electronics systems and technologies

BASIC COMMUNICATION
AND MODULATION
Adrian Miguel S. Umengan, ECE, ECT
Part-time Instructor I
Electronics Engineering Department
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 1
Which of the following is not true about AM?
A. The carrier amplitude varies.
B. The carrier frequency remains constant.
C. The carrier frequency changes.
D. The information signal amplitude changes the carrier amplitude.
 electronics systems and technologies
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
It is modulation technique, invented by Reginald Fessenden, wherein the
information signal is analog and the amplitude of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal.
 electronics systems and technologies
STANDARD AM PARAMETERS
✓ Standard AM Range – the standard AM range is 535-1605 kHz
✓ Standard AM Intermediate Frequency – the standard IF frequency for AM if
455 kHz
✓ Standard AM Equation:

mVc mVc
v t = Vc sin ωc t + cos ωc − ωm t − cos ωc + ωm t
2 2
Carrier LOWER SIDEBAND UPPER SIDEBAND
LSB USB
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 2
The outline of the peaks of a carrier has the shape of the modulating
signal and is called the
A. Trace
B. Waveshape
C. Envelope
D. Carrier variation
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AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
CARRIER INFORMATION
HIGH-FREQUENCY Also known as:
SIGNAL used to CARRY o INTELLIGENCE
INFORMATION from o MODULATING SIGNAL
source to destination. o BASEBAND SIGNAL
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AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
CARRIER

INFORMATION/or MODULATING WAVE

 electronics systems and technologies
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM

Envelope-
imaginary line
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Question no. 3
A carrier of 880 kHz is modulated by a 3.5-kHz sine wave. The LSB
and USB are respectively,
A. 873 and 887kHz
B. 876.5 and 883.5 kHz
C. 883.5 and 876.5 kHz
D. 887 and 873 kHz
 electronics systems and technologies
STANDARD AM IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN

𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑏 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 V(f)

𝑓𝑙𝑠𝑏 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 Modulating
LSB USB
Signal

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑏 − 𝑓𝑙𝑠𝑏

𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚
fm fc − fm fc fc + fm
BW
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 3
A carrier of 880 kHz is modulated by a 3.5-kHz sine wave. The LSB
and USB are respectively,
A. 873 and 887kHz
B. 876.5 and 883.5 kHz
C. 883.5 and 876.5 kHz
D. 887 and 873 kHz
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 4
An AM signal has a carrier power of 5W. The percentage of
modulation is 80 percent. The total sideband power is
A. 0.8 W
B. 1.6 W
C. 2.5 W
D. 4.0 W
 electronics systems and technologies
AM POWER RELATIONSHIP
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 + 2𝑃𝑆𝐵
V(f)
𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + LSB USB
2

𝑃𝑐 = unmodulated power or carrier power

𝑃𝑆𝐵 = power of a sideband (either LSB or USB) fc − fm fc f c + fm
𝑃𝑇 = total or modulated power
 electronics systems and technologies
AM CURRENT AND VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP

𝑚2 𝑚2
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑐 1+ 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑐 1 +
2 2

𝐼𝑐 = unmodulated current or carrier current

𝐼𝑇 = total or modulated current
𝑉𝑐 = unmodulated voltage or carrier voltage
𝑉𝑇 = total or modulated voltage
m = modulation index
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 4
An AM signal has a carrier power of 5W. The percentage of
modulation is 80 percent. The total sideband power is
A. 0.8 W
B. 1.6 W
C. 2.5 W
D. 4.0 W
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 5
What is produced by over modulation in AM?
A. Sidebands
B. Splatter
C. Envelope
D. Deviation
 electronics systems and technologies
AM MODULATION INDEX
It is also known as coefficient of modulation or depth of modulation. It is the
term used to describe the amount of amplitude change (modulation) present
in an AM waveform signal.
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚= 𝑚=
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

AM Percent Modulation – it is the coefficient of modulation expressed as a

percentage.
%𝑚 = 𝑚 × 100%
 electronics systems and technologies
DEGREES OF MODULATION
UNDERMODULATION

𝑚 < 100% 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚

𝑉𝑚 < 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≠ 0
 electronics systems and technologies
DEGREES OF MODULATION
MODULATION

𝑚 = 100% 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
 electronics systems and technologies
DEGREES OF MODULATION
OVERMODULATION

DISTORTION 𝑚 > 100% 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚

Loss of information
𝑉𝑚 > 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 0
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 6
The letter-number designation B8E is a form of modulation also
known as
A. Pilot-carrier system
B. Independent sideband emission
C. Lincomplex
D. Vestigial sideband transmission
electronics systems and technologies
Common emission classifications
AM Emission Classification
A3E DSBFC (Standard AM)
A3J DSBSC
H3E SSBFC
J3E SSBSC
R3E SSBRC
B8E ISB (Independent Sideband)
C3F VSB (Vestigial Sideband)
 electronics systems and technologies
CHARACTER 1 TYPE OF MODULATION
Letter Details Letter Details
A Double Sideband, DSB, including DSBFC L Pulse Width Modulation
B Independent Sideband M Pulse Position Modulation
C Vestigial Sideband N Unmodulated Carrier
D Combination of AM and FM or PM P Series of pulses without modulation
F Frequency Modulation Q Sequence of pulses, PM or FM within each pulse
G Phase Modulation R Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
H Single Sideband Full Carrier V Combination of the pulse modulation methods
J Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier W Combination of any of the above
K Pulse Amplitude Modulation X Cases not covered by the above definitions
 electronics systems and technologies
CHARACTER 2 TYPE OF MODULATING SIGNAL
Letter Indicator Details
0 No modulating signal
One channel containing digital information without the use of modulating
1
sub-carriers (excludes time division multiplex)
One channel containing digital information with the use of a modulating
2
sub-carrier (excludes time division multiplex)
3 One channel containing analog information
7 More than one channel containing digital information
8 More than one channel containing analog information
9 Combination of analog and digital channels
X Cases not covered by the above definitions
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CHARACTER 3 TYPE OF TRANSMITTED INFORMATION
Letter Indicator Details
A Telegraphy for aural reception – e.g. Morse code
B Telegraphy for automatic reception, i.e., machine decoded
C Facsimile
D Data transmission, telemetry or command
E Telephony, i.e., voice or music intended for human listening (broadcasting)
F Video – television
W Any combination from the above
X None of the above
 electronics systems and technologies
CHARACTER 4 DETAILS OF INFORMATION
Letter Details Letter Details

Two – condition code with elements of differing numbers

A J Sound of commercial quality
and/or durations
Two – condition code with elements of the same number and Sound of commercial quality with the use of frequency
B K
duration without error correction inversion or band splitting
Two – condition code with elements of the same number and Sound of commercial quality with separate frequency –
C L
duration with error correction modulated signals to control the levels of demodulated signal
Four – condition code in which each condition represents a
D M Monochrome images or videos
signal element
Multicondition code in which each condition represents a
E N Full color images and videos
signal element
Multicondition code in which each condition or combination of
F W Combination of the above
conditions represents a character
G Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic) X Cases not covered by the above description

H Sound of broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic)

 electronics systems and technologies
CHARACTER 5 DETAILS OF MULTIPLEXING
Letter Indicator Details
C Code-division multiplex
F Frequency-division multiplex
N None used
T Time-division multiple
W Combination of frequency division and time division
X Other types of multiplexing or None of above
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 7
Which of the following emission (AM) is used as that when the
modulation index is doubled, the antenna current is also doubled?
A. H3E
B. J3E
C. A3E
D. C3F
 electronics systems and technologies
DSBFC DSBSC SSBSC
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐
2 2 4
𝑚𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑉𝑐
𝑚2 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑇 =
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 2 2
2
𝑚𝐼𝑐 𝑚𝐼𝑐
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇 =
𝑚2 2 2
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑐 1+
2
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 7
Which of the following emission (AM) is used as that when the
modulation index is doubled, the antenna current is also doubled?
A. H3E
B. J3E
C. A3E
D. C3F
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Question no. 8
Determine the modulation index of a standard FM broadcast having a
hypothetical maximum carrier frequency deviation of ±12 kHz and a
maximum modulating frequency of 4 kHz.
A. 9
B. 6
C. 3
D. 4
 electronics systems and technologies
FREQUENCY MODULATION
It is a modulation technique, invented by Edwin Armstrong, where the
information signal is analog and the frequency of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal.

MODULATING SIGNAL
CARRIER

Modulated SIGNAL
 electronics systems and technologies
STANDARD FM PARAMETERS
✓ Standard FM Range – the standard FM range is 88-108 MHz
✓ Standard FM Intermediate Frequency – the standard IF frequency for FM is
10.7 MHz
✓ Standard FM Equation:
δ
v t = Vc cosωc t + sin(ωm t)
fm
 electronics systems and technologies
FREQUENCY DEVIATION
It is the relative displacement of the carrier frequency with respect to its
unmodulated value. It is the amount of change in carrier frequency produced
by the modulating signal.
𝛿 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚
FM MODULATION INDEX
It is the ratio of deviation and the modulating signal frequency. It determines
the number of significant pairs of sidebands in an FM signal.

𝛿
𝑚=
𝑓𝑚
 electronics systems and technologies
DEVIATION RATIO
It is the worst-case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak
frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating signal frequency.
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑅 =
𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

FM PERCENT MODULATION
It is the ratio of the frequency deviation actually produced to the maximum
frequency deviation allowed by the law stated in percent form.
𝛿
%𝑚 = × 100%
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 8
Determine the modulation index of a standard FM broadcast having a
hypothetical maximum carrier frequency deviation of ±12 kHz and a
maximum modulating frequency of 4 kHz.
A. 9
B. 6
C. 3
D. 4
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 9
The phenomenon of a strong FM signal dominating a weaker signal
on a common frequency is referred to as the
A. Capture effect
B. Blot out
C. Quieting factor
D. Dominating syndrome
 electronics systems and technologies
CAPTURE EFFECT
It is the inherent ability of an FM receiver to diminish the effects of interfering
signals (i.e., it is the ability of an FM receiver to differentiate between two signals
received at the same frequency).

THRESHOLD EFFECT
It is the noise-reduction effect that occurs with strong FM signals.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 10
A pre-emphasis circuit provides extra noise immunity by
A. Boosting the bass frequencies
B. Amplifying the higher audio frequencies
C. Pre-amplifying the whole audio band
D. Converting the phase modulation to FM
 electronics systems and technologies
EMPHASIS NETWORKS
✓ Pre-Emphasis Network – it uses a high pass filter, wherein the high
frequency modulating signals are emphasized or boosted in amplitude in
the transmitter prior to performing modulation. High frequencies are
amplified further in order to protect them. It is used in transmitter circuits.
✓ De-Emphasis Network – it uses a low pass filter, and it is just the
reciprocal of pre-emphasis that restores the original amplitude-versus-
frequency characteristics to the information signals. It is used in receiver
circuits.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 11
An FM receiver with an IF of 10.7 MHz is tuned to 98.7 MHz. What is
the numerical value of the image frequency?
A. 77.3 MHz
B. 88.0 MHz
C. 109.4 MHz
D. 120.1 MHz
 electronics systems and technologies
TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVER
It is one of the earliest types of AM receivers, invented by Reginald
Fessenden, and is probably the simplest designed radio receivers available
today.

RF AM AF
AMPLIFIER DETECTOR AMPLIFIER
 electronics systems and technologies
DISADVANTAGES OF TRF
✓ Its bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with center frequency when tuned
over a wide range of frequencies (i.e., as the frequency is increased
bandwidth also increases).
✓ It is unstable due to the large number of amplifier all tuned to the center
frequency,
✓ Its gains are not uniform over a wide range of frequencies.
 electronics systems and technologies
DISADVANTAGES OF TRF

V(f)

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 CH 5 CH 6 CH 7
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TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVER

RF AM AF
AMPLIFIER DETECTOR AMPLIFIER

Modulating signal – Intermediate Frequency (fixed) - Carrier

 electronics systems and technologies
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
✓ Heterodyne means to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device
or to translate one frequency to another using nonlinear mixing.

✓ The superheterodyne receiver was invented by Edwin Armstrong, its gain,

selectivity, and sensitivity is far superior to the other receivers.
 electronics systems and technologies
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
630+1085=1715 KHz
1085−630= 455 KHz
630 KHz 630+630=1260 KHz
1085+1085=2170 KHz
630 KHz Cross product 455 KHz 3 kHZ

RF 1st 2nd 2nd AF

MIXER
AMP IFAMP IFAMP detector AMP

CRYSTAL 630+455 =1085 KHz

OSCILLATOR
 electronics systems and technologies
IMAGE FREQUENCY
1540−1085=455 khz
630+1085=1715 KHz
1540 KHz 1085−630= 455 KHz
630 KHz 630+630=1260 KHz
1540 KHz 1085+1085=2170 KHz
630 KHz Cross product

RF 1st 2nd 2nd AF

MIXER
AMP IFAMP IFAMP detector AMP

CRYSTAL 630+455 =1085 KHz

OSCILLATOR
 electronics systems and technologies
IMAGE FREQUENCY
It is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that (if
allowed to enter a receiver and mix with local oscillator) will produce a cross
product frequency that is equal to intermediate frequency.

For High Side Injection:

𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑓𝑅𝐹 + 2𝐼𝐹
For Low Side Injection:

𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑓𝑅𝐹 − 2𝐼𝐹

 electronics systems and technologies
IMAGE FREQUENCY REJECTION RATIO IFRR
It is the numerical measure of the ability of a pre-selector to reject the image
frequency; the higher the IFRR, the better.

𝐼𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 1 + 𝑄 2 𝜌2

𝐼𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20 log( 1 + 𝑄2 𝜌2 )

𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑅𝐹
𝜌= −
𝑓𝑅𝐹 𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 11
An FM receiver with an IF of 10.7 MHz is tuned to 98.7 MHz. What is
the numerical value of the image frequency?
A. 77.3 MHz
B. 88.0 MHz
C. 109.4 MHz
D. 120.1 MHz
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 12
Stages that are common to both AM and FM receivers
A. Tuner, local oscillator, detector, AF amplifier
B. RF amplifier, mixer, IF amplifier, AF amplifier
C. Local oscillator, RF amplifier, frequency discriminator, detector
D. Tuner, IF amplifier, detector, AF amplifier
 electronics systems and technologies
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

RF 1st 2nd 2nd AF

MIXER
AMP IFAMP IFAMP detector AMP

CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 13
A superheterodyne is tuned to 2738 kHz. The IF is 475 kHz. What is
the image frequency?
A. 3.09 MHz
B. 4.5 kHz
C. 4385 kHz
D. 3648 kHz
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 13
A superheterodyne is tuned to 2738 kHz. The IF is 475 kHz. What is
the image frequency?
A. 3.09 MHz
B. 4.5 kHz
C. 4385 kHz
D. 3648 kHz
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 14
The frequency of the unmodulated carrier of an FM signal.
A. Modulating frequency
B. Baseband frequency
C. Rest frequency
D. none of the above
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 15
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver
A. local oscillator should operate below the signal frequency
B. local oscillator frequency is normally double the IF
C. local oscillator should operate above the signal frequency
D. mixer input must be tuned to the signal frequency
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 16
Which of the following is considered as an indirect method of
generating FM?
A. Reactance modulator
B. Balanced modulator
C. Varactor diode modulator
D. Armstrong system
 electronics systems and technologies
FM GENERATION
✓ Direct Method – it is an FM generation method in which the output is already
an FM signal.
• Reactance Modulator
• Varactor Diode Modulator
✓ Indirect Method – it is an FM generation method wherein the signal is first
phase-modulated before producing the FM signal. It is the most widely
used method, since PM is cheaper to produce than FM.
• Armstrong Modulator
 electronics systems and technologies
DIRECT METHOD REACTANCE MODULATOR
It has a reactance tube that presents inductive or capacitive reactance is
connected to the tank circuit of the oscillator. The variation of the reactance
would cause the oscillator frequency to vary in accordance with the modulating
signal thereby creating a direct generation of FM.
 electronics systems and technologies
DIRECT METHOD VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR
It is an FM generator utilizing a voltage variable capacitor diode. A varactor
diode or varicap is a specially constructed diode whose internal capacitance is
enhanced when reversed biased, and by varying the reverse-bias voltage, the
capacitance of the diode can be adjusted. VCOs are FM circuits in which
continuous variable changes in frequency are provided by the varactor diode.

CAPACITANCE OF A VARACTOR
𝐶𝑜
𝐶=
1 + 2|𝑉|
 electronics systems and technologies
INDIRECT METHOD ARMSTRONG MODULATOR
It is an indirect method of generating FM using crystal oscillator for frequency
stability with a phase-modulated buffer stage.

AF PM FM
න
input MODULATOR output
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 17
To generate an SSB or DSB signal one must use a circuit known as
A. filter modulator
B. ring modulator
C. balanced modulator
D. reactance modulator
 electronics systems and technologies
DOUBLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER
Balanced Modulator – it is a circuit that generates a DSB signal, suppressing
the carrier and leaving only the sum and difference frequencies at the output.
The output of a balanced modulator can be further processed by filters or
phase-shifting circuitry to eliminate one of the sidebands, resulting in an SSB
signal.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 18
Which characteristic of a radio receiver refers to its ability to reject an
unwanted signal?
A. Sensitivity
B. Selectivity
C. Fidelity
D. Quality
 electronics systems and technologies
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RECEIVERS
✓ Selectivity – it is a receiver parameter that is used to measure the ability of
the receiver to accept a given band of frequencies and reject all others.
✓ Sensitivity – it is also known as the receiver threshold. It is the minimum
RF signal level that can be detected at the input to the receiver and still
produce a usable demodulated information signal.
✓ Fidelity – is a measure of the ability of a communication system to produce,
at the output of the receiver, an exact replica of the original source
information.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 19
The carrier of a 100% modulated AM wave is suppressed, the
percentage power saving is __.
A. 100 %
B. 50 %
C. 83 %
D. 66.66 %
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 19
The carrier of a 100% modulated AM wave is suppressed, the
percentage power saving is __.
A. 100 %
B. 50 %
C. 83 %
D. 66.66 %
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 20
The key to achieving receiver sensitivity is the reduction of
A. Image response
B. Mixer harmonic products
C. Spurious frequency response
D. Internal noise
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 21
The limiter stage of an FM receiver
A. Behaves as a low-pass filter
B. Limits the amplitude of the IF signal to the required level
C. Behaves as a high-pass filter
D. Behaves as a bandstop filter
 electronics systems and technologies
LIMITER
✓ It is also known as clipper, which is used to remove sporadic, high-
amplitude noise transients of short duration, such as impulse noise in the
audio section of a receiver.
✓ It is a special circuit that removes the unwanted amplitude variations since
with FM, the information is contained in frequency variations.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 22
Cross-modulation in a receiver can be reduced by
A. Installing a filter at the receiver
B. Using a better antenna
C. Increasing the receiver’s RF gain while decreasing the AF
D. Adjusting the pass-band tuning
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 23
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the ___________ signal is
varied according to the shape of the _________ signal.
A. carrier; modulated
B. intelligence; modulating
C. intelligence, carrier
D. carrier, baseband
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 24
In a receiver, if the frequency of the incoming signal is greater than
the local oscillator frequency, it is termed as ________ injection.
A. high-side
B. low-side
C. double-side
D. none of the above
 electronics systems and technologies
HIGH AND LOW SIDE INJECTION
High Side Injection - it is also known as high-beat injection, wherein the local
oscillator frequency is tuned to a frequency higher than the input RF frequency.

𝑓𝐿𝑂 = 𝑓𝑅𝐹 + 𝐼𝐹

Low Side Injection – it is also known as low-beat injection, wherein the local
oscillator frequency is tuned to a frequency lower than the input RF frequency.

𝑓𝐿𝑂 = 𝑓𝑅𝐹 − 𝐼𝐹
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 25
Direct Frequency Modulation is an angle modulation scheme in which
the _______ of a constant-amplitude carrier is varied in proportion to
the _______ of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency
of the _______.
A. frequency, amplitude, modulating signal
B. amplitude, frequency, carrier signal
C. amplitude, frequency, modulating signal
D. frequency, amplitude, carrier signal
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 26
If a 2-volt instantaneous value of modulating signal amplitude causes
a 10-kHz deviation in carrier frequency, what is the deviation
sensitivity of the modulator?
A. 1 kHz/volt
B. 5 kHz/volt
C. 10 kHz/volt
D. 20 kHz/volt
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 26
If a 2-volt instantaneous value of modulating signal amplitude causes
a 10-kHz deviation in carrier frequency, what is the deviation
sensitivity of the modulator?
A. 1 kHz/volt
B. 5 kHz/volt
C. 10 kHz/volt
D. 20 kHz/volt
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 27
Capture range is also known as
A. Lock range
B. Acquire range
C. Tune-in range
D. Track range
 electronics systems and technologies
PHASE LOCKED LOOP
✓ It is the simplest and easiest to understand FM detector.
✓ It is a closed-loop feedback control system in which either the frequency or
the phase of the feedback signal is the parameter of interest rather than the
magnitude of the signal’s voltage or current.
✓ The PLL frequency demodulator requires no tuned circuits and
automatically compensates for changes in the carrier frequency due to
instability in the transmit oscillator.
 electronics systems and technologies
PHASE LOCKED LOOP
Error
Voltage Detected
Voltage
FM input Phase Loop
signal detector filter

VCO
 electronics systems and technologies
PHASE LOCKED LOOP
✓ Phase Detector – it is a non-linear device with two input signals; an
externally generated frequency and the VCO output frequency. The output
of the phase comparator is the sum and difference frequencies of the input
and the VCO output.
✓ Loop Filter – it helps establish the proper transient response and the
required filtering.
✓ Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) – it is an oscillator with a stable
frequency of oscillation that depends on the external bias voltage.
 electronics systems and technologies
PLL OPERATION
✓ The VCO output signal combines with the incoming signal to force the net
instantaneous signal frequency at the output of the phase detector to be
zero.
✓ If a changing frequency at the input would be received, an error voltage
would be produced at the output of the phase detector.
✓ The detected voltage (the filtered and processed error voltage), which
served as the input to the VCO would be an exact replica of the intelligence
(modulating signal).
 electronics systems and technologies
PLL LOOP OPERATION SITES
✓ Free-running State – it is the PLL state when there is no external input
frequency or the feedback loop is open.
✓ Capture State – it is the state when the PLL is in the process of acquiring
frequency lock.
✓ Lock State – it is the state when the VCO output frequency is locked onto
(equal to) the frequency of the external input signal.
 electronics systems and technologies
PHASE LOCKED LOOP PARAMETERS
✓ Lock Range – it is also known as tracking range, which is defined as the
range of frequencies in the vicinity of the VCO’s natural frequency over
which the PLL can maintain lock with an input signal.
✓ Hold-in Range – it is the lock range expressed as peak value. One-half the
lock range.
✓ Capture Range – it is also known as acquisition range, which is defined as
the band of frequencies in the vicinity of the natural frequency where the
PLL can establish or acquire lock with an input signal.
✓ Pull-in Range – it is the capture range expressed as a peak value. One-half
of capture range.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 28
If the total sideband power is 12.5% of the total radiated power, find
the modulation index.
A. 50 percent
B. 53.4 percent
C. 26.2 percent
D. 32.3 percent
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 28
If the total sideband power is 12.5% of the total radiated power, find
the modulation index.
A. 50 percent
B. 53.4 percent
C. 26.2 percent
D. 32.3 percent
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 29
For an unmodulated carrier of 150 V and a modulated peak value of
230 V. What is the modulation index?
A. 0.35
B. 0.533
C. 0.652
D. 0.42
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 29
For an unmodulated carrier of 150 V and a modulated peak value of
230 V. What is the modulation index?
A. 0.35
B. 0.533
C. 0.652
D. 0.42
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 30
If the sideband power is 50% of the carrier power, what is the
modulation index?
A. 50%
B. 75%
C. 90%
D. 100%
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 30
If the sideband power is 50% of the carrier power, what is the
modulation index?
A. 50%
B. 75%
C. 90%
D. 100%
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 31
The noise figure of the first circuit in tandem connection is 10.5 dB
while its power gain is 15, what is the overall noise figure if the
second circuit has a noise figure of 11 dB?
A. 11.59 dB
B. 11.23 dB
C. 10.79 dB
D. 10.5 dB
 electronics systems and technologies
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
It is the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level, and it is used
to determine the degree of intelligibility of a received signal of a certain system.

𝑆 𝑃𝑆 𝑆 𝑃𝑆
= = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑁 𝑑𝐵
𝑃𝑁
 electronics systems and technologies
FIGURE OF MERIT
These are the parameters, such as noise factor, noise figure, and equivalent
noise temperature, which are used to describe a system.

IDEAL VALUES
Noise Factor 1

Noise Figure 0 dB

Equivalent Noise Temperature 0K

 electronics systems and technologies
NOISE FACTOR
It is a figure of merit used to indicate how much signal-to-noise ratio
deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of circuits.

(𝑆/𝑁)𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐹=
(𝑆/𝑁)𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

NOISE FIGURE
It is also noise factor (F), but expressed in decibels.

𝑁𝐹 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐹)
 electronics systems and technologies
EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPERATURE
✓ It indicates the reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio a signal undergoes as it
propagates through a receiver.
✓ It is a convenient parameter often used rather than noise figure in low noise,
sophisticated VHF, UHF, microwave, and satellite radio receivers.

𝑻𝒆𝒒 = 𝑻𝒂 (𝑭 − 𝟏)
 electronics systems and technologies
CASCADED SYSTEMS input
AMP2 AMP3
output
AMP1

TOTAL GAIN OF CASCADED SYSTEMS

𝑮𝑻 = 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟑 … 𝑮𝒏 𝑮𝑻 𝒅𝑩 = 𝑮𝟏 𝒅𝑩 + 𝑮𝟐 𝒅𝑩 + 𝑮𝟑 𝒅𝑩 + ⋯ + 𝑮𝒏 𝒅𝑩

Overall System Equivalent

Noise Temperature Referred
𝑻𝒆𝒒𝟐 𝑻𝒆𝒒𝟑
𝑻𝒆𝒒𝑻 = 𝑻𝒆𝒒𝟏 + + +⋯
𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐
to the Input
 electronics systems and technologies
CASCADED SYSTEMS

Overall System Noise Factor 𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏 𝑭𝟑 − 𝟏

at the Output Friiss' Formula
𝑭𝑻 = 𝑭𝟏 + + +⋯
𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐

Overall System Equivalent 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 +

𝑹𝟐
+
𝑹𝟑
+⋯
Noise Resistance
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 31
The noise figure of the first circuit in tandem connection is 10.5 dB
while its power gain is 15, what is the overall noise figure if the
second circuit has a noise figure of 11 dB?
A. 11.59 dB
B. 11.23 dB
C. 10.79 dB
D. 10.5 dB
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 32
What is the noise voltage across a 300Ω input resistance to a TV set
with a 6MHz bandwidth and temperature of 30˚C?
A. 2.3 μV
B. 3.8 μV
C. 5.5 μV
D. 5.4 μV
 electronics systems and technologies
Thermal Noise
Noise Power

𝑷𝑵 = 𝒌𝑻𝑩 Total Noise Current

Noise Voltage 𝑰𝑵𝑻 = 𝑰𝟐𝑵𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐𝑵𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝟐𝑵𝒏

𝑽𝑵 = 𝟒𝒌𝑻𝑩𝑹 Total Noise Power

Total Noise Voltage 𝑷𝑵𝑻 = 𝑷𝑵𝟏 + 𝑷𝑵𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝑵𝒏

𝑽𝑵𝑻 = 𝑽𝟐𝑵𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐𝑵𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝟐𝑵𝒏

electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 32
What is the noise voltage across a 300Ω input resistance to a TV set
with a 6MHz bandwidth and temperature of 30˚C?
A. 2.3 μV
B. 3.8 μV
C. 5.5 μV
D. 5.4 μV
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 33
Convert noise factor of 4.02 to equivalent noise temperature. Use 300
K for environmental temperature
A. 876 K
B. 900 K
C. 906 K
D. 875 K
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 33
Convert noise factor of 4.02 to equivalent noise temperature. Use 300
K for environmental temperature
A. 876 K
B. 900 K
C. 906 K
D. 875 K
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 34
A transistor amplifier has a measured S/N power of 100 at its input
and 20 at its output. Determine the noise figure of the transistor.
A. 14 dB
B. 7 dB
C. -6 dB
D. -3 dB
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 34
A transistor amplifier has a measured S/N power of 100 at its input
and 20 at its output. Determine the noise figure of the transistor.
A. 14 dB
B. 7 dB
C. -6 dB
D. -3 dB
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 35
In a microwave communications system, determine the noise power in
dBm for an equivalent noise bandwidth of 10 MHz.
A. -104 dBm
B. -114 dBm
C. -94 dBm
D. -174 dBm
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 35
In a microwave communications system, determine the noise power in
dBm for an equivalent noise bandwidth of 10 MHz.
A. -104 dBm
B. -114 dBm
C. -94 dBm
D. -174 dBm
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 36
Noise from random acoustic or electric noise that has equal energy
per cycle over a specified total frequency band.
A. Gaussian noise
B. White noise
C. Thermal noise
D. All of the above
 electronics systems and technologies
CATEGORIES OF NOISE
NOISE

UNCORRELATED CORRELATED

EXTERNAL INTERNAL Harmonic Distortion

Intermodulation
Extraterrestrial, Thermal, White,
Atmospheric or Industrial or Man- Distortion
Space, or Deep Johnson, Brownian, or
Static Noise Space Noise made Noise Gaussian Noise Impulse Noise
Shot Noise
Solar Noise
Partition or Transistor
Cosmic, Sky, Stellar, or Noise
Black Body Noise
Excess, Modulation,
Galactic Noise Flicker, Pink or 1/f Noise
Transit Time or High
Frequency Noise
Burst or Popcorn Noise

Avalanche Noise
 electronics systems and technologies
CATEGORIES OF NOISE
✓ Uncorrelated Noise - it is a noise that is present regardless of whether there
is signal present or not.

✓ Correlated Noise - it is a noise that is correlated (mutually related) to the

signal and cannot be present in a circuit unless there is a signal.
 electronics systems and technologies
UNCORRELATED NOISE EXTERNAL NOISE
It is a type of noise that affects the communication system coming from the
outside environment.

TYPES OF EXTERNAL NOISE

✓ Atmospheric Noise - it is also known as static noise which is a naturally
occurring electrical disturbance that originates within Earth's atmosphere. It
is caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and other natural
electrical disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. It also is the familiar
sputtering, crackling, and so on often heard from a speaker when there is no
signal present. It has a very high peak-to-average power ratio, and
dominates at lower frequencies.
 electronics systems and technologies
TYPES OF EXTERNAL NOISE
Extraterrestrial Noise - it consists of electrical signals that originate from outside
Earth's atmosphere and is also known as space or deep-space noise.
✓ Solar Noise - it is generated directly from the sun's heat (i.e., it is a
constant noise radiation from the sun). It is an electrical disturbance due
to solar cycle activities that repeats every 11 years like corona and
sunspots. It is more important at higher frequencies.
✓ Cosmic Noise - it is also known as sky noise, stellar noise, or black body
noise. It is an RF noise radiated by distant stars, and what they lack in
nearness, they nearly makeup in numbers. It is also continuously
distributed throughout the galaxies.
✓ Galactic Noise - it is a noise other than solar and cosmic noise.
 electronics systems and technologies
TYPES OF EXTERNAL NOISE
✓ Industrial Noise - it is also known man-made noise, since it is produced by
mankind. It is usually between 1-600 MHz usually most intense in industrial
and densely populated areas. Automobile and aircraft ignition, electric
motors and switching equipment, leakage from high voltage lines,
fluorescent lamps, etc. are some sources of industrial noise.
 electronics systems and technologies
UNCORRELATED NOISE INTERNAL NOISE
It is an electrical interference generated within a device or circuit.

TYPES OF INTERNAL NOISE

✓ Thermal Noise - it is associated with the rapid and random movement of
electrons within a conductor due to thermal agitation. It is known as
thermal noise, because it is temperature dependent. It is known as
Brownian noise, after its discoverer. It is known as Johnson noise, after the
man who related Brownian particle movement of electron movement. It is
known as white noise, because the random movement is at all frequencies.
It is also known Gaussian noise.
 electronics systems and technologies
TYPES OF INTERNAL NOISE
✓ Shot Noise - it is caused by the random arrival of carriers (holes and
electrons) at the output element of an electronic device. It is due to random
variations in current flow specifically in active devices such as tubes,
transistors, semiconductor diodes, etc. It is commonly found in devices with
PN junctions.
For Vacuum Tube Diodes For PN Junction Semiconductor Diodes

𝑰𝑵 = 𝟐𝑩𝑰𝑫𝑪 𝒒 𝑰𝑵 = 𝟐𝑩 𝑰𝑫𝑪 + 𝟐𝑰𝑺 𝒒

 electronics systems and technologies
TYPES OF INTERNAL NOISE
✓ Partition Noise - it is also known as transistor noise, since it is commonly
found in transistors. It is similar to shot noise but occurs only in devices
where single current separates into two or more paths.

✓ Excess Noise - it is also known as modulation noise, flicker noise, or 1/f

noise because its noise power varies inversely with frequency. It is also
known as pink noise because there is proportionately more energy at the
low-frequency end of the spectrum (i.e., it is common in low frequencies). It
is used for testing and setting up audio systems.
 electronics systems and technologies
TYPES OF INTERNAL NOISE
✓ Transit Time Noise - it is an irregular, random variation produced by any
modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from input to output of a
device. Its greatest effect is in microwave region, and therefore also known
as high frequency noise.

✓ Burst Noise - it is also known as popcorn noise, which is a low frequency

noise found in transistors such as BJTs (bipolar junction transistors). It
appears as series of burst at two or more levels.

✓ Avalanche Noise - these are large noise spikes present in the avalanche
current due to oscillation that result in the avalanching region.
 electronics systems and technologies
COLORS OF NOISE
✓ White Noise - it is a type of noise having a flat spectrum over a defined
frequency band (i.e., it has constant intensity).
✓ Pink Noise - it is a noise having a power density that decreases by 3 dB per
octave.
✓ Brown (Red) Noise - it is a type of noise having a power density that
decreases by 6 dB per octave (i.e., it has low intensity when frequency is
high).
✓ Blue Noise - it is a noise having a power density that increases by 3 dB per
octave.
✓ Violet Noise - it is a noise having a power density that increases by 6 dB per
octave.
 electronics systems and technologies
COLORS OF NOISE
✓ Gray Noise - it is a noise that sounds the same to the ears regardless of the
frequency.
✓ Orange Noise - it is said to be a clashing, displeasing noise as if all of the "in
tune" notes of a song are replaced with "out of tune" notes.
✓ Green Noise - these are background noises of the world.
✓ Black Noise - it is a silent noise (noise consisting of mostly silence).
 electronics systems and technologies
CORRELATED NOISE HARMONIC DISTORTION
It is also known as amplitude distortion, which occurs when unwanted
harmonics of a signal are produced through nonlinear amplification
(nonlinear mixing).

POWER OF A SIGNAL HAVING DISTORTION

The power of a signal with distortion is always greater than its original power
without distortion.

𝟐
|𝑨𝒏 |
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝑻𝑯𝑫 ) 𝑻𝑯𝑫 = 𝑫𝟐𝟐 + 𝑫𝟐𝟑 + ⋯+ 𝑫𝟐𝒏 𝑫𝒏 =
|𝑨𝟏 |
 electronics systems and technologies
CORRELATED NOISE
INTERMODULATION DISTORTION
It is the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies when two or
more signals are amplified by a nonlinear device.

IMPULSE NOISE
It consists of sudden burst of irregularly shaped pulses characterized by high-
amplitude peaks of short duration in the total noise spectrum.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 37
Which noise is produced by lighting discharges in thunderstorms?
A. White noise
B. Extraterrestrial noise
C. Industrial noise
D. Atmospheric noise
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 38
At 17˚C, the noise voltage generated by 5 kΩ resistor, operating over
a bandwidth of 20 kHz is
A. 1.3 nV
B. 1.3 µV
C. 1.3 pV
D. 1.3 mV
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 38
At 17˚C, the noise voltage generated by 5 kΩ resistor, operating over
a bandwidth of 20 kHz is
A. 1.3 nV
B. 1.3 µV
C. 1.3 pV
D. 1.3 mV
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 39
Three identical circuits having 10 dB signal-to-noise ratio each are
connected in tandem with each other, what is the overall S/N?
A. 5.23 dB
B. 14.77 dB
C. 30 dB
D. 40 dB
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 39
Three identical circuits having 10 dB signal-to-noise ratio each are
connected in tandem with each other, what is the overall S/N?
A. 5.23 dB
B. 14.77 dB
C. 30 dB
D. 40 dB
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 40
What is the percent total harmonic distortion for a fundamental
frequency with amplitude of 10 Vrms, second harmonic amplitude of
0.2 Vrms, and the third harmonic amplitude of 0.1 Vrms?
A. 2.24%
B. 2.5%
C. 1.25%
D. 3.5%
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 40
What is the percent total harmonic distortion for a fundamental
frequency with amplitude of 10 Vrms, second harmonic amplitude of
0.2 Vrms, and the third harmonic amplitude of 0.1 Vrms?
A. 2.24%
B. 2.5%
C. 1.25%
D. 3.5%
electronics systems and technologies

END