln(1 − x + x )/ ln(x)
−7 −8 8+0 4
 12

ln(x2 + x − 1) 1
Hence lim = .
x→+∞ ln(x8 − x + 1) 4
ln(1 + x−1 − x−2 ) ln(1 − x−7 + x−8 )
Remark. We have used lim = 0 and lim = 0. Why do these
x→+∞ ln(x) x→+∞ ln(x)
hold?
(d) Provided that x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

ln(x2 + e3x ) ln(e3x )(x2 e−3x + 1)

=
ln(x3 + ex ) ln(ex )(x3 e−x + 1)
ln(e3x ) + ln(x2 e−3x + 1)
=
ln(ex ) + ln(x3 e−x + 1)
3x + ln(x2 e−3x + 1)
=
x + ln(x3 e−x + 1)
3 + x−1 ln(x2 e−3x + 1) 3+0
= 3
−→ =3 as x −→ +∞.
1 + x ln(x e + 1)
−1 −x 1+0

ln(x2 + e3x )
Hence lim = 3.
x→+∞ ln(x3 + ex )

(e) Provided that that x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

ln(1 + 8x ) ln(8x )(8−x + 1)

=
ln(1 + 2x ) ln(2x )(2−x + 1)
ln(8x ) + ln(8−x + 1)
=
ln(2x ) + ln(2−x + 1)
x ln(8) + ln(8−x + 1)
=
x ln(2) + ln(2−x + 1)
ln(8) + x−1 ln(8−x + 1) ln(8) + 0
= −→ =3 as x −→ +∞.
ln(2) + x−1 ln(2−x + 1) ln(2) + 0

ln(1 + 8x )
Hence lim = 3.
x→+∞ ln(1 + 2x )

(f) We have lim 2x = lim 4x = lim 8x = 0.

x→−∞ x→−∞ x→−∞

Provided that that x < 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’, and

ln(1 + 8x ) 8x 8−x ln(1 + 8x )

= ·
ln(1 + 2x ) 2x 2−x ln(1 + 2x )
−1
ln(1 + 8x ) ln(1 + 2x )

= 4x · · −→ 0 · 1 · 1 = 0 as x −→ −∞.
8x 2x

(We have used the continuity of the function h : [0, +∞) −→ R defined by

 ln(1 + t)
if t 6= 0
h(t) = t
 1 if t = 0
 13

at the point 0.)

ln(1 + 8x )
Hence lim = 0.
x→−∞ ln(1 + 2x )

(g) Provided x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

 1  ln(x)
ln x x = −→ 0 as x −→ +∞.
x
1
Hence lim x x = 1.
x→+∞

(h) Provided x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

 1 ln(x)
ln x− x = − −→ 0 as x −→ +∞.
x
1
Hence lim x− x = 1.
x→+∞

Exercise 18. (Level 3)

ln(1 + s)
Here we take for granted the result lim = 1. Hence we also take for granted that the function h :
s→0 s
(−1, +∞) −→ R given by

ln(1 + x)
if x 6= 0


x

h(x) =


 1 if x = 0

is continuous at 0.
1
(a) Show that lim (1 + t) t = e.
t→0

α
(b) Let α, β be non-zero real numbers. Define the function g : R\{0} −→ R by g(x) = for any x ∈ R\{0}.
x
 α βx
i. Express the function 1 + in terms of the exponential function and the functions g, h.
x
 α βx
ii. Evaluate the limit lim 1 + . Justify your answer.
x→+∞ x
 α βx
iii. Evaluate the limit lim 1 + . Justify your answer.
x→−∞ x

Solution. (a) Provided t is ‘sufficiently small’ but non-zero,

1 ln(1+t)
(1 + t) t = e t = eh(t) −→ eh(0) = e1 = e as t −→ 0.

(We have used the continuity of the function h at 0 and the continuity of the exponential function at 1.)
1
Hence lim (1 + t) t = e.
t→0
 14

 α βx
(b) i. Where 1 + is well-defined, we have
x
αβ
α  αx

 α βx
1+ = 1+
x x
 1 αβ
α  α/x
= 1+
x
 ln(1+α/x) αβ
= e α/x

= (eh(α/x) )αβ
= (eh(g(x))) )αβ .

ii. Note that lim g(x) = 0. Also note that the function h is continuous at 0 and the exponential function
x→+∞
is continuous at 1. Then
 α βx
1+ = (eh(g(x)) )αβ −→ (eh(0) )αβ = (e1 )αβ = eαβ as x −→ +∞.
x
 α βx
Hence lim 1+ = eαβ .
x→+∞ x
iii. Note that lim g(x) = 0. Also note that the function h is continuous at 0 and the exponential function
x→−∞
is continuous at 1. Then
 α βx
1+ = (eh(g(x)) )αβ −→ (eh(0) )αβ = (e1 )αβ = eαβ as x −→ −∞.
x
 α βx
Hence lim 1+ = eαβ .
x→−∞ x

Exercise 19. (Level 3)

Recall that the limit lim f (x) exists and is ℓ if and only if the limit lim+ f (1/t) exists and is ℓ.
x→+∞ t→0

(ln(x))β
Here we take for granted that lim = 0 for every positive real number β, γ.
t→+∞ xγ
Let β, γ be positive real numbers.

(a) Let f : [0, 1) −→ R by

(
xγ (− ln(x))β if 0 < x < 1
f (x) = .
0 if x = 0

Show that f is continuous at 0.

(ln(ln(x)))β
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that lim = 0.
x→+∞ (ln(x))γ

Solution. Suppose β, γ are positive real numbers.

 15

(ln(x))β
(a) Define g(x) = for any x ∈ (1, +∞).
xγ
Note that lim g(x) = 0.
x→+∞

β
(ln(1/t)) 1
Provided t > 0, we have f (t) = tγ (− ln(t))β = = g( ).
(1/t)γ t
1 1
As t −→ 0+ , we have −→ +∞, and hence f (t) = g( ) −→ 0 = f (0).
t t
Therefore f is continuous at 0.

(b) Provided x > 0 and x is of ‘large magnitude’,

γ  β
(ln(ln(x)))β
 
1 1 1
= − ln = f( ) −→ f (0) as x → +∞.
(ln(x))γ ln(x) ln(x) ln(x)
1
(We have used the continuity of f at 0 and the limit lim = 0.)
x→+∞ ln(x)
(ln(ln(x)))β
Hence lim = 0.
x→+∞ (ln(x))γ

Exercise 20. (Level 3/Level 4)

Let f : R → R be a function that satisfies
• f (x + y) = f (x)f (y) for all x, y ∈ R;

• f (x) is continuous at x = 0 and f (0) 6= 0.

(a) Show that f (0) = 1.

(b) Hence, show that f (x) is continuous on R.

Solution. (a) Put x = y = 0, we have f (0) = [f (0)]2 which implies f (0) = 0 or 1. Since f (0) 6= 0, f (0) = 1.

(b) Since f (x) is continuous at x = 0, we have

lim f (0 + h) = f (0)
h→0

lim f (h) = 1
h→0

Now, let x0 ∈ R.

lim f (x0 + h) = lim f (x0 )f (h)

h→0 h→0
 
= f (x0 ) lim f (h)
h→0

= f (x0 ) · 1
= f (x0 )

Therefore, f (x) is continuous at x = x0 .

Since x0 is an arbitrary point, it means f (x) is continuous everywhere.
 16

Exercise 21. (Level 4)

Let f (x) be a continuous function defined for x > 0 and for any x, y > 0,

f (xy) = f (x) + f (y).

(a) Find f (1).

(b) Let a be a positive real number. Prove that for any rational number r,

f (ar ) = rf (a).

(c) It is known that for all real number x, there exists a sequence {xn } of rational numbers such that lim xn = x.
n→∞
Show that for all x > 0,
f (ax ) = xf (a)
where a is a positive real constant. Hence, prove that for all x > 0,

f (x) = c ln x

where c is a constant.

Solution. (a) Put x = y = 1, we have f (1) = 2f (1) and so f (1) = 0.

(b) Let m be a natural number. f (am ) = f (a · a · · · a) = f (a) · f (a) · · · f (a) = [f (a)]m .

m
Let r be a positive rational number, then r = where m and n are natural numbers.
n
By the previous result,

f (am ) = f ((am/n )n )
= nf (am/n )
1
f (am ) = f (am/n )
n
m
f (a) = f (am/n )
n
rf (a) = f (ar )

Let q be a negative rational number. We have

f (aq ) + f (a−q ) = f (aq · a−q ) = f (1) = 0.

Note that −q is a positive rational number, therefore,

f (aq ) = −f (a−q ) = −(−q)f (a) = qf (a).

Combining the above cases and that f (a0 ) = f (1) = 0 = 0f (a), the result follows.

(c) Let x ∈ R and {xn } be a sequence with lim xn = x.

n→∞
Since f and power function are continuous, we have
 
lim xn
lim f (axn ) = f ( lim axn ) = f (a n→∞ ) = f (ax ).
n→∞ n→∞
 17

Also, from (b),

lim f (axn ) = lim xn f (a) = xf (a).
n→∞ n→∞

Therefore, for any x ∈ R and a > 0, f (ax ) = xf (a).

ln y
Next, let y = ax , for x > 0. Then x = and so
ln a

ln y f (a)
f (y) = f (a) = ln y.
ln a ln a

f (a)
By replacing y and by x and c respectively, then f (x) = c ln x.
ln a
(Remark: Therefore, all continuous functions that satisfy the condition f (xy) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y > 0
must be in the form f (x) = c ln x for some constant c.)

2 Intermediate value theorem

Exercise 1. (Level 1)
√
Let f (x) = x2 − x + 1 − 3. Show that there exists c ∈ [0, 3] such that f (c) = 1.

Solution. f (x) is a continuous function on [0, 3]. f (0) = −4, f (3) = 4. By the intermediate value theorem, there
exists c such that f (c) = 1.

Exercise 2. (Level 1)
Let f (x) = x5 − 7x + 3. Show that f (x) = 0 has a real root.

Solution. f (−2) = −15 and f (0) = 3 (these two value are obtained by trial and error). By the intermediate value
theorem, there exists c ∈ [−2, 0] such that f (c) = 0.

3 Maximum-Minimum Theorem
Exercise 1. (Level 2)
Let f : [0, 4] −→ R be the function defined by


 1 if x=0

x if 0<x≤1





 1 if 1<x<2
f (x) =


 x if 2≤x<3
0 if x=3





3 if 3<x≤4


(a) Sketch the graph of f .

(b) At which of the points below does f attain a relative extremum?

 18

i. 0 ii. 0.5 iii. 1 iv. 1.5 v. 2 vi. 3 vii. 4

(c) Does f attain any absolute extremum? Where?

Solution. (a)

y
3 bc bc

2 bc

1 bc bc

0
bc bc
1 2 3 4 x
(b) i. f attains a relative maximum at 0.
ii. f attains neither relative maximum nor relative minimum at 0.5.
iii. f attains a relative maximum at 1.
iv. f attains both a relative maximum and a relative minimum at 1.5.
v. f attains neither relative maximum nor relative minimum at 2.
vi. f attains a relative minimum at 3.
vii. f attains both a relative maximum and a relative minimum at 4.

(c) f attains the absolute minimum, namely 0, at 3. f attains the absolute maximum, namely 3, at each point
in the interval (3, 4].

Exercise 2. (Level 2)
Let f : [−3, 4] −→ R be the function defined by

(x + 2)2


 if −3 ≤ x ≤ −1
 −x3

if −1 < x ≤ 1
f (x) =


 x−2 if 1<x≤2
 p
1 − (x − 3)2 if 2<x≤4

(a) Sketch the graph of f .

(b) Does f attain any relative extremum? Where?

(c) Does f attain any absolute extremum? Where?

Solution. (a)
 19

y
1

0 1

−3 −2 −1 2 3 4 x

−1

(b) f attains a relative maximum at −3.

f attains a relative minimum at −2.
f attains a relative maximum at −1.
f attains a relative minimum at 1.
f attains a relative maximum at 3.
f attains a relative minimum at 4.

(c) f attains the absolute maximum, namely 1, at each of −3, −1, 3.

f attains the absolute maximum, namely, −1, at 1.