Computer Organization

[R18A0505]
LECTURE NOTES

B.TECH II YEAR – I SEM(R18) (2019-2020)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND

ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’
Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India

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 UNIT I

Syllabus:
Basic Functional units of Computers: functional units, basic Operational concepts, Bus structures.
Software, Performance, Multiprocessors, Multicomputer.
Data Representation: Signed number representation, fixed and floating point Representations.
Computer Arithmetic: Addition and subtraction, multiplication Algorithms, Division Algorithms.
Error detection and correction codes.

Basic Structure of Computers

Computer Architecture in general covers three aspects of computer design namely: Computer
Hardware, Instruction set Architecture and Computer Organization.
Computer hardware consists of electronic circuits, displays, magnetic and optical storage
media and communication facilities.
Instruction set Architecture is programmer visible machine interface such as instruction set,
registers, memory organization and exception handling. Two main approaches are mainly
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) and RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
Computer Organization includes the high level aspects of a design, such as memory
system, the bus structure and the design of the internal CPU.

Computer Types

Computer is a fast electronic calculating machine which accepts digital input, processes it
according to the internally stored instructions (Programs) and produces the result on the
output device. The internal operation of the computer can be as depicted in the figure below:

Figure 1: Fetch, Decode and Execute steps in a Computer System

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The computers can be classified into various categoriesas given below:

 Micro Computer
 Laptop Computer
 Work Station
 Super Computer
 Main Frame
 Hand Held
 Multi core

Micro Computer: A personal computer; designed to meet the computer needs of an

individual. Provides access to a wide variety of computing applications, such as word
processing, photo editing, e-mail, and internet.

Laptop Computer: A portable, compact computer that can run on power supply or a battery
unit. All components are integrated as one compact unit. It is generally more expensive than a
comparable desktop. It is also called a Notebook.

Work Station: Powerful desktop computer designed for specialized tasks. Generally used for
tasks that requires a lot of processing speed. Can also be an ordinary personal computer
attached to a LAN (local area network).

Super Computer: A computer that is considered to be fastest in the world. Used to execute
tasks that would take lot of time for other computers. For Ex: Modeling weather systems,
genome sequence, etc (Refer site: http://www.top500.org/)

Main Frame: Large expensive computer capable of simultaneously processing data for
hundreds or thousands of users. Used to store, manage, and process large amounts of data that
need to be reliable, secure, and centralized.

Hand Held: It is also called a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). A computer that fits into a
pocket, runs on batteries, and is used while holding the unit in your hand. Typically used as
an appointment book, address book, calculator and notepad.

Multi Core: Have Multiple Cores – parallel computing platforms. Many Cores or computing
elements in a single chip. Typical Examples: Sony Play station, Core 2 Duo, i3, i7 etc.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Development of technologies used to fabricate the processors, memories and I/O units of
the computers has been divided into various generations as given below:
 First generation
 Second generation
 Third generation
 Fourth generation
 Beyond the fourth generation

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First generation:
1946 to 1955: Computers of this generation used Vacuum Tubes. The computes were built using
stored program concept. Ex: ENIAC, EDSAC, IBM 701.
Computers of this age typically used about ten thousand vacuum tubes. They were bulky in
size had slow operating speed, short life time and limited programming facilities.

Second generation:
1955 to 1965: Computers of this generation used the germanium transistors as the active
switching electronic device. Ex: IBM 7000, B5000, IBM 1401. Comparatively smaller in
size About ten times faster operating speed as compared to first generation vacuum tube
based computers. Consumed less power, had fairly good reliability. Availability of large
memory was an added advantage.

Third generation:
1965 to 1975: The computers of this generation used the Integrated Circuits as the active
electronic components. Ex: IBM system 360, PDP minicomputer etc. They were still smaller
in size. They had powerful CPUs with the capacity of executing 1 million instructions per
second (MIPS). Used to consume very less power consumption.

Fourth generation:
1976 to 1990: The computers of this generation used the LSI chips like microprocessor as
their active electronic element. HCL horizen III, and WIPRO’S Uniplus+ HCL’s Busybee
PC etc.
They used high speed microprocessor as CPU. They were more user friendly and highly reliable
systems. They had large storage capacity disk memories.

Beyond Fourth Generation:

1990 onwards: Specialized and dedicated VLSI chips are used to control specific functions
of these computers. Modern Desktop PC’s, Laptops or Notebook Computers.

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Functional Unit

A computer in its simplest form comprises five functional units namely input unit, output unit
memory unit, arithmetic & logic unit and control unit. Figure 2 depicts the functional units of
a computer system.

Figure 2: Basic functional units of a computer

Let us discuss about each of them in brief:

1. Input Unit: Computer accepts encoded information through input unit. The
standard input device is a keyboard. Whenever a key is pressed, keyboard
controller sends the code to CPU/Memory.

Examples include Mouse, Joystick, Tracker ball, Light pen, Digitizer, Scanner etc.

2. Memory Unit: Memory unit stores the program instructions (Code), data
and results of computations etc. Memory unit is classified as:

 Primary /Main Memory

 Secondary /Auxiliary Memory

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 Primary memory is a semiconductor memory that provides access at high speed.
Run time program instructions and operands are stored in the main memory. Main
memory is classified again as ROM and RAM. ROM holds system programs and
firmware routines such as BIOS, POST, I/O Drivers that are essential to manage the
hardware of a computer. RAM is termed as Read/Write memory or user memory that
holds run time program instruction and data. While primary storage is essential, it is
volatile in nature and expensive. Additional requirement of memory could be supplied
as auxiliary memory at cheaper cost. Secondary memories are non volatile in nature.

3. Arithmetic and logic unit: ALU consist of necessary logic circuits like adder,
comparator etc., to perform operations of addition, multiplication, comparison of two
numbers etc.

4. Output Unit: Computer after computation returns the computed results, error
messages, etc. via output unit. The standard output device is a video monitor,
LCD/TFT monitor. Other output devices are printers, plotters etc.

5. Control Unit: Control unit co-ordinates activities of all units by issuing control
signals. Control signals issued by control unit govern the data transfers and then
appropriate operations take place. Control unit interprets or decides the
operation/action to be performed.

The operations of a computer can be summarized as follows:

1. A set of instructions called a program reside in the main memory of computer.

2. The CPU fetches those instructions sequentially one-by-one from the main memory,
decodes them and performs the specified operation on associated data operands in
ALU.

3. Processed data and results will be displayed on an output unit.

4. All activities pertaining to processing and data movement inside the computer
machine are governed by control unit.

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 UNIT 3
Syllabus:
Central Processing Unit organization: General Register Organization, Stack organization,
Instruction formats, Addressing modes, Data Transfer and Manipulation, Program Control,
CISC and RISC processors
Control unit design: Design approaches, Control memory, Address sequencing, micro program
example, design of CU. Micro Programmed Control.

Computer Processing Unit Organization

Introduction to CPU

The operation or task that must perform by CPU is:

• Fetch Instruction: The CPU reads an instruction from memory.
• Interpret Instruction: The instruction is decoded to determine what action is required.
• Fetch Data: The execution of an instruction may require reading data from memory or I/O
module.
• Process data: The execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or
logical operation on data.
• Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O module.

To do these tasks, it should be clear that the CPU needs to store some data temporarily. It must
remember the location of the last instruction so that it can know where to get the next
instruction. It needs to store instructions and data temporarily while an instruction is being
executed. In other words, the CPU needs a small internal memory. These storage locations are
generally referred as registers.

The major components of the CPU are an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and a control unit
(CU). The ALU does the actual computation or processing of data. The CU controls the
movement of data and instruction into and out of the CPU and controls the operation of the
ALU.

The CPU is connected to the rest of the system through system bus. Through system bus, data or
information gets transferred between the CPU and the other component of the system. The
system bus may have three components:

Data Bus: Data bus is used to transfer the data between main memory and CPU.
Address Bus: Address bus is used to access a particular memory location by putting the address
of the memory location.
Control Bus: Control bus is used to provide the different control signal generated by CPU to
different part of the system.
As for example, memory read is a signal generated by CPU to indicate that a memory read
operation has to be performed. Through control bus this signal is transferred to memory module
to indicate the required operation.

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 Figure 1: CPU with the system bus.
There are three basic components of CPU: register bank, ALU and Control Unit. There are
several data movements between these units and for that an internal CPU bus is used. Internal
CPU bus is needed to transfer data between the various registers and the ALU.

Figure 2 : Internal Structure of CPU

Stack Organization:

A useful feature that is included in the CPU of most computers is a stack or last in, first out
(LIFO) list. A stack is a storage device that stores information in such a manner that the item
stored last is the first item retrieved. The operation of a stack can be compared to a stack of
trays. The last tray placed on top of the stack is the first to be taken off.

The stack in digital computers is essentially a memory unit with an address register that can
only( after an initial value is loaded in to it).The register that hold the address for the stack is
called a stack pointer (SP) because its value always points at the top item in stack. Contrary to a
stack of trays where the tray it self may be taken out or inserted, the physical registers of a stack
are always available for reading or writing.
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