LOAD CHARACTERISTICS

Intended Learning Outcome:

1. Discuss the nature of loads in individual customer load and

distribution transformer loading;

2. Solve practical problems in the different load characteristics in

individual customer and group presented in distribution system;

3. Compile solutions in load characteristics in distribution system, or

process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as
economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety,
manufacturability, and sustainability, in accordance with standards.

Nature of Loads

The modeling and analysis of a power system depend upon the load. What is load? The
answer to that question depends upon what type of an analysis is desired. For example, the
steady-state analysis (power-flow study) of an interconnected transmission system will require
a different definition of load than that used in the analysis of a secondary in a distribution feeder.
The problem is that the load on a power system is constantly changing. The closer you are to
the customer, the more pronounced will be the everchanging load. There is no such thing as a
“steady-state” load.

Definition of Terms
The load that an individual customer or a group of customers presents to the distribution
system is constantly changing. Every time a light bulb or an electrical appliance is switched on
or off, the load seen by the distribution feeder changes. In order to describe the changing load,
the following terms are defined:
1. Demand
➢ load average over a specified period of time
➢ load can be kW, kVAR, kVA or A
➢ must include the time interval
Example: The 15-minute kW demand is 100kW.
2. Demand Interval
➢ period over which the load is averaged
3. Maximum Demand
➢ greatest of all demands that occur during a specific time
➢ must include demand interval, period and units
 Example: The 15-minute maximum kW demand for the week was 150kW.

4. Average Demand
➢ the average of the demands over a specified period (day, week, month, etc.)
➢ must include demand interval, period and units
Example: The 15-minute average kW demand for the month was 350 kW.
5. Diversified Demand (or Coincident Demand)
➢ sum of demands imposed by a group of loads over a particular period
➢ must include demand interval, period and units
Example: The 15-minute diversified kW demand in the period of ending at
9:30 was 200 kW.
6. Noncoincident Demand
➢ sum of the demands of a group of loads with no restrictions on the interval
to which each demand is applicable
7. Maximum Diversified Demand
➢ maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a group of loads over a
particular period
➢ must include demand interval, period and units
Example: The 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand for the week
was 500 kW.
8. Maximum Noncoincident Demand
➢ for a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands without
any restriction that they occur at the same time
➢ must include demand interval, period and units
Example: The maximum noncoincident 15-minute kW demand for the
week was 700 kW.
9. Demand Factor
➢ ratio of maximum demand to connected load
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
10. Connected Load
➢ sum of the continuous ratings of the load-consuming apparatus connected
to the system or any part thereof
11. Utilization Factor
➢ ratio of the maximum demand to rated capacity
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐹𝑢 =
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
12.Load Factor
➢ ratio of average demand of any individual customer or group of customers
over a period to the maximum demand over the same period
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹𝐿𝐷 =
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥 𝑇 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
or 𝐹𝐿𝐷 = = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥 𝑇
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥 𝑇

where T is the time (in days, weeks, months, or years). The longer the
period T is the resultant factor. The reason for this is that for the same maximum
demand, the energy consumption covers a larger time period and results in a small
average load. The time T is selected to be in days, weeks, months, or years, use it
in 24, 168, 730, or 8760 h, respectively. It is less than or equal to 1.0. Therefore,
the annual load factor is
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥 8760
13.Diversity Factor
➢ ratio of the maximum noncoincident demand to the maximum diversified
demand
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐹𝐷 =
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
or
𝐷1 +𝐷2 +𝐷3+ ...+𝐷𝑛
𝐹𝐷 =
𝐷𝑔

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
or 𝐹𝐷 =
𝐷𝑔

where Di is the maximum demand of load i, disregarding time of occurrence and

Dg = D1+2+3+ . . . + n is the coincident maximum demand of group n loads.
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝐹 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
or Maximum demand = total connected demand x DF
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑥𝐷𝐹𝑖
𝐹𝐷 =
𝐷𝑔
14.Load Diversity
➢ difference between maximum noncoincident demand and the maximum
diversified demand
𝑛

𝐿𝐷 = (∑ 𝐷𝑖 ) − 𝐷𝑔
𝑖=1
15.Plant Factor
➢ ratio of the total actual energy produced or served over a designated period
of time to the energy that would have been produced or served if the plant
(or unit) had operated continuously at maximum rating
➢ known as the capacity factor or the use factor
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑥 𝑇
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑇
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 8760
16.Coincidence Factor
➢ ratio of the maximum coincident total demand of a group of consumers to
the sum of the maximum power demands of individuals consumers
comprising the group both taken at the same point of supply for the same
time
𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐷𝑔
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
Thus, the coincidence factor is the reciprocal of diversity factor:
1
𝐹𝑐 =
𝐹𝐷
17.Contribution Factor
➢ The contribution factor of the ith load to the group maximum demand
𝐷𝑔 = 𝑐1 𝑥𝐷1 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝐷2 + 𝑐3 𝑥𝐷3 +. . . + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥𝐷𝑛
𝑐1 𝑥𝐷1 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝐷2 + 𝑐3 𝑥𝐷3 +. . . + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥𝐷𝑛
𝐹𝐶 =
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑐𝑖 𝑥𝐷𝑖
𝐹𝑐 =
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
Special Cases
Case 1: D1 = D2 = D3 = . . . = Dn = D
𝐷 𝑥 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑐𝑖
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑛𝑥𝐷
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑐𝑖
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑛
That is, the coincidence factor is equal to the average contribution factor.
Case 2: c1 = c2 = c3 = . . . = cn = c
 𝑐 𝑥 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐹𝑐 =
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑐
That is, the coincidence factor is equal to the contribution factor.
18.Loss Factor
➢ ratio of the average power loss to the peak load power loss during a
specified period of time
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝐿𝑆 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Examples:
Assume that the loading data given in the table below belongs to one of the primary
feeders of the No Light & No Power (NL & NP) Company and that they are for a typical winter
day. Develop the idealized daily load curve for the given hypothetical primary feeder.

Table 2.1 Idealized Load Data for the No Light & No Power Company’s Primary Feeder
Solution:
The solution is self-explanatory, as shown in the figure below

Figure 2.1 A daily demand variation curve

Figure 2.2 The daily load curve.

 Assume that annual peak load of primary feeder is 2000 kW, at which the power loss,
that is, total copper, or ∑ 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss, is 80 kW per three-phase. Assuming an annual loss factor of
0.15, determine:
a. the average annual power loss; and
b. the total annual energy loss due to the copper losses of the feeder circuits.

Solutions:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
= 80 𝑘𝑊 𝑥 0.15
= 12 𝑘𝑊

The total annual energy loss is

ℎ
𝑇𝐴𝐸𝐿𝐶𝑢 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑥 8760
𝑦𝑟

There are six residential customers connected to a distribution transformer (DT), as

shown in the figure below. Notice the code in the customer account number, for example 4276.
The first figure 4 stands for feeder F4; the second figure, 2 indicates the lateral number
connected to the F4 feeder; the third figure, 7 is for DT on that lateral; and the last figure, 6, is
for the house number connected to that DT.
Assume that the connected load is 9 kW per house and that the demand factor and
diversity factor for the group of six housed, either from the NL&NP Company’s records or
from the relevant handbooks, have been decided as 0.65 and 1.10, respectively. Determine the
diversified demand of six houses on the distributed transformer DT427.

Figure 2.3 Illustration of loads connected to a distribution transformer.

Solutions:
The diversified demand of the group on the DT is
(∑6𝑖=1 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑖 )
𝐷𝑔 =
𝐹𝐷
(∑6𝑖=1 9 𝑘𝑊 ) 𝑥 0.65
=
1.1
6 𝑥 9 𝑘𝑊 𝑥 0.65
=
1.1
= 31.9 𝑘𝑊

Assume that feeder 4 the last example has a system peak of 3000 kVA per phase and a
copper loss of 0.5% at the system peak. Determine the following:
a. the copper loss of the feeder in kilowatts per phase; and
b. the total copper loss of the feeder in kilowatts per three-phase.

Solutions:
The copper loss of the feeder in kilowatts per phase is
𝐼 2 𝑅 = 0.5% 𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
= 0.005 𝑥 3000 𝑘𝑉𝐴
= 15 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
The total copper losses of the feeder in kilowatts per three-phase is
3𝐼 2 𝑅 = 3 𝑥 15
= 45 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

Assume that there are two primary feeders supplied by one of the three transformers
located at the NL&NP’s Riverside distribution substation, as shown in the Figure 2.4. One of
the feeders supplies an industrial load which occurs primarily between 8 A.M. and 11 P.M.,
with a peak of 2000 kW at 5 P.M. The other one feeds residential loads which occur mainly
between 6 P.M. and 12 P.M., with a peak of 2000 kW at 9 P.M. as shown in the Figure 2.5.
Determine the following:
a. the diversity factor of the load to transformer T3;
b. the LD of the load connected to transformer T3; and
c. the coincidence factor of the load connected to transformer T3.
 Figure 2.4 The NL&NP’s Riverside distribution substation

Figure 2.5 Daily load curve of a substation transformer

Solutions:
The diversity factor of the load is
∑2𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐹𝐷 =
𝐷𝑔
2000 + 3000
=
3000
= 1.3
 The LD of the load is
2

𝐿𝐷 = ∑ 𝐷𝑖 − 𝐷𝑔
𝑖=1

= 4000 − 3000
= 1000 𝑘𝑊

The coincidence factor of the load is

1
𝐹𝑐 =
𝐹𝐷
1
=
1.33
≅ 0.752

Using the data given in the first problem of the example for the NL&NP’s load curve.
Note that the peak occurs at 5 P.M. Determine the following:
a. the class distribution for each of the three load classes;
b. the diversity factor of the primary feeder;
c. the diversified maximum demand of the load group; and
d. the coincidence factor of the load group.

Solutions:
The class contribution factor is
𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝑖.𝑒.,𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 ) 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑐𝑖 ≅
𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
For street, residential and commercial loads;
0 𝑘𝑊
𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑡 = =0
100 𝑘𝑊
600 𝑘𝑊
𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = = 0.6
1000 𝑘𝑊
1200 𝑘𝑊
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 = =1
1200 𝑘𝑊
The diversity factor is
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐹𝐷 =
𝐷𝑔

𝐷𝑔 = 𝑐1 𝑥 𝐷1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝐷2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 𝐷3 + . . . 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝐷𝑛
Therefore, the diversity factor for the primary feeder is
 ∑3𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐹𝐷 =
∑3𝑖=1 𝑐𝑖 𝑥 𝐷𝑖
100 + 1000 + 1200
= = 1.278
0 𝑥 100 + 0.6 𝑥 1000 + 1.0 𝑥 1200
The diversified maximum demand is the coincident maximum demand, that is D g.
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑥 𝐷𝐹𝑖
𝐹𝐷 =
𝐷𝑔
where the maximum demand is
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝐷𝐹

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐷𝑔 =
𝐷𝑔 𝐹𝐷

Therefore, the diversified maximum demand of load group is

∑3𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐷𝑔 =
𝐹𝐷
100 + 1000 + 1200
=
1.278
= 1800 𝑘𝑊
The coincidence factor of the load group
1 1
𝐹𝑐 = = = 0.7825
𝐹𝐷 1.278

Individual Customer Load

Demand

Figure 2.6 Customer Demand Curve

 To define the load, the demand curve is broken into equal time intervals. In Figure 2.6
the selected time interval is 15 minutes. In each interval the average value of the demand is
determined. In Figure 2.6 the straight lines represent the average load in a time interval. The
shorter the time interval, the more accurate will be the value of the load. This process is very
similar to numerical integration. The average value of the load in an interval is defined as the
15-minute kW demand.

Maximum Demand

Figure 2.7 Twenty-four (24) hour demand curve for Customer #1

The demand curve shown in Figure 2.7 represents a typical residential customer. Each
bar depicts the 15-minute kW demand. Note that during the 24-hour period there is a great
variation in the demand. This particular customer has three periods in which the kW demand
exceeds 6.0 kW. The greatest of these is the 15-minute maximum kW demand. For this customer
the 15-minute maximum kW demand occurs at 13:15 and has a value of 6.18 kW.

Average Demand
During the 24-hour period, energy (kWh) will be consumed. The energy in kWh used
during each 15-minute time interval is computed by:
1
𝑘𝑊ℎ = (15 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑘𝑊 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ) . ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
4
The total energy consumed during the day is the summation of all of the 15-minute
interval consumptions. The total energy consumed during the period by Customer #1 is 58.96
kWh. The 15-minute average kW demand is computed by:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 58.96
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = = 2.46𝑘𝑊
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 24
Distribution Transformer Loading

A distribution transformer will provide service to one or more customers. Each

customer will have a demand curve similar to that in Figure 2.7. However, the peaks and valleys
and maximum demands will be different for each customer. Figures 2.8, 2.9, and 2.10 give the
demand curves for the three additional customers connected to the same distribution
transformer. The load curves for the four customers show that each customer has unique loading
characteristic. The customers’ individual maximum kW demand occurs at different times of the
day. Customer #3 is the only one who will have a high load factor. A summary of individual
loads is given in Table 2.1. These four customers demonstrate that there is great diversity among
their loads.

Figure 2.8 Twenty-four (24) hour demand curve for Customer #2

Figure 2.9 Twenty-four (24) hour demand curve for Customer #3

 Figure 2.10 Twenty-four (24) hour demand curve for Customer #4

Table 2.2 Individual Customer Load Characteristics

Diversified Demand

Figure 2.11 Transformer diversified demand curve

The same distribution transformer serves the four customers discussed previously. The
sum of the four 15 kW demands for each time interval is the diversified demand for the group
in that time interval, and, in this case, the distribution transformer. The 15-minute diversified
kW demand of the transformer for the day is shown in Figure 2.11. Note how the demand curve
is beginning to smooth out. There are not as many significant changes as in some of the
individual customer curves.

Maximum Diversified Demand

The transformer demand curve of Figure 2.11 demonstrates how the combined
customer loads begin to smooth out the extreme changes of the individual loads. For the
transformer, the 15-minute kW demand exceeds 16 kW twice. The greater of these is the 15-
minute maximum diversified kW demand of the transformer. It occurs at 17:30 and has a value
of 16.16 kW. Note that this maximum demand does not occur at the same time as any one of
the individual demands, nor is this maximum demand the sum of the individual maximum
demands.

Load Duration Curve

A load duration curve can be developed for the transformer serving the four customers.
Sorting in descending order, the kW demand of the transformer develops the load duration
curve shown in Figure 2.12. The load duration curve plots the 15-minute kW demand versus
the percent of time the transformer operates at or above the specific kW demand. For example,
the load duration curve shows the transformer operates with a 15-minute kW demand of 12 kW
or greater 22% of the time. This curve can be used to determine whether a transformer needs to
be replaced due to an overloading condition.

Figure 2.12 Transformer Load Duration Curve

Maximum Noncoincident Demand

The 15-minute maximum noncoincident kW demand for the day is the sum of the
individual customer 15-minute maximum kW demands. For the transformer in question, the
sum of the individual maximums is

𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 6.18 + 6.82 + 4.93 + 7.05 = 24.98 𝑘𝑊

Diversity Factor

The ratio of the maximum noncoincident demand of a group of customers to the

maximum diversified demand of the group. With reference to the transformer serving four
customers, the diversity factor for the four customers would be

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 24.98

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 1.5458
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 16.16

The idea behind the diversity factor is that when the maximum demands of the
customers are known, then the maximum diversified demand of a group of customers can be
computed. There will be a different value of the diversity factor for different numbers of
customers. The value computed above would apply for four customers. If there are five
customers, then a load survey would have to be set up to determine the diversity factor for five
customers. This process would have to be repeated for all practical numbers of customers. Table
2.3 is an example of the diversity factors for the number of customers ranging from one to 70.
The table was developed from a different database than the four customers discussed
previously. A graph of the diversity factors is shown in Figure 2.13. Note in Table 2.3 and
Figure 2.13 that the value of the diversity factor basically leveled out when the number of
customers reached 70. This is an important observation because it means, at least for the system
from which these diversity factors were determined, that the diversity factor will remain
constant at 3.20 from 70 customers up. In other words, as viewed from the substation, the
maximum diversified demand of a feeder can be predicted by computing the total noncoincident
maximum demand of all of the customers served by the feeder and dividing by 3.2.
 Table 2.3 Diversity Factors

Figure 2.13 Diversity Factors

Demand Factor

The demand factor can be defined for an individual customer. For example, the 15-
minute maximum kW demand of Customer #1 was found to be 6.18 kW. In order to determine
the demand factor, the total connected load of the customer needs to be known. The total
connected load will be the sum of the ratings of all of the electrical devices at the customer’s
location. Assume that this total comes to 35 kW; then, the demand factor is computed to be

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 6.18

𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.1766
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 35
Utilization Factor

The utilization factor gives an indication of how well the capacity of an electrical
device is being utilized. For example, the transformer serving the four loads is rated 15 kVA.
Using the 16.16-kW maximum diversified demand and assuming a power factor of 0.9, the 15-
minute maximum kVA demand on the transformer is computed by dividing the 16.16-kW
maximum kW demand by the power factor, and would be 17.96 kVA. The utilization factor is
computed to be
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 17.96
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 1.197
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 15

Load Diversity

Load diversity is defined as the difference between the noncoincident maximum

demand and the maximum diversified demand. For the transformer in question, the load
diversity is computed to be
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 24.97 − 16.16 = 8.81 𝑘𝑊

Electric Meter
An electric meter is the device used to measure the electricity sold by the electric
utility company. It deals with two basic quantities: energy and power.
A watthour meter is used to measure the electric energy delivered to residential, commercial,
and industrial customers and also used to measure the electric energy passing through various
parts of generation, transmission, and distribution systems. Electric meters could be of two
types: the electromechanical meters and electronic (or also called digital) meters.

Figure 2.14 shows a single-phase (electromechanical) watthour meter; Figure 2.15

shows its basic parts; Figure 2.16 gives a diagram of a typical motor and magnetic retarding
system for a single-phase watthour meter. The magnetic retarding system causes the rotor disk
to establish, in combination with the stator, the speed at which the shaft will turn for a given
load condition to determine the watthour constant. Figure 2.17a shows a typical socket-
mounted two-stator polyphase watthour meter. It is a combination of single-phase watthour
meter stators that drivea rotor at a speed proportional to the total power in the circuit.
 Figure 2.14 Single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.

Figure 2.15 Basic parts of a single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.

 Figure 2.16 Diagram of a typical motor and magnetic retarding system for a single-phase
electromechanical watthour meter.

Figure 2.17 Typical polyphase (electromechanical) watthour meters: (a) self-contained meter (socket-
connected cyclometer type). (b) transformer-rated meter (bottom-connected pointer type).

Figure 2.17b shows a typical transformer- rated meter. Figure 2.18 shows a single-
phase, two-wire watthour electromechanical meter connected to a high-voltage circuit through
CTs and PTs. These transformers reduce the voltage and the current to values that are suitable
for low- voltage and low-current meters.
A demand meter is basically a watthour meter with a timing element added. The meter
functions as an integrator and adds up the kilowatt-hours of energy used in a certain time
interval, for example, 15, 30, or 60 min. Therefore, the demand meter indicates energy per time
interval, or average power, which is expressed in kilowatts. Figure 2.19 shows a demand
register.

Figure 2.18 Single-phase, two-wire electromechanical watthour meter connected to a high-voltage

circuit through current and potential transformers.

Figure 2.19 The register of an electromechanical demand meter for large customers.

Electronic (Or Digital) Meters

Utility companies have started to use new electronic (or digital) meters with
programmabledemand registers (PDRs) since 1980s.

A PDR can measure demand, whereas a traditional register measures only the amount
of electricity used in a month.
The PDR may also be programmed to record the date each time it is reset. The PDR
can also be programmed in many other ways.
Today, electronic meters can also measure some or all of the following capabilities:
• Time of use (TOU): The meter keeps up with energy and demand in multiple daily
periods.
• Bidirectional: The meter measures (as separate quantities) energy delivered to and
received from a customer. (It can be used by a customer who is able to generate
electricity and sell to a utility company.)
• Interval data recording: The meter has solid-state memory in which it can record
up to several months of interval-by-interval data.
• Remote communications: Its built-in communication capabilities allow the meter
to be interrogated remotely via radio, telephone, or other communications media.
• Diagnostics: The meter checks for the proper voltage, currents, and phase angles
on the meter conductors.
• Loss compensation: It can be programmed to automatically calculate watt and var
losses in transformers and electrical conductors based on defined or tested loss
characteristics of the transformers and conductors.
PRACTICE EXERCISES 2.1

Directions: Solve the following problems and show your solutions.

1. Shown below are the 15-minute kW demands for four customers between the hours of
17:00 and 21:00. A 25-kVA single-phase transformer serves the four customers.

For each of the customers determine:

a. Maximum 15-minute kW demand;
b. Average 15-minute kW demand;
c. Total kWh usage in the time period; and
d. Load factor
For the 25-kVA transformer determine:
a. Maximum 15-minute diversified demand;
b. Maximum 15-minute noncoincident demand;
c. Utilization factor (assume unity power factor);
d. Diversity factor; and
e. Load diversity
 2. Two transformer each serving four customers are show in the figure below:

The following table shown below gives the time interval and kVA demand of
the four customers demanding during the peak load of the year. Assume a power factor
of 0.9 lagging.

For each transformer determine the following:

a. 30-minute maximum kVA demand;
b. Noncoincident maximum kVA demand;
c. Load factor;
d. Diversity factor;
e. Suggested transformer rating (50, 75, 100, 67);
f. Utilization factor; and
g. Energy (kWh) during the 4-hour period.
Determine the maximum diversified 30-minute kVA demand of the tap.
3. The yearly duration curve of a certain plant can be considered as a straight line from 300
MW to 80 MW. Power is supplied with one generating unit of 200 MW capacity and two
units of 100 MW capacities. Determine the utilization factor.
REFERENCES:
Abdelhay A. Sallam & Om P. Malik, “Electric Distribution Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd
ed. 2019
Kersting, William H., “Distribution System Modeling and Analysis”, CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Groups, LLC, 2002;
T.A. Shorts, “Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems”, CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Groups, LLC, 2006;
Turan, Gönen, “Electric Power Distribution System Engineering”, CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Groups, LLC, 2008
V. Kamaraju, “Electrical Power Distribution Systems”, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2009