Learn Cbse Lesson1

• Laws of Chemical Combinations

The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five basic laws.
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Law of Gaseous Volume (Gay Lussac’s Law)
(v) Avogadro’s Law
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
The law was established by a French chemist, A. Lavoisier. The law states:
In all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that of the products.
In other words, matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
The following experiments illustrate the truth of this law.
(a) When matter undergoes a physical change.

It is found that there is no change in weight though a physical change has taken place.
(b) When matter undergoes a chemical change.
For example, decomposition of mercuric oxide.

During the above decomposition reaction, matter is neither gained nor lost.
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
According to this law:
A pure chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in a fixed
proportion by weight.
For example, Carbon dioxide may be formed in a number of ways i.e.,

(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions

If two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the weight of one of the elements which
combines with a fixed weight of the other in these compounds, bears simple whole number ratio by
weight.
For example,
(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
The law states that, under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, whenever gases combine,
they do so in volumes which bear simple whole number ratio with each other and also with the
gaseous products. The law may be illustrated by the following examples.
(a) Combination between hydrogen and chlorine:

(b) Combination between nitrogen and hydrogen: The two gases lead to the formation of ammonia
gas under suitable conditions. The chemical equation is

(v) Avogadro’s Law: Avogadro proposed that, equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and
pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
For example,
If we consider the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce water, we see that two volumes of
hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water without leaving any
unreacted oxygen.

• Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808, Dalton published ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’ in which he proposed the
following:
1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
2. All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including identical mass. Atoms of
different elements differ in mass.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are neither created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
• Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the number of times an atom of that element is heavier than an
atom of carbon taken as 12. It may be noted that the atomic masses as obtained above are the
relative atomic masses and not the actual masses of the atoms.
One atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to l/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope. It is also
known as unified mass.
Average Atomic Mass
Most of the elements exist as isotopes which are different atoms of the same element with different
mass numbers and the same atomic number. Therefore, the atomic mass of an element must be its
average atomic mass and it may be defined as the average relative mass of an atom of an element as
compared to the mass of carbon atoms (C-12) taken as 12w.
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. It is obtained by
multiplying the atomic mass of each element by number of its atoms and adding them together.
For example,
Molecular mass of methane (CH4)
= 12.011 u + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
Formula Mass
Ionic compounds such as NaCl, KNO3, Na2C03 etc. do not consist of molecules i.e., single entities but
exist “as ions closely packed together in a three dimensional space as shown in -Fig. 1.5.

In such cases, the formula is used to calculate the formula mass instead of molecular mass. Thus,
formula mass of NaCl = Atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u.
• Mole Concept
It is found that one gram atom of any element contains the same number of atoms and one gram
molecule of any substance contains the same number of molecules. This number has been
experimentally determined and found to be equal to 6.022137 x 1023 The value is generally called
Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant.
It is usually represented by NA:
Avogadro’s Number, NA = 6.022 × 1023
• Percentage Composition
One can check the purity of a given sample by analysing this data. Let us understand by taking the
example of water (H20). Since water contains hydrogen and oxygen, the percentage composition of
both these elements can be calculated as follows:

• Empirical Formula
The formula of the compound which gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of yarious
elements present in one molecule of the compound.
For example, the formula of hydrogen peroxide is H202. In order to express its empirical formula, we
have to take out a common factor 2. The simplest whole number ratio of the atoms is 1:1 and the
empirical formula is HO. Similarly, the formula of glucose is C6H1206. In order to get the simplest
whole number of the atoms,
Common factor = 6
The ratio is = 1 : 2 : 1 The empirical formula of glucose = CH20
• Molecular Formula
The formula of a compound which gives the actual ratio of the atoms of various elements present in
one molecule of the compound.
For example, molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide = H202and Glucose = C6H1206
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
Where n is the common factor and also called multiplying factor. The value of n may be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
etc.
In case n is 1, Molecular formula of a compound = Empirical formula of the compound.
• Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
The word ‘stoichiometry’ is derived from two Greek words—Stoicheion (meaning element) and
metron (meaning measure). Stoichiometry, thus deals with the calculation of masses (sometimes
volume also) of the reactants and the products involved in a chemical reaction. Let us consider the
combustion of methane. A balanced equation for this reaction is as given below:

Limiting Reactant/Reagent
Sometimes, in alchemical equation, the reactants present are not the amount as required according
to the balanced equation. The amount of products formed then depends upon the reactant which
has reacted completely. This reactant which reacts completely in the reaction is called the limiting
reactant or limiting reagent. The reactant which is not consumed completely in the reaction is called
excess reactant.
Reactions in Solutions
When the reactions are carried out in solutions, the amount of substance present in its given volume
can be expressed in any of the following ways:
1. Mass percent or weight percent (w/w%)
2. Mole fraction
3. Molarity
4. Molality
1. Mass percent: It is obtained by using the following relation:

2. Mole fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number of
moles of the solution. For a solution containing n2 moles of the solute dissolved in n1 moles of the
solvent,

3. Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of the solution.

4. Molality: It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent. It is denoted by

m.

• All substances contain matter which can exist in three states — solid, liquid or gas.
• Matter can also be classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.
• Element: An element contains particles of only one type which may be atoms or molecules.
• Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements combine in a fixed ratio to each
other.
• Mixtures: Many of the substances present around us are mixtures.
• Scientific notation: The measurement of quantities in chemistry are spread over a wide rhnge of 10-
31
to 1023. Hence, a convenient system of expressing the number in scientific notation is used.
• Scientific figures: The uncertainty is taken care of by specifying the number of significant figures in
which the observations are reported.
• Dimensional analysis: It helps to express the measured quantities in different systems of units.
• Laws of Chemical Combinations are:
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
(v) Avogadro’s Law.
• Atomic mass: The atomic mass of an element is expressed relative to 12C isotope of carbon which
has an exact value of 12u.
• Average atomic mass: Obtained by taking into account the natural aboundance of different
isotopes of that element.
• Molecular mass: The molecular mass of a molecule is obtained by taking sum of atomic masses of
different atoms present in a molecule.
• Avogadro number: The number of atoms, molecules or any other particles present in a given
system are expressed in terms of Avogadro constant.
= 6.022 x 1023
• Balanced chemical equation: A balanced equation has the same number of atoms of each element
on both sides of the equation.
• Stoichiometry: The quantitative study of the reactants required or the products formed is called
stoichiometry. Using stoichiometric calculations, the amounts of one or more reactants required to
produce a particular amount of product can be determined and vice-versa.