Prepared by:

Engr. Jobel Hyles F. Cabahug

Faculty, CE Department
College of Engineering, Architecture and
Technology
Palawan State University
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 OVERVIEW

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
 This course deals with the fundamentals and basic concepts of seismic
design as well as the minimum standards for the analysis, design, and
construction of earthquake resistive structures. The course covers the
introduction to seismology and seismic analysis of buildings and structures,
effects of earthquake on bearing capacity, procedure for the design of
earthquake resistant structures, calculation of seismic forces, and dynamic
analysis of structures. It also deals with the determination of loads of
structures due to motions, methods of analysis for lateral forces,
approximate dynamic analysis, time history analysis, concepts of mass,
damping, stiffness of structures, design for inelastic behavior and retrofitting
of existing building. Critical building configurations and appropriate methods
of analysis are also given emphasis. Applications and specifications as
applied to vertical and horizontal structures are also given importance. A
thorough knowledge and proficiency in Structural Theory is imperative.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module, students will be able to:
 Apply concepts of earthquake engineering and the general theory of
vibration of single and multi-degree-of-freedom systems and its applications
to civil engineering structures.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
 Discuss Earthquake Engineering and its importance to building planning
and design.
 Distinguish what causes an earthquake.
 Explain the different elements of seismology.
 Differentiate the kinds of earthquake faults.
 Describe different earthquake records and measuring instrument.
 Compare the uses of seismograph, accelerograph and seismoscope.
 Define seismology and seismic waves.
 Discuss different types of seismic waves.
 Compute earthquake magnitude, seismic moment and seismic energy using
earthquake descriptors.
 Explain Philippine Seismicity and Earthquake sources in the Philippines

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PROGRAM OUTCOMES:
 An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, physical sciences,
engineering sciences to the practice of civil engineering.
 An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and
interpret data.
 An ability to design, build, improve, and install systems or processes which
meet desired needs within realistic constraints.
 An ability to recognize, formulate, and solve civil engineering problems.
 An understanding of the effects and impact of civil engineering projects on
nature and society, and of the civil engineers’ social and ethical
responsibilities.
 Specialized engineering knowledge in each applicable field, and the ability
to apply such knowledge to provide solutions to actual problems.
 An ability to effectively communicate orally and in writing using the English
language.
 An ability to engage in life-long learning and an acceptance of the need to
keep current of the development in the specific field of specialization.

TIME FRAME:

 This module can be covered in seven weeks.

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 LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN

1.1. Earthquake Engineering

It can be defined as the branch of engineering devoted to mitigating earthquake
hazards. In this broad sense, earthquake engineering covers the investigation and
solution of the problems created by damaging earthquakes, and consequently the
work involved in the practical application of these solutions, i.e. in planning, designing,
constructing and managing earthquake‐resistant structures and facilities.

a. Scope
 Seismicity, Nature, Measures and Recording of earthquakes.
 Planning for Seismic Risk Assessment & Mitigation
 Analysis, Design and Construction of Earthquake Resistant Structures
 Evaluation of Buildings for Earthquake Resistance
 Retrofitting of Earthquake damaged Structures
 Earthquake Management and Security

1.2. Earthquake
An earthquake is the motion or vibration, sometimes violent, of the earth’s surface
that follows a release of energy in the earth’s crust. This energy can be generated by
a sudden movement of segments (plates) of the earth crust, by a volcanic eruption or
even by manmade explosions.

a. Sources of Ground Movements

 Tectonic Earthquakes
 Volcanoes
 Explosions
 Collapse of Mines & Large Reservoirs
 Tsunami

b. Earthquake Hazzard
 Failure of Slopes
 Occurrence of Fire
 Building Collapse
 Bridge Collapse
 Land Slide
 Disturbance

c. Causes of Earthquake
 Tectonic Earthquakes
 Volcanic Earthquakes
 Explosions
 Collapse Earthquake
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 1.3. Internal Structure of the Earth
The earth’s shape is an oblate spheroid with a diameter along the equator of about
12,740 km with the polar diameter as 12,700km. The higher diameter along equator
is caused by the higher centrifugal forces generated along the equator due to rotation
of earth. Though the specific gravity of materials that constitute the surface of earth is
only about 2.8, the average specific gravity of earth is about 5.5 indicating presence
of very heavy materials towards interior of earth. The interior of the earth can be
classified into three major categories as Crust, Mantle and Core.

a. Crust
Also known as the lithosphere, is the outer part
of the earth is where the life exist. The average
thickness of crust beneath continents is about
40km where as it decreases to as much as 5km
beneath oceans. The oceanic crust is constituted
by basaltic rocks and continental part by granitic
rocks overlying the basaltic rocks. Compared to the
layers below, this layer has high rigidity and
anisotropy.

b. Mantle
It has a 2900 km thick layer. The mantle
consists of 1) Upper Mantle reaching a depth of
about 400 km made of olivine and pyroxene and 2) Lower Mantle made of more
homogeneous mass of magnesium and iron oxide and quartz. No earthquakes are
recorded in the lower mantle. The specific gravity of mantle is about 5. The mantle
has an average temperature of about 2200degree Celsius and the material is in a
viscous semi molten state. The mantle act like fluid in response to slowly actinh
stresses and creeps under slow loads. But it behaves like as solid in presence of
rapidly acting stresses, e.g. that caused by earthquake waves.

c. Core
It has a radius of 3470 km and consists of an inner core of radius 1370 km and an
outer core (1370 km < R < 3470 km). The core is composed of molten iron, probably
mixed with small quantities of other elements such as nickel and sulphur or silicon.
The inner solid core is very dense nickel-iron material and is subjected to very high
pressures. The maximum temperature in the core is estimated to be about 3000
degree Celsius. The specific gravity of outer core is about 9-12 where as that of inner
core is 15.

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 1.4. History of Major International Earthquake Events
 The most destructive in all history was the earthquake of 1556 at Xian in China
that left 800,000 persons dead.
 More recently, the Tangshan earthquake of 1976 repeated the tragedy, and,
although in an area without loess houses, it left an estimated 700,000 dead.
 Mexico City in 1985 suffered 10,000 deaths from building failures during shaking
from an earthquake 400 km away along the Pacific Coast.
 In 1986 in San Salvador the shaking was five seconds or less, leaving 2,500 dead.

1.5. History of Deadliest Earthquake in the Philippines

a. Bohol Earthquake (2013)

A 7.2-magnitude tremor that killed more than 150 people,
destroyed century-old churches and affected more than 3
million families in Central Visayas.

b. Mindoro Earthquake (1994)

A total of 1530 houses in the coastal areas of Baco and
Calapan, Oriental Mindoro were swept away by a tsunami
generated by a 7.1-magnitude earthquake. The tragedy also
killed 78 people.

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c. Casiguran Earthquake (1968)
This 7.3-magnitude earthquake killed a total of 270
people and also caused massive landslides and tsunami in
Casiguran, Aurora. Almost 300 people were also killed
when the Ruby Tower in Binondo collapsed as a result of
the tremor.

d. Luzon Earthquake (1990)

On July 16, 1990, one of the strongest earthquakes to
ever strike the country occurred in several areas of Central
Luzon and Cordillera region. This 7.8-magnitude tremor
resulted in a total of 1,621 deaths and serious damage in
properties.

e. Moro Gulf Earthquake (1976)

With a 7.9 magnitude and almost 3,000 casualties, this
Mindanao earthquake is officially the strongest and
deadliest earthquake in Philippine history. Almost 40, 000
people in Regions 9 and 12 were also left homeless by this
tragedy.

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 1.6. Pacific Ring of Fire
A major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where many earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions occur.

In a large 40,000 km (25,000 mi) horseshoe shape, it is associated with a nearly

continuous series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, and volcanic belts and plate
movements. It has 452 volcanoes (more than 75% of the world's active and dormant
volcanoes).

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 LESSON 2: ELEMENTS OF SEISMOLOGY

2.1. Continental Drift Theory

German scientist Alfred Wegener, in 1915, proposed the hypothesis that the
continents had once formed a single landmass before breaking apart and drifting to their
present locations. His observations were based on the similarity of coastlines and geology
between south America, Africa and Indian peninsula, Australia and Antarctica. He
proposed that a large continent termed Pangae existed in earth around 200 million years
ago and was surrounded by an ocean called Panthalassa. It was postulated that this
super continent broke into several pieces that formed the present continents. These
pieces have subsequently drifted into their current position. Although, he presented much
evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the
physical processes which might have caused this drift. He suggested that the continents
had been pulled apart by the centrifugal pseudo force of the Earth's rotation or by a small
component of astronomical precession. But the calculations showed that these forces
were not sufficient cause continental drift.

Figure 2.1. Similarity between the coastlines continents

and distribution of fossils of ancient biota.

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 2.2. Plate Tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics, presented in early 1960s, explains that the
lithosphere is broken into seven large (and several smaller) segments called plates as
shown in the figure.

Figure 2.2. Tectonic plate map of the world.

The upper most part of the earth is considered to be divided into two layers with
different deformation properties. The upper rigid layer, called the lithosphere, is about 100
km thick below the continents, and about 50 km under the oceans, and consists of Crust
and rigid upper-mantle rocks. The lower layer, called the asthenosphere, extends down
to about 700 km depth. The rigid lithospheric shell is broken into several irregularly
shaped major plates and a large number of minor or secondary plates. The lithospheric
plates are not stationary, on the contrary, they float in a complex pattern, with a velocity
of some 2-10 cm/year on the soft rocks of the underlying asthenosphere like rafts on a
lake.

This theory requires a source that can generate

tremendous force is acting on the plates. The widely
accepted explanation is based on the force offered
by convection currents created by thermo-
mechanical behavior of the earth’s subsurface. The
variation of mantle density with temperature
produces an unstable equilibrium. The colder and
denser upper layer sinks under the action of gravity
to the warmer bottom layer which is less dense. The
lesser dense material rises upwards and the colder
material as it sinks gets heated up and becomes
less dense (refer Figure 2.3.). These convection
currents create shear stresses at the bottom of the
plates which drags them along the surface of earth. Figure 2.3.
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 The continental sized plates are African, American, Antarctic, Indo-Australian,
Eurasian and pacific plate. Apart from this, several smaller plates like Andaman,
Philippine plate also exist. As plate glides over the asthenosphere, the continents and
oceans move with it. Because the plates move in different directions, they knock against
their neighbors at boundaries. The great forces thus generated at plate boundary build
mountain ranges, cause volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Most of the Earth’s major
geological activity occurs at plate boundaries, the zones where plates meet and interact.
Figure 2.4. depicts the distribution of earthquake epicentres around the world.

The earthquake that occurs at a plate boundary is known as inter-plate earthquake.

Not all earthquakes occur at plate boundaries. Though, interior portion of a plate is usually
tectonically quiet, earthquakes also occur far from plate boundaries. These earthquakes
are known as intra-plate earthquakes. The recurrence time for an intraplate earthquake
is much longer than that of inter-plate earthquakes.

Figure 2.4. Map of distribution of earthquake epicentres around the world.

2.3. Movement of Plate Boundaries

Owing to the difference in movement between the plates that are in motion, three
types of plate boundaries are found to exist along their edges:

a. Spreading Ridges
Spreading ridges or divergent boundaries are areas along the edges of
plates move apart from each other, Figure 2.5. This is the location where the less
dense molten rock from the mantle rises upwards and becomes part of crust after
cooling. Highest rate of spreading or expansion between plates is found to occur
near Pacific Ocean ridges and the lowest rate of spreading occurs along mid-
Atlantic ridges. Generally, spreading ridges are located beneath the oceans. A few

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 areas where the spreading occurs along the continental mass are East African rift
valley and Iceland.

Figure 2.5. A cross-section of the divergent plate boundary.

b. Convergent boundaries
The convergent boundaries are formed where the two plates move toward
each other. In this process, one plate could slip below the other one or both could
collide with each other.

There are 2 types of convergent boundaries;

b.1. Subduction boundaries
These boundaries are created when either oceanic lithosphere subducts
beneath oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean convergence), or when oceanic
lithosphere subducts beneath continental lithosphere (ocean-continent
convergence), Figure 2.6. The junction where the two plates meet, a trench known
as oceanic trench is formed.

Figure 2.6. Creation of subduction boundaries

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 When two plates of oceanic lithosphere run into one another, the subducting
plate is pushed to depths where it causes melting to occur. When a plate made of
oceanic lithosphere runs into a plate with continental lithosphere, the plate with
oceanic lithosphere subducts because it has a higher density than continental
lithosphere. The subducted plate melts as it encounters higher temperature regime
inside earth melts and produces magma. This magma rises to the surface to
produce chains of volcanos and islands known as island arcs. One of the areas
around Indian peninsula where subduction process is in progress is near
Andaman-Sumatra region, where the Indo-Australian plate is subducting below the
Andaman and Sunda plates, Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7. Subduction process along Andaman-Sumatra arc.

b.2. Collision Boundaries

When two plates with
continental lithosphere collide,
subduction ceases and a mountain
range is formed by squeezing
together and uplifting the continental
crust on both plates, Figure 2.8. The
Himalayan Mountains between India
and China were formed in this way.

Figure 2.8. Creation of Collision Boundaries.

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 c. Transform Boundaries
Transform boundaries occur along the plate margins where two plate moves
past each other without destroying or creating new crust, Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8. A typical profile of a transform plate boundary.

2.4. Faults
The term fault is used to describe a discontinuity within rock mass, along which
movement had happened in the past. Plate boundary is also a type of fault. Lineaments
are mappable linear surface features and may reflect subsurface phenomena. A
lineament could be a fault, a joint or any other linear geological phenomena. Most faults
produce repeated displacements over geologic time. Movement along a fault may be
gradual or sometimes sudden thus, generating an earthquake.

Figure 2.9. Various terminolgies assocaited with the rupture plane of a fault.

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There are four major types of faults;

Figure 2.10. Types of faults (Arrow shows direction of relative displacement)

(a) Normal fault; (b) Reverse fault; (c) Strike-slip fault; (d) Oblique fault.

There are two important parameters associated with describing faults, namely, dip
and strike, Figure 2.9. The strike is the direction of a horizontal line on the surface of the
fault. The dip, measured in a vertical plane at right angles to the strike of the fault, is the
angle of fault plane with horizontal. The hanging wall of a fault refers to the upper rock
surface along which displacement has occurred, whereas the foot wall is the term given
to that below. The vertical shift along a fault plane is called the throw, and the horizontal
displacement is termed as heave.

Faults are classified in to dip-slip faults, strike-slip faults and oblique-slip faults
based on the direction of slippage along the fault plane, Figure 2.10. In a dip-slip fault,
the slippage occurred along the dip of the fault, Figure – 2.10(a) and (b). In case of a
strike-slip fault, the movement has taken place along the strike, Figure 2.10(c). The
movement occurs diagonally across the fault plane in case of an oblique slip fault, Figure
2.10(d). Based on relative movement of the hanging and foot walls faults are classified
into normal, reverse and wrench faults. In a normal fault, the hanging wall has been
displaced downward relative to the footwall, Figure 2.10(a). In a reverse fault, the hanging
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wall has been displaced upward relative to the footwall, Figure 2.10 (b). In a wrench fault,
the foot or the hanging wall do not move up or down in relation to one another, Figure
2.10 (c). Thrust faults, which are a subdivision of reverse faults, tend to cause severe
earthquakes.

Faults are nucleating surfaces for seismic activity. The stresses accumulated due
to plate movement produces strain mostly along the boundary of the plates. This
accumulated strain causes rupture of rocks along the fault plane.

2.5. Elastic Rebound Theory

As the plate try to move relative to each other, strain energy gets built up along the
boundaries. When the stress buildup reaches the ultimate strength of rock, rock fractures
and releases the accumulated strain energy, Figure 2.11. The nature of failure dictates
the effect of the fracture. If the material is very ductile and weak, hardly any strain energy
could be stored in the plates due to their movement. But if the material is strong and
brittle, the stress built up and subsequent sudden rupture releases the energy stored in
the form of stress waves and heat. The propagation of these elastic stress waves causes
the vibratory motion associated with earthquakes.

Figure 2.11. Elastic rebound across a fault.

The region on the fault, where rupture initiates is known as the focus or hypocenter of an
earthquake. Epicenter is the location on the earth surface vertically above the focus.
Distance from epicenter to any place of interest is called the epicentral distance. The
depth of the focus from the epicenter is the focal depth. Earthquakes are sometime
classified into shallow focus, intermediate focus and deep focus earthquakes based on
its focal depth. Most of the damaging earthquakes are shallow focus earthquakes.

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 LESSON 3: PROPAGATION OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES

a. Earthquakes
Earthquake is the vibration of earth’s surface caused by waves coming from a
source of disturbance inside the earth (refer Figure 3.1). Most earthquakes of engineering
significance are of tectonic origin and is caused by slip along geological faults.

Figure 3.1. General depiction of an earthquake rupture scenario.

The typical characteristics of earthquake depends on

 Stress drop during the slip
 Total fault displacement
 Size of slipped area
 Roughness of the slipping process
 Fault shape( Normal fault, Reverse fault, Strike slip fault)
 Proximity of the slipped area to the ground surface
 Soil condition

As the waves radiate from the fault, they undergo geometric spreading and attenuation
due to loss of energy in the rocks. Since the interior of the earth consists of heterogeneous
formations, the waves undergo multiple reflections, retraction, dispersion and attenuation
as they travel. The seismic waves arriving at a site on the surface of the earth are a result
of complex superposition giving rise to irregular motion.

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 b. Earthquake Waves
Earthquake vibrations originate from the point of initiation of rupture and
propagates in all directions. These vibrations travel through the rocks in the form of elastic
waves. Mainly there are three types of waves associated with propagation of an elastic
stress wave generated by an earthquake. These are primary (P) waves, secondary (S)
waves and surface waves. In addition, there are sub varieties among them. The important
characteristics of these three kinds of waves are as follows:

a. Primary (P) Waves

These are known as primary waves, push-pull waves, longitudinal waves,
compressional waves, etc. These waves propagate by longitudinal or
compressive action, which mean that the ground is alternately compressed and
dilated in the direction of propagation, Figure 1.15. P waves are the fastest
among the seismic waves and travel as fast as 8 to 13 km per second.
Therefore, when an earthquake occurs, these are the first waves to reach any
seismic station and hence the first to be recorded. The P waves resemble
sound waves because these too are compressional or longitudinal waves in
nature. Hence, the particles vibrate to and from in the direction of propagation
(i.e. longitudinal particle motion). These waves are capable of traveling through
solids, liquids and gases.

Figure 3.2. Nature of propagation of P waves.

The P-waves propagates radial to the source of the energy release and the
velocity is expressed by,

𝐸(1 − 𝑣)
𝑉𝑝 = √
𝜌(1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣)

where E is the Young’s modulus; v is the Poisson’s ratio (0.25); and ρ is the
density.

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b. Secondary (S) Waves
These are also called shear waves, secondary waves, transverse waves, etc.
Compared to P waves, these are relatively slow. These are transverse or shear
waves, which mean that the ground is displaced perpendicularly to the direction
of propagation, Figure 3.3. In nature, these are like light waves, i.e., the waves
move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Hence, transverse particle
motion is characteristic of these waves. These waves are capable of traveling
only through solids. If the particle motion is parallel to prominent planes in the
medium they are called SH waves.

On the other hand, if the particle motion is vertical, they are called SV waves.
The shear wave velocity is given by,

𝐸 𝐺
𝑉𝑠 = √ =√
2𝜌(1 + 𝑣) 𝜌

Where,
𝐸
𝐺= 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠.
2(1 + 𝑣)

Figure 3.3. Nature of propagation of S waves.

They travel at the rate of 5 to 7 km per second. For this reason these waves
are always recorded after P waves in a seismic station.

c. Surface Waves
When the vibratory wave energy is propogating near the surface of the earth
rather than deep in the interior, two other types of waves known a Rayleigh and
Love waves can be identified. These are called surface waves because their
journey is confined to the surface layers of the earth only. Surface waves travel
through the earth crust and does not propagate into the interior of earth unlike
P or S waves.

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 Surface waves are the slowest among the seismic waves. Therefore, these
are the last to be recorded in the seismic station at the time of occurrence of
the earthquake. They travel at the rate of 4 to 5 km per second. Complex and
elliptical particle motion is characteristic of these waves. These waves are
capable of travelling through solids and liquids. They are complex in nature and
are said to be of two kinds, namely, Raleigh waves and Love waves.

Figure 3.4. Nature of propagation of (a) Rayleigh waves and (b) Love Waves

The Rayleigh surface waves are tension-compression waves similar to the

P-waves expect that their amplitude diminishes with distance below the surface
of the ground. Similarly, the Love waves are the counterpart of the “S” body
waves; they are shear waves that diminishes rapidly with distance below
surface, Figure 3.4.

The damage and destruction associated with earthquakes can be mainly

attributed to surface waves. This damage potential and the strength of the
surface waves reduce with increase in depth of earthquakes.

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 LESSON 4: EARTHQUAKE RECORDS AND
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

4.1. Earthquake Terminology

The motion of plates results in stress buildup along plate boundaries as well as in interior
domain of the plate. Depending on the state of buildup of stress and amount of resistance
offered by the fault strata, rupture is initiated as stress exceeds the capacity of the strata.
Generally, the rupture causing earthquakes initiates from a point, termed as hypocenter
or focus, which subsequently spreads over to a large area. Depending on the
characteristics of strata where rupture occurs, the shape of the ruptured area could be
highly irregular and the amount of interface slip along the ruptured surface could also
vary. Several terms associated with earthquake rupture/propagation are discussed given
below:

Figure 4.1. Various distance measurements associated with earthquake.

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 The place of origin of the earthquake in the interior of the earth is known as focus
or origin or centre or hypocenter (refer Fig. 4.1). The place on the earth's surface, which
lies exactly above the centre of the earthquake, is known as the 'epicenter'. For obvious
reasons, the destruction caused by the earthquake at this place will always be maximum
and with an increasing distance from this point, the intensity of destruction also
decreases. The point on earth's surface diametrically opposite to the epicenter is called
the anti-center. An imaginary line which joins the points at which the earthquake waves
have arrived at the earth's surface at the same time is called a 'co-seismal'. In
homogeneous grounds with plain surfaces, the iso-seismals and coseismals coincide. Of
course, in many cases due to surface and subsurface irregularities, such coincidence
may not occur.

4.2. Recording Earthquakes [Murty, 2005]

The vibratory motion produced during an earthquake could be measured in terms of
displacement, velocity or acceleration. A seismologist is interested in even small
amplitude ground motions (in terms of displacement) that provides insight into the wave
propagation characteristics and enables him to estimate the associated earthquake
parameters. As accelerations are the causative phenomena for forces that damage
structures (Force = mass x acceleration), engineers are more concerned with the
earthquake causing structural damage, hence are interested in acceleration
measurement.

The instruments measure the ground

displacements and are called
seismographs. The record obtained from
a seismograph is called a seismogram.

Figure 4.2.
Schematic of a seismograph [Source:
IIT-K BMTPC Eq Tips – 02].

The seismograph has three components – the sensor, the recorder and the timer.
The principle on which it works is simple and is explicitly reflected in the early
seismograph – a pen attached at the tip of an oscillating simple pendulum (a mass hung
by a string from a support) marks on a chart paper that is held on a drum rotating at a
constant speed. A magnet around the string provides required damping to control the
amplitude of oscillations. The pendulum mass, string, magnet and support together
constitute the sensor; the drum, pen and chart paper constitutes the recorder; and the
motor that rotates the drum at constant speed forms the timer, Figure 4.2. By varying the
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characteristics of equipment one could record displacement, velocity or acceleration
during an earthquake.

The devises that measure the ground accelerations are called accelerometer. The
accelerometers register the accelerations of the soil and the record obtained is called an
accelerogram.

4.3. Determination of Hypocenter or Earthquake Focus

Seismologists use the elapsed time between the arrival of a P-waves and S-waves
at a given site to assist them in estimating the distance from the site to the center of
energy release. The distance of focus from the observation station is determined by the
relative arrival times of the P and S waves. The distance from hypocenter to observation
point is given by
𝑇
𝑆=
1 1
( − )
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑝

where, T = difference in time of arrival of P and S waves at an observation point;

S = distance from hypocenter to observation point; and Vp and Vs are the velocity of P
and S waves, respectively.

The time T can be taken as the time of duration of the initial tremor to it built-up
while Vp and Vs are geological properties for a given locations. Thus, the distance from
the hypocenter to the observation point is approximately proportional to the time of
duration of the initial tremor; the coefficient of proportionality is about 8 km/sec. When S
has been determined for each of three observation points the hypocenter is located as
the point of intersection of these spheres.

4.4. Earthquake Network (Seismic Network)

Seismic Network is a new earthquake monitoring system based on a dense array
of low-cost acceleration sensors.

It is responsible for the operational guidance and management of the national

seismic network, short-term earthquake prediction, earthquake data collection, report
processing, scientific journal management, seismological construction, technological
research and operations for emergency response.

A primary goal of the system is to produce block-by-block measurements of strong

shaking during an earthquake. Such "shake maps" can then be used by first responder
agencies (e.g., fire department, utilities) to prioritize dispatch to areas of greatest likely
damage. Effective emergency response can occur despite damaged telephone services
that prevent civilian calls for help from succeeding.

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a. PhilVolc’s Seismic Networks
 The Philippines has a total of 65 seismic stations, 29 of which are manned,
30 are unmanned, and 6 volcano stations.
 The central operating station is located at PHIVOLCS Main Office, Diliman,
Quezon City.
 All information is received at the Data Receiving Center (DRC), which is
operated 24/7 by the Seismological Observation and Prediction Division
(SOEPD).

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 LESSON 5: EARTHQUAKE DESCRIPTORS

5.1. Size of Earthquakes

The size of earthquake could be related to the damage caused or parameters like
magnitude. These two useful definitions of the size of earthquakes are sometimes
confused.

5.2. Intensity of Earthquakes

The intensity of an earthquake refers to the degree of destruction caused by it. In other
words, intensity of an earthquake is a measure of severity of the shaking of ground and
its attendant damage. This, of course, is empirical to some extent because the extent of
destruction or damage that takes place to a construction at a given place depends on
many factors.

Some of these factors are:

 distance from the epicenter
 compactness of the underlying ground
 type of construction
 magnitude of the earthquake
 duration of the earthquake
 depth of the focus

The seismic intensity scale consists of a series of certain key responses such as people
awakening, movement of furniture, damage to chimneys, and finally – total destruction.
Numerous intensity scales have been developed over the last several hundred years to
evaluate the effects of earthquakes.

Here are the different intensity scale:

a. Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale
It was developed by Giuseppe mercalli. It describes the amount of shaking &
effects that earthquakes have on humans and structures. This scale, composed of
12 increasing levels of intensity that range from imperceptible shaking to
catastrophic destruction, is designated by Roman numerals. It does not have a
mathematical basis; instead it is an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects.

The lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which
the earthquake is felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on
observed structural damage. An abbreviated version of the MMI scale is given in
Table 5.1 as per IS-1893:1984.

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Table 5.1 MMI Scale

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b. Mendvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale (MSK 64)
The Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale, also known as the MSK or MSK-64, is a
macroseismic intensity scale used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on
the basis of observed effects in an area of the earthquake occurrence.

The scale was first proposed by Sergei Medvedev (USSR), Wilhelm Sponheuer
(East Germany), and Vít Kárník (Czechoslovakia) in 1964. It was based on the
experiences being available in the early 1960s from the application of the Modified
Mercalli intensity scale and the 1953 version of the Medvedev scale, known also
as the GEOFIAN scale.

With minor modifications in the mid-1970s and early 1980s, the MSK scale became
widely used in Europe and the USSR. In early 1990s, the European Seismological
Commission (ESC) used many of the principles formulated in the MSK in the
development of the European Macroseismic Scale, which is now a de facto
standard for evaluation of seismic intensity in European countries. MSK-64 is still
being used in India, Israel, Russia, and throughout the Commonwealth of
Independent States.

I. Not perceptible Not felt, registered only by seismographs. No effect on objects. No damage to buildings.

II. Hardly perceptible Felt only by individuals at rest. No effect on objects. No damage to buildings.

III. Weak Felt indoors by a few. Hanging objects swing slightly. No damage to buildings.

Felt indoors by many and felt outdoors only by very few. A few people are awakened. Moderate vibration. Observers
IV. Largely observed feel a slight trembling or swaying of the building, room, bed, chair etc. China, glasses, windows and doors rattle.
Hanging objects swing. Light furniture shakes visibly in a few cases. No damage to buildings.

Felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. A few people are frightened and run outdoors. Many sleeping people awake.
Observers feel a strong shaking or rocking of the whole building, room or furniture. Hanging objects swing considerably.
V. Fairly strong China and glasses clatter together. Doors and windows swing open or shut. In a few cases window panes break.
Liquids oscillate and may spill from fully filled containers. Animals indoors may become uneasy. Slight damage to a few
poorly constructed buildings.

Felt by most indoors and by many outdoors. A few persons lose their balance. Many people are frightened and run
VI. Strong outdoors. Small objects may fall and furniture may be shifted. Dishes and glassware may break. Farm animals may be
frightened. Visible damage to masonry structures, cracks in plaster. Isolated cracks on the ground.

Most people are frightened and try to run outdoors. Furniture is shifted and may be overturned. Objects fall from
VII. Very strong shelves. Water splashes from containers. Serious damage to older buildings, masonry chimneys collapse. Small
landslides.

Many people find it difficult to stand, even outdoors. Furniture may be overturned. Waves may be seen on very soft
VIII. Damaging ground. Older structures partially collapse or sustain considerable damage. Large cracks and fissures opening up,
rockfalls.

General panic. People may be forcibly thrown to the ground. Waves are seen on soft ground. Substandard structures
IX. Destructive collapse. Substantial damage to well-constructed structures. Underground pipelines ruptured. Ground fracturing,
widespread landslides.

Masonry buildings destroyed, infrastructure crippled. Massive landslides. Water bodies may be overtopped, causing
X. Devastating flooding of the surrounding areas and formation of new water bodies.

XI. Catastrophic Most buildings and structures collapse. Widespread ground disturbances, tsunamis.

All surface and underground structures completely destroyed. Landscape generally changed, rivers change paths,
XII. Very catastrophic tsunamis.

Table 5.2. MSK 64 Intensity Scale

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c. Rossi–Forel (RF) Scale
The Rossi–Forel scale was one of the first seismic scales to represent earthquake
intensities. Developed by Michele Stefano Conte de Rossi of Italy and François-
Alphonse Forel of Switzerland during the late 19th century, it was used commonly
for about two decades until the introduction of the Mercalli intensity scale in 1902.

The Rossi–Forel scale and/or its modifications is still used in some countries, such
as the Philippines until 1996 when it was replaced by the PHIVOLCS Earthquake
Intensity Scale.

The 1873 version of the Rossi–Forel scale had 10 intensity levels:

I. Microseismic tremor. Recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs
of the same model, but not by several seismographs of different kinds. The shock
felt by an experienced observer.

II. Extremely feeble tremor. Recorded by several seismographs of different kinds.

Felt by a small number of persons at rest.

III. Feeble tremor. Felt by several persons at rest. Strong enough for the direction
or duration to be appreciable.

IV. Slight tremor. Felt by persons in motion. Disturbance of movable objects,

doors, windows, cracking of ceilings.

V. Moderate tremor. Felt generally by everyone. Disturbance of furniture, ringing

of some bells.

VI. Strong tremor. General awakening of those asleep. General ringing of bells.
Oscillation of chandeliers, stopping of clocks, visible agitation of trees and shrubs.
Some startled persons leaving their dwellings.

VII. Very strong tremor. Overthrow of movable objects, fall of plaster, ringing of
church bells. General panic. Moderate to heavy damage buildings.

VIII. Damaging tremor. Fall of chimneys. Cracks in the walls of buildings.

IX. Devastating tremor. Partial or total destruction of buildings.

X. Extremely high intensity tremor. Great disaster, ruins, disturbance of the

strata, fissures in the ground, rock falls from mountains.

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 d. Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) Intensity Scale
The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Seismic Intensity Scale (known in Japan
as the Shindo seismic scale) is a seismic intensity scale used in Japan to
categorize the intensity of local ground shaking caused by earthquakes.

Table 5.3 JMA Intensity Scale

Over the years, researchers have tried to develop more quantitative ways for
estimating earthquake intensity. One of such relationships correlating earthquake
intensity to peak ground velocity is given by

where Vg is the peak ground velocity in cm/sec.

Another such relation reported by Wald et.al, (1999) based on Californian

earthquake database is

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 In addition to peak ground velocity, empirical relationships correlating peak ground
acceleration to MMI has also been reported. For e.g.,

MMI = 3.66 log (Peak Ground Acceleration in cm/sec/sec) – 1.66

Table 5.4. A comparison of various seismic intensity scales used worldwide.

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 5.3. Magnitude of Earthquake
The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the amount of energy released by
the geological rupture causing it, and is therefore a measure of the absolute size of the
earthquake, without reference to distance from the epicenter. While earthquake intensity
is depicted in Roman numerals and is always a whole number, magnitude is depicted in
Arabic numerals and need not be a whole number. Similar to intensity scales, over the
years, a number of approaches for measurement of magnitude of an earthquake have
come into existence.

5.4. Richter Magnitude, ML

A workable definition of magnitude was first proposed by C.F. Richter. He based
on the data from Californian earthquakes, defined the earthquake magnitude as the
logarithm to the base 10 of the largest displacement of a standard seismograph (called
Wood-Anderson Seismograph with properties T=0.8 sec; m=2800; and damping nearly
critical ≈ 0.8) situated 100 km from the focus.

M=log10 A

where A denotes the amplitude in micron 10−6 m recorded by the instrument

located at an epicentral distance of 100 km; and M is the magnitude of the
earthquake.

When the distance from the epicenter at which an observation is obtained other
than 100km, a correction is introduced to the equation as follows:

where M is the magnitude of the earthquake, Δ = distance from epicenter (km),

MΔ = magnitude of the earthquake calculated for earthquake using the values
measured at a distance Δ from the epicenter. The graphical form of this procedure
is given in Figure 5.1.

Because of the logarithmic nature of the definition a difference of 1.0 in the

magnitude represents a difference of 10 in the seismograph amplitude. Magnitude
observations by different recording stations usually differ quite widely, often by as much
as one magnitude, which is later corrected taking into account the recordings from a large
number of instruments.

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 Figure 5.1. A graphical form of the estimation of Gutenberg –
Richer magnitude [From Lay and Wallace, 1995].

5.5. Moment magnitude

Over the years, scientists observed that different magnitude scales had saturation
points and the magnitudes estimated by different approaches did not point to a unique
value of earthquake size The Richter magnitude saturates at about 6.8, and the surface
wave magnitude at about 7.8. In addition, these magnitude estimates did not have a linear
relation with the energy released due to earthquake rupture. To address these short falls,
Hanks and Kanamori, in 1979 proposed a magnitude scale, termed as ‘moment
magnitude’, based on the seismic moment due to earthquake rupture. The moment
magnitude is given by

where Mw is the moment magnitude, Mo is the seismic moment in N-m.

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 In addition to the magnitude scales as discussed, Surface wave magnitude, Ms,
based on the amplitude of Rayleigh waves having a period of about 20 seconds, body
wave magnitude, Mb based on the amplitude of first few P wave cycles are also being
used.

A comparison of various magnitude scales are given in Figure 5.2. It can be noted
from Figure that the moment magnitude does not saturate.

Figure 5.2. A comparison of different magnitude scales.

Example 5.1. Calculate the moment magnitude of an earthquake with the rupture area
dimensions of length 35km, width 15km and slip 1meter. Assume modulus of rigidity, mu
= 3.5 x 1010 /𝑚2

Solution
Given
Length of ruptured area of fault : 35 km
Width of ruptured area of fault : 15km
Average slip : 1 m

Seismic moment, Mo = mu x Length x Widthx Slip

= 3.5 x 1010 (35 x 1000) (15 x 1000)(1)
= 1.84 x 1019 N-m
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 2
Moment magnitude, Mw = 3 (𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑀𝑜 − 9.1)
2
= 3 (𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1.84 x 1019 − 9.1)
= 6.8

5.6. Energy of an Earthquake

An approximate relationship between surface wave magnitude, Ms, and the energy
released by an earthquake, E, is given by

log10E = 4.8 +1.5Ms

Where E is measured in joules. Thus the ratio of energies released by two

earthquakes differing by 1 is magnitude is equal to 31.6. The ratio is 1000 for earthquakes
differing by 2 in magnitude, Table 5.5. Comparisons have been made between natural
forces and nuclear weapons. The energy released by a 1 megaton hydrogen bomb is
roughly equivalent to a magnitude 7.4 earthquake. Figure 5.3. shows the variation of the
energy released against the magnitude.

Table 5.5. Increase in Energy Release for

Various Range of Increase in Value of Magnitude

Figure 5.3. Energy magnitude relationships.

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 5.7. Comparison of Magnitude and Intensity
Comparisons between magnitude and intensity are fraught with difficulty. Firstly,
intensity varies with distance from the epicentre. Secondly, a large earthquake may occur
away from inhabited areas and therefore cause little apparent damage. Focal depth,
ground conditions and quality of building construction can have a considerable effect on
subjective assessments of damage. Magnitude-intensity relationships are not favoured
for engineering purposes. However, intensity could be the only information available for
large historical earthquakes and the inputs from intensity measurements would be
necessary in estimating the maximum earthquake potential of the region.

In 1956, Richter proposed a simple relationship between magnitude and epicentral

intensity given by
2
𝑀𝐿 = (𝐼𝑜 ) + 1
3

The equation was derived by comparison of magnitude and epicentral intensity

data of Californian earthquakes.

This relationship could vary from region to region. For e.g., Street and Turcotte in
1977 proposed a magnitude intensity relation specific to North-eastern North America,
given by

mbLg = 0.49(Io) + 1.66

However, it is found that correlations between intensity and magnitude are not
particularly accurate for estimation of earthquake magnitude. In addition to epicentral
intensity, researchers have attempted to associate other intensity related parameters like
log of area with intensity greater than IV; log of felt area, fall off intensity, etc., with varying
levels of success. Figure 5.4 shows a comparison of magnitudes estimated from intensity
using different approaches as mentioned above.

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Figure 5.4. Correlation between earthquake magnitude and various intensity
measures. [From Reiter L., 1989].

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS

 Practice problem will be uploaded on the schedule of the lesson.

ASSESSMENT

 Assessment for this module will be scheduled by the instructor.

SUPPLEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE

 Supplmentary knowledge will be uploaded on the schedule of the lesson.

ANSWER KEY

 Answer key for this module will be provided after the lesson.

REFERENCES

 Agrawal, P. and Shrikhande, M. (2006), "Earthquake resistant design of

structures”, Prentice Hall of India, Inc.
 Chopra, A.K. (2007), “Dynamics of structures: Theory and application to
earthquake engineering”, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall of India.
 Chowdhary, I. and Dasgupta, S.P. (2009). “Dynamics of structure and
foundation – A unified approach : 2 Applications”, CRC Press, Balkema.
 Clough, R. W. and Penzien, J. (1993). “Dynamics of structures”, McGraw
Hill, Inc., New York.
 Datta, T. K. (2010). “Seismic analysis of structures”, John Wiley & Sons
(Asia) Pte Ltd. Singapore.
 Hart, G. C. and Wong, K. (2000). “Structural dynamics for structural
engineers”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
 Kramer, S. L. (1996), “Geotechnical earthquake engineering”, Prentice Hall,
2007, ISBN 81-317-0718-0.
 Lay, T. and Wallace, T.C.,(1995) “Modern global seismology”, Academic
press, 1995, ISBN 0-12-732870-X.
 Naeim, F. and Kelly, J. M. (1999), “Design of seismic isolated structures:
From theory to practice”, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, USA.
 Reiter L., (1989), “Earthquake hazard analysis: Issues and insights”,
Columbia University Press.
 Wolf, J.P. (1985). “Dynamic soil-structure interaction”, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
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