Reinforced Concrete Design

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CONCRETE William E. Ward built the first reinforced
AND REINFORCED CONCRETE AS concrete building in the United States in Port Chester,
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS N.Y., in 1875. In 1883 he presented a paper before the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers in which
Lime and mortar was first used in structures in he claimed that he got the idea of reinforced concrete
the Minoan Civilization in Crete about 2000 B.C. and by watching English laborers in 1867 trying to
still used in some areas. About the third century B.C., removed hardened cement for their iron tools.
the Romans discovered a fine sandy volcanic ash that,
when mixed with lime mortar, gave a much stronger Thaddeus Hyatt, an American, was probably
mortar, which could be used under water. the first person to correctly analyze the stresses in
reinforced concrete beam, and in 1877 he published a
The English engineer John Smeaton 28 page book on the subject, entitled An Account of
discovered that a mixture of burned lime-stone and Some Experiments with Portland Cement Concrete,
clay could be used to make a cement that would set Combined with Iron as a Building Material. In this
under water and be water resistant. In the ensuing book he praised the use of reinforced concrete and said
years a number of people used Smeaton’s material, but that “rolled beams have to be taken largely on faith.”
the difficulty of finding limestone and clay in the same Hyatt put a great deal of emphasis on the high
quarry greatly restricted its use. resistance of concrete.

In 1824, Joseph Aspdin mixed ground E.L. Ransome of San Francisco is supposed to
limestone and clay from different quarries and heated have used reinforced concrete in early 1870s and was
them in a kiln to make cement. Aspdin named his the originator of deformed (or twisted) bars, for which
product Portland Cement because concrete made he received a patent in 1884. These bars, which were
from it resembled Portland stone, a high-grade square in cross section, were cold-twisted with one
limestone from the Isle of Portland in the south of compete turn in a length of not more than 12 times tha
England. bar diameter.

The first uses of reinforced concrete are not INTRODUCTION TO REINFORCED

very well known. Much of the early work done by two CONCRETE
Frenchmen, Joseph Lambot and Joseph Monier. In
about 1850 Lambot built a concrete boat reinforced Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or
with a network of parallel wires or bars. Credit is other aggregates held together in a rocklike mass with
usually given to Monier, however, for the invention of a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one or more
reinforced concrete. From 1867 to 1881 Monier admixtures are added to change certain characteristics
received patents for reinforced concrete railroad ties, of the concrete such as its workability, durability, and
floors slabs, arches, footbridges, buildings and other time of hardening.
items in both France and Germany.
As with most rocklike substances, concrete has
Another Frenchman, Francois Coignet, built a high a compressive strength and a very low tensile
simple reinforced concrete structures and developed strength. Reinforced Concrete is a combination of
basic method of design. He was the first person to concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement
realize that the addition of too much water in the mix provides the tensile strength lacking in the concrete.
greatly reduced concrete strength. Other Europeans Steel reinforcing is also capable of resisting
who were early experimenters with reinforced concrete compression forces and is used in columns as well as
included the Englishmen William Fairbarn and in other situations.
William B. Wilkinson, the German G. A. Wayss, and
Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as
another Frenchman, Francois Hennebique.
building construction materials in every country
1
Reinforced Concrete Design
especially in the Philippines. Plain concrete and association is founded in 1961 to represent the
reinforced concrete are used in buildings of all sorts, structural engineering community nationwide. The
underground structures, water tanks, wind turbine NSCP is published in keeping with the association’s
foundations and towers, offshore oil exploration and objectives:
production structures, dams, bridges, and even
ships.This material has tremendous advantage, these  Maintenance of high ethical and professional
include the following: standards in the practice of structural
engineering.
1. It has considerable compressive strength.  Advancement of structural engineering
2. Has a great resistance to the actions of fire and knowledge
water and, in fact, is the best structural  Promotion of good public and private clientele
material available for situations where water is relationship, and
present.  Fellowship among structural engineers and
3. It is very rigid. professional relations with other allied
4. A low-maintenance material. technical and scientific organizations.
5. Has a very long service life
6. It is usually the only economical material PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
available for footings, basement walls, piers,
and similar applications. Compressive Strength
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be
cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes. The compressive strength of concrete 𝑓'𝑐 is
8. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for determined by testing to failure 28 day old 150 mm dia.
erection as compared to other materials. x 300 mm high concrete cylinders at a specified rate of
loading. For 28 day period the cylinders are usually
To use concrete successfully the designer must kept under water or in a room with constant
be completely familiar with its weak points as well as temperature and 100% humidity. Although concrete is
with its strong ones. Among of its disadvantages are available with 28 day ultimate strengths from 15 MPa
the following: up to as high as 70 MPa to 138 MPa, most of the
concrete used fall into the 20.70 MPa to 48.5 MPa
1. It has a very low tensile strength requiring the range.
use of tensile reinforcing.
2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in
place until it hardens sufficiently.
3. The low strength per unit weight of concrete
leads to heavy members.
4. The low strength per unit of volume of
concrete means members will be relatively
large, an important consideration for tall
buildings and long-span structures.
5. The properties of concrete vary widely due to
variations in its proportioning and mixing.
Furthermore, the pacing and curing of concrete
is not as carefully controlled as is the
productions of other materials.

DESIGN CODES The stress-strain curves in the figure represent

the results obtained from 28 day old standard cylinders
The most important code in the Philippines for of varying strengths. The following are some of the
reinforced concrete design the National Structural significant points that can be derived from the figure:
Code of the Philippines (NSCP) which is published
by the Association of Structural Engineers of the
Philippines, Inc. (ASEP). This professional
2
Reinforced Concrete Design
A. The curves are roughly straight while the loads is
increased from zero to about one-third to one-half the
concrete’s ultimate strength.

B. Beyond this range the behaviour of concrete is non-

linear. This lack of linearity of concrete stress-strain
curves at higher stresses causes some problems in the
structural analysis of concrete structures because their
behavior is also, non-linear at higher stresses.

C. Of particular importance is the fact that regardless

of strengths, all the concretes reach their ultimate
strengths at strains of about 0.002.

D. Concrete does not have a definite yield strength; Poisson’s Ratio

rather, the curves run smoothly on to the point of
rupture at strains of from 0.003 to 0.004. It will be As a concrete cylinder is subjected to
assumed for the purpose of future calculations in this compressive loads, it not only shortens in length but
text that concrete fails at 0.003. This value, which is also expands laterally. The ratio of this lateral
conservative for normal-strength concretes, may not be expansion to the longitudinal shortening is referred to
conservative for higher strength concrete. as Poisson’s Ratio. Its value from about 0.11 for the
higher-strength concretes to as high as 0.21 for the
E. Many tests have clearly shown that stress-strain weaker grade concretes, with average values of about
curves of concrete cylinders are almost identical to 0.16.
those for the compression sides of beams.
Creep
F. It should be further noticed that the weaker grades
of concrete are less brittle than the stronger ones - that Under sustained compressive loads concrete
is, they will take larger strains before braking. will continue to deform for long periods of time. This
additional deformation is called creep or plastic flow.
If a compressive load is applied to a concrete member,
an immediate or instantaneous or elastic shortening
Modulus of Elasticity occurs. If the load is left in place for a long time, the
member will continue to shorten over a period of
Concrete has no clear-cut modulus of elasticity. several years and the final deformation will usually be
Its value varies with different concrete strengths, 2 to 3 times the initial deformation. This means that
concrete age, type of loading, and the characteristics of long-term defections may also be as much as 2 or 3
the cement and aggregates. Furthermore, there are times initial deflection. Perhaps 75% of the total creep
several different definitions of the modulus: will occur during the first year.
a. The initial modulus is the slope of the stress- Shrinkage
strain diagram at the origin of the curve,
b. The tangent modulus is the slope of a tangent When the materials for concrete are mixed, the
to the curve at some point along the curve-for paste consisting of cement and water fills the voids
instance, at 50% of the ultimate strength of the between the aggregate and bonds the aggregate
concrete. together. This mixture needs to be sufficiently
c. The slope of a line drawn from the origin to a workable or fluid so that it can be made to flow in
point on the curve somewhere between 25% between the reinforcing bars and all through the forms.
and 50% of its ultimate compressive strength To achieve this desired workability, considerably more
is referred to as a secant modulus. water is used than is necessary for the cement an water
d. The apparent modulus or the long-term to react (called hydration).
modulus is determined by using the stresses
and strains obtained after the load has been After the conrete has been cured and begins to
applied for a certain length of time. dry, the extra mixing water tat was used begins to
3
Reinforced Concrete Design
work its way out of the concrete to the surface, where 5. Quick Setting Cement - similar to extra-rapid
it evaporates. As a result, the concrete shrinks and hardening cement, this concrete type may set and
cracks. The resulting cracks may reduce the shear become stronger even quicker than OPC and
strength of the members and be detrimental to he rapid-hardening cement. It used in time-sensitive
appearance of the structure. In addition, the cracks may projects or those located near stagnant or running
permit the reinforcing to be exposed to the atmosphere water.
or chemicals, thereby increasing the possibility of
corrosion. 6. Low-Heat Cement - it may be suitable for mass
concrete construction or projects to help prevent
Shrinkage continues fr many years, but under cracking due to heat. However, low-heat cement
ordinary conditions probably about 90% of it occurs may have a longer initial setting time than other
during the first year. The amount of moisture that is types.
lost varies with the distance from the surface.
Furthermore, the larger the surface area of a member 7. Sulfate-Resisting Cement - it helps reduce the risk of
in proportion to its volume, the larger the rate of sulfate side effects on concrete. It most common
shrinkage, that is, members with small cross-sections use is for construction foundations in soil with
shrink more proportionately than do those with large high sulfate content. This concrete type can also
cross-sections. be beneficial for projects like canal linings,
culverts and retaining walls.
CEMENT
8. Blast Furnace Slag Cement - it is used for less
Cement is a hydraulic binder, a finely ground expensive or financially conscious projects.
inorganic material which, when mixed with water
forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of 9. High-Alumina Cement - is a type of rapid-hardening
hydration reactions and processes which, after cement created by melting bauxite and lime
hardening, retains its strength and stability even under together and grinding it with clinker. It has a high
water. compressive strength and may be more flexible
and workable than OPC.
Types of Cement
10. White Cement - a type of OPC that’s white instead
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) - is the most of gray. Its often useful in architectural projects
widely used type of cement. OPC is suitable for and interior and exterior decorative projects like
most general concrete jobs and mortar or stucco designing garden paths, floors, swimming pools
construction projects. and ornamental concrete products.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) - by grinding 11. Colored Cement - it has properties similar to OPC
pozzolanic clinker, sometimes with additives of and white cement. Its often use for decorative
gypsum or calcium sulfate, with ordinary Portland purposes and projects to enhance their design.
Cement. It has a higher resistance to verious
chemical reactions within concrete, PPC is often 12. Air-Entraining Cement - it is more workable with a
used for projects like bridges, piers, dams, marine smaller water-cement ratio than OPC and other
structures, sewage works or underwater concrete types of cement. A common use for this type of
projects. cement is for frost resistance in concrete.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement - it has high strength 13. Expansive Cement - it can grow slightly over time
compare to OPC strength at seven days with the without shrinking during the hardening process. It
same water-to-cement ratio. may be beneficial for projects like grouting
anchor bolts or concrete ducts.
4. Extra-Rapid Hardening Cement - may sey and
become durable even faster than OPC and Rapid 14. Hydrographic Cement - it has high workability and
Hardening Cement. This cement tyoe may be strength and also repels water to prevent weather
used for cold weather concrete projects due to its damage. It can use for projects such as dams,
fast setting rate. water tanks, spillways and water retaining
structures.
4
Reinforced Concrete Design
15. Portland-Limestone Cement (PLC) - its properties many variations and sizes available, you’ll have the
are similar to Portland Cement for general use. confidence to work with this material for your next
However, it has also about 10% lower greenhouse construction project.
gas emissions, which can help increase
sustainability.

Portland Cement Type

Type I/Type IA - this type of cement is used for general

purposes where the special properties specified
for any other type are not required. Type IA,
however, is an air-entraining type cement.

Type II/Type IIA - this type of cement is also used for

general use, mere especially when moderately
sulphate resistance or moderate heat of hydration
is required. Type IIA is an air-entraining type
cement. This type of cement is used for structures
exposed to soil or water containing sulphate ions.

Type II (MH)/Type II (MH)A - this type of cement is

similar to that to Type II/IIA cement but is added Yield strength and tensile strength as the
with a moderate heat of hydration characteristic minimum and maximum stress ranges for a particular
based on a requirement. rebar grade. Yield strength is the minimum amount of
stress a material can take before it begins to deform
Type III/IIIA - this type of cement is used when high permanently. Conversely, tensile strength measures the
early strength is required. It is applicable for rapid maximum amount of stress a material can take before
construction projects as well as cold weather being permanently damaged and broken.
concreting.
Rebar grades are set by Philippines National
Type IV - this type of cement is used when a low heat Standard for steel bars for Concrete Reinforcement,
of hydration is required, meaning “slow reacting”. under PNS-49:2002. The three grades under this
It is used in massive structures such as dams specification - namely, Grades PNS 230, 275 and 415 -
where the rate and amount of heat generated from trace their roots to American Society for Testing and
hydration must be minimized. It develops strength Materials (ASTM) specifications. The table below
slower than other cement types. provides a handy reference as to the common
understanding in the market regarding these grades.
Type V - this type of cement has a high sulphate
resistance. It is used for structures, particularly
those near oceans and soils, which are exposed to
high levels of sulphate ions.

REINFORCING BARS

Steel reinforcing bars or rebars are used to

improve the tensile strength of the concrete since
concrete is very weak in tension, but is strong in
compression. Steel is only used as rebar because
elongation of steel due to high temperatures nearly
equals to that of concrete.

There are many steel rebar sizes, grades and

types to support a variety of structures. By better
understanding what rebar is, how it is used, and the
5
Reinforced Concrete Design
The cut length of a rebar varies as well Types of Steel Reinforcement Bars
because of shrinkage as it cools down. The standard
however limits this shrinkage, and the minimum 1. Mild Steel Bar - are plain and round in shape. They
lengths of the finished rebar are shown below. are available in various sizes of 6 mm to 50 mm.
They are used in concrete for special purposes,
Std. Length (m) Min. Acceptable Length (m) such as dowels at expansion joints, where bars
6.0 5.960 must slide in a metal or paper sleeve, for
7.5 7.453 contraction joints in roads and runways, and for
9.0 8.935 column spirals. They are easy to cut and bend
10.5 10.440 without damage. Available grade: Grade 40,
12.0 11.940 Grade 60 and Grade 75.

Our rebar comes in these commercial lengths: 2. Deformed Steel Bar - bars have ribs, lugs and
6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5 and 12.0 meters. Special lengths of indentation on the surface of the bar, which
13.5 and 15.0 meters are subject to special orders and reduces the major problem that is faced by mild
negotations. steel bar due to slippage and good bonding is
achieved between concrete and rebar. The tensile
properties is higher compared to other rebars.
These bars are produced in sections from 6mm to
50mm diameter.

3. European Rebar - is made of manganese, which

makes them bend easily. They’re not suitable for
use in areas that are prone to extreme weather
conditions or geological effects, such as
earthquakes, hurrincanes, or tornadoes. The cost
of this rebar is low.

4. Carbon Steel Bar - as the name represents, it is

made up of carbon steel and is commonly known
as Black Bar due to carbon colour. The main
drawback of this rebar is that it corrodes, which
adversely effect the concrete and structure. The
tensile strength ratio coupled with the value
makes black rebar one of the best choices.

5. Epoxy-Coated Rebar - is black rebar with an epoxy

coat. It has the same tensile strength, but is 70 to
1,700 times more resistant to corrosion. However,
the epoxy coating is incredibly delicate. The
greater the damage to the coating, the less
resistant to corrosion.

6. Galvanized Rebar - is only forty times more

resistant to corrosion than black rebar, but it is
more difficult to damage the coaring of
galvanized rebar. In that respect, it has more value
than epoxy-coated rebar. However, it is about
40% more expensive than epoxy-coated rebar.

7. Glass-Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) - is made

up of carbon fiber. As it is made up of fiber,
bending is not allowed. It is very resistant to

6
Reinforced Concrete Design
corrosion and is costly when compared to other to develop the design strength of reinforcement at a
rebars. critical section.

8. Stainless Steel Rebar - it is the most expensive DROP PANEL is a projection below the slab used to
reinforcing bar available, about eight times the reduce the amount of negative reinforcement over a
price of epoxy-coated rebar. It is also the best column or the minimum required slab thickness, and to
rebar available for most projects. However, using increase the slab shear strength.
stainless steel in all but the most unique of
circumference if often overkill. EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION is a distance
measured from extreme compression fiber to centroid
DEFINITION OF TERMS of tension reinforcement.

ANCHOR is a steel element either cast into concrete HOOP is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A
or post-installed into a hardened concrete member and closed tie, made up of one or several reinforcement
used to transmit applied loads to the concrete. elements, each having seismic hooks at both ends. A
closed toe shall not be made up of interlocking headed
BEAM is a member subjected primarily to flexure and deformed bars. Section 425.7.4.
shear, with or without axial force or torsion; beams in
a moment frame that forms part of the lateral-force- REINFORCEMENT is a steel element or elements
resisting systems are predominantly horizontal embedded in concrete and conforming to Sections
members; a girder is a beam. 420.2 through 420.5. Prestressed reinforcement in
external tendons is also considered reinforcement.
COLUMN is a member, usually vertical or
predominantly vertical, used primarily to support axial SHEAR CAP is a projection below the slab used to
compressive load, but that can also resist moment, increase the slab shear strength.
shear, or torsion. Columns used as part of a lateral-
force-resisting system resist combined axial load, SPACING is a center-to-center distance between
moment, and shear. Refer to moment frame. adjacent items, such as longitudinal reinforcement,
transverse reinforcement, prestressing reinforcement,
CONCRETE are mixture of Portland cement or any or anchors.
other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water, with or without admixtures. SPACING, CLEAR is a least dimension between the
outermost surfaces of adjacent items.
CONCRETE, LIGHTWEIGHT is a concrete
containing lightweight aggregate and an equivalent SPAN LENGTH is a distance between supports.
density, as determined by ASTM C567, between 1440
and 1840 kg/m3. STIRRUP is an reinforcement used to resist shear and
torsion stresses in a structural member, typically
CONCRETE, NON-PRESTRESSED is a reinforced deformed bars, deformed wires, or welded wire
concrete with at least the minimum amount of non- reinforcement either single leg or bet into L, U or
prestressed reinforcement and no prestressed rectangular shapes and located perpendicular to or at
reinforcement; or any two-way slabs with less than the an angle to longitudinal reinforcement.
minimum amount of prestressed reinforcement.
STRENGTH, DESIGN is a nominal strength
CONCRETE, SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE multiplied by a strength reduction factor, Ø.
STRENGTH (𝒇' 𝒄) is a compressive strength of
concrete used in design and evaluated in accordance STRENGTH, NOMINAL is strength of a member or
with provisions of the NSCP 2015, MPa. Whenever cross section calculated in accordance with provisions
the quantity is under a radical sign, square root of and assumptions of the strength design method of this
numerical value only is intended, and result has units chapter before application of any strength reduction
of MPa. factors.

DEVELOPMENT LENGTH is a length of embedded TIE is a loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing
reinforcement, including prestressing strand, required longitudinal reinforcement; a continuously wound bar

7
Reinforced Concrete Design
or wire in the form of a circle, rectangle, or other of the system to be used is based on how well
polygon shape without re-entrant corners is acceptable; the overall design satisfies the client’s needs
refer to stirrup or hoop; or a tension member in a strut- within the budget available.
and-tie model. 3. Design of individual systems. Once the
overall layout and general structural concept
DESIGN PROCESS have been selected, the structural system can
be designed. Structural design involves three
A structural engineer is a member of a team main steps. Based on the preliminary design
that works together to design a building, bridges or selected in phase 2, a structural analysis is
other structure. In the case of a building, an architect carried out to determine the moments, shear,
generally provides the overall layout, and mechanical, torques, and axial forces in the structure. The
electrical and structural engineers design individual individual members are the proportioned to
systems with the building. resist these load effects. The proportioning,
sometimes referred to as member design, must
The structure should satisfy four major criteria: also consider overall aesthetics, the
constructability of the design, coordination
1. Appropriateness. The arrangement of spaces,
with mechanical and electrical systems, and
spans, ceiling height, access and traffic flow
the sustainability of the final structure. The
must complement the intended use. The
final stage in the design process is to prepare
structure should fit its environment and be
construction drawings and specifications.
aesthetically pleasing.
2. Economy. The overall cost of the structure CODES SPECIFIED IN THE NSCP Vol. 1 7th Ed.
should not exceed the client budget.
Frequently, teamwork in design will lead to Chapter 4 refers to the structural concrete
overall economies. provision of the National Structural Code of the
3. Structural Adequacy. Structural adequacy Philippines, Volume 1 (NSCP Vol. 1), 7th Edition and
involves two major aspects. may be cited as such, and will be referred to herein as
a. A structure must be strong enough to “this code”
support all anticipated loadings safely.
b. A structure must not deflect, tilt, This chapter provides minimum requirements
vibrate, or crack in a manner that for the design and construction of structural concrete
impairs its usefulness. elements of any building or other structure under
4. Maintainability. A structure should be requirements of the National Building Code of the
designed so as to a require minimum amount Philippines. This chapter also covers the strength
of simple maintenance procedures. evaluation of existing concrete structures.

The design process is a sequential and iterative For structural concrete, 𝑓'𝑐 shall not be less
decision-making process. The three major phases than 17 MPa. No maximum value of 𝑓'𝑐 shall apply
are the following: unless restricted by a specific code provision.

1. Definition of the client’s needs and

priorities. All buildings or other structures are
built to fulfill a need. It is important that the LOADS (Section 405)
owner or user be involved in determining the
attributes of the proposed building. These Loads shall include self-weight; applied loads; and
include functional requirements, aesthetic effects of prestressing, earthquakes, restraint of volume
requirements, and budgetary requirements. change, and differential settlement. Loads and seismic
The latter include initial cost, premium for zones shall be in accordance with the general building
rapid construction to allow early occupancy, code, or determined by another authority having
maintenance, and other life-cycle costs. jurisdiction in areas without a legally adopted building
2. Development of project concept. Based on code. Live load reductions shall be permitted in
the client’s needs and priorities, a number of accordance with the general building code or, in the
possible layouts are developed. Preliminary absence of a general building code, in accordance with
cost estimates are made, and the final choice ASCE/SEI 7.
8
Reinforced Concrete Design
Load Factors and Combinations (Sec. 405.3) Slender walls shall be permitted to be analyzed in
accordance with Section 411.8 for out-of-plane effects.
Table 405.3.1
Load Combinations Diaphragms shall be permitted to be analyzed in
accordance with Section 412.4.2.
Primary
Load Designation Equation A member or region shall be permitted to be analyzed
Load
U = 1.4D (405.3.1a) D and designed using the strut-and-tie method in
U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lr accordance with Section 423.
(405.3.1b) L
or R)
Slenderness effects shall be permitted to be neglected
U = 1.2D + 1.6 (Lr or R) +
(405.3.1c) Lr or R if (a) or (b) is satisfied:
(1.0L or 0.5W)
U = 1.2D + 1.0W + 1.0L + a. For columns not braced against sidesway
(405.3.1d) W
0.5 (Lr or R)
U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L (405.3.1e) E 𝑘𝑙𝑢
≤ 22
U = 0.9D + 1.0W (405.3.1f) W 𝑟
U = 0.9D + 1.0E (405.3.1g) E
b. For columns braced against sidesway
Required strength, U, shall be at least equal to the 𝑘𝑙𝑢 𝑀1
effects of factored loads in Table 405.3.1, with ≤ 34 + 12
𝑟 𝑀2
exceptions and additions in Section 405.3.3 through
405.3.11. and
𝑘𝑙𝑢
≤ 40
𝑟

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (Sec. 406) where 𝑀1 /𝑀2 is negative if the column is bent in
single curvature, and positive for double curvature.
Members and structural systems shall be permitted to
be modelled in accordance with Section 406.3. All The radius of gyration, 𝑟 , shall be permitted to be
members and structural systems shall be analyzed for calculated by (a), (b) or (c):
the maximum effects of loads including the 𝐼𝑔
arrangements of live load in accordance with Section a. 𝑟= 𝐴𝑔
406.4. b. 0.30 times the dimension in the direction
stability is being considered for rectangular
Methods of analysis permitted in this Section shall be columns.
(a) through (e). c. 0.25 times the diameter of circular columns.
a. The simplified methods for analysis of For composite columns, the radius of gyration, 𝑟, shall
continuous beams and one-way slabs for not be taken greater than:
gravity loads in Section 406.5;
b. First-order in Section 406.6; 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
5
𝐸𝑠𝐼𝑠𝑥
c. Elastic second-order in Section 406.7; 𝑟= 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑔
𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑥
5
d. Inelastic second-order in Section 406.8;
e. Finite element in Section 406.9. Longitudinal bars located within a concrete core
encased by structural steel or within transverse
Additional analysis methods that are permitted include reinforcement surrounding a structural steel core shall
Sections 406.2.4.1 through 406.2.4.4. be permitted to be used in calculating 𝐴𝑠𝑥 and 𝐼𝑠𝑥 .
Two-way slabs shall be permitted to be analyzed for T-beam Geometry (Sec. 406.3.2)
gravity loads in accordance with (a) or (b):
For non-prestressed T-beams supporting monolithic or
a. Direct design method in Section 408.10; composite slabs, the effective flange width 𝑏𝑓 shall
b. Equivalent frame method in Section 408.11 include the beam web width 𝑏𝑤 plus an effective
overhanging flange width in accordance with Table

9
Reinforced Concrete Design
406.3.2.1, where ℎ is the slab thickness and 𝑠𝑤 is the Exterior 𝑤 𝑢 𝑙𝑛 2
face of Two spans
clear distance to the adjacent web. 9
first
Table 406.3.2.1 interior More than two 𝑤 𝑢 𝑙𝑛 2
Dimensional Limits for Effective Overhanging Flange support spans 10
Width for T-beams Face of
𝑤 𝑢 𝑙𝑛 2
other All
Flange Effective overhanging Flange supports 11
Location Width, beyond face of web (a) Slabs with
8ℎ spans not
Each side of
Least of: 𝑠𝑤 /2 exceeding 3 m
web
𝑙𝑛/8 (b) Beams
6ℎ Face of
One side of where ratio of
Least of: all
web
𝑠𝑤 /2 the sum of 𝑤 𝑢 𝑙𝑛 2
supports
𝑙𝑛/12 column 12
satisfying
stiffness to
(a) or (b)
beam stiffness
Simplified Method of Analysis for Non-Prestressed exceeds 8 at
Continuous Beams and One-way Slabs (Sec. 406.5) each end of
span
It shall be permitted to calculate Mu and Vu due to
gravity loads in accordance with this section for
continuous beams and one-way slabs satisfying (a) Vu due to gravity loads shall be calculated in
through (e): accordance with Table 406.5.4
a. Members are prismatic; Table 406.5.4
b. Loads are uniformly distributed; Approximate Shears for Non-Prestressed Continuous
c. 𝐿𝐿 ≤ 3𝐷𝐿 Beams and One-Way Slabs
d. There are at least two spans;
e. The longer of two adjacent spans does not Location Vu
exceed shorter by more than 20 percent. Exterior face of first 1.15𝑤𝑢 𝑙𝑛
interior support
2
Mu due to gravity loads shall be calculated in Face of all other 𝑤 𝑢 𝑙𝑛
accordance with Table 406.5.2. supports
2
Table 406.5.2
Approximate Moments for Non-Prestressed Slenderness Effects, Moment Magnification Method
Continuous Beams and One-way Slabs (Section 406.6.4)
Moment Location Condition Mu Unless Section 406.2.5 is satisfied, columns and
Discontinuous 2 stories in structures shall be designated as being
𝑤𝑢𝑙𝑛
end integral
14 nonsway or sway. Analysis of columns in nonsway
with support
End Span frames or storeys shall be in accordance with Section
Discontinuous
Positive 𝑤𝑢𝑙𝑛2 406.6.4.5. Analysis of columns in sway frames or
end
unrestrained 11 storeys shall be in accordance with Section 406.6.4.6.
Interior 𝑤𝑢𝑙𝑛2 It shall be permitted to analyze columns and stories
All
Spans 16 in structures as nonsway frames if (a) or (b) is
Member built satisfied:
integrally with 𝑤𝑢𝑙𝑛2
Interior supporting 24 a. The increase in column end moments due to
face of spandrel beam second order effects does not exceed 5 percent
Negative
exterior Member built pf the first order end moments;
support integrally with 𝑤𝑢𝑙𝑛2 b. 𝑄 in accordance with Section 406.6.4.4.1 does
supporting 16 not exceed 0.05.
column

10
Reinforced Concrete Design
a. For columns without traverse loads applied
between supports:
Stability Properties (Section 406.4.4) 𝑀
𝐶𝑚 = 0.6 − 0.4 𝑀1
2
The stability index for a storey, 𝑄 shall be calculated b. For columns with transverse loads applied
by: between supports.
∑ 𝑃𝑢∆𝑜
𝑄= 𝐶𝑚 = 1.0
𝑉𝑢𝑠 ℓ𝑐
Where ∑ 𝑃𝑢 and 𝑉𝑢𝑠 are the total factored vertical load M2 shall be at least M2,min calculated about each axis
and horizontal storey shear, respectively, in the story separately.
being evaluated, and ∆𝑜 is the first-order relative
M2,min = 𝑃𝑢(15 + 0.03ℎ)
lateral deflection between the top and the bottom of
that storey due to 𝑉𝑢𝑠 . If M2,min exceeds M2, 𝐶𝑚 shall be taken equal to 1.0 or
The critical buckling load 𝑃𝑐, shall be calculated by: calculated based on the ratio of the calculated end
moments 𝑀1 /𝑀2 .
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑃𝑐 = 2 Moment Magnification Method: Sway Frames (Sec.
𝑘𝑙𝑢
406.6.4.6)
The effective length factor 𝑘 shall be calculated using
𝐸𝑐 in accordance with Section 419.2.2 and 𝐼 in Moment M1 and M2 at the ends of an individual
accordance with Section 406.6.3.1.1. For nonsway column shall be calculated by (a) and (b):
members, 𝑘 shall be permitted to be taken as 1.0 and
for sway members, 𝑘 shall be at least 1.0. a. M1 = M1ns + 𝛿𝑠M1s
b. M2 = M2ns + 𝛿𝑠M2s
For non-composite columns, 𝐸𝐼 𝑒𝑓𝑓 shall be
calculated in accordance with (a), (b) or (c): The moment magnifier 𝛿𝑠 shall be calculated by (a),
0.4𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔 (b), or (c). If 𝛿𝑠 exceeds 1.5, only (b) or (c) shall be
a. 𝐸𝐼 𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1+𝛽 (406.6.4.4.4a) permitted:
𝑑𝑛𝑠
0.2𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔+𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠𝑒
b. 𝐸𝐼 𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1+𝛽𝑑𝑛𝑠
(406.6.4.4.4b) 1
𝐸𝑐 𝐼
a. 𝛿𝑠 = 1−𝑄 ≥ 1
c. 𝐸𝐼 𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1+𝛽𝑑𝑛𝑠
(406.6.4.4.4c) 1
b. 𝛿𝑠 = ∑ 𝑃𝑢 ≥1
1−
0.75 ∑ 𝑃𝑐
For composite columns, 𝐸𝐼 𝑒𝑓𝑓 shall be calculated by
c. Second-order elastic analysis
Eq. 406.6.4.4.4b, Eq. 406.6.4.4.5, or from a more
detailed analysis.
0.2𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
𝐸𝐼 𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1+𝛽 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠𝑥 (406.6.4.4.5) EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT STRUCTURES
𝑑𝑛𝑠
(Section 418)
Moment Magnification Method: Nonsway Frames
(Sec.406.6.4.5) This section shall apply to the design of non-
The factored moment used for design of columns prestressed and prestressed concrete structures
and walls, Mc, shall be the first-order factored assigned to seismic zone 4, including, where
moment M2 amplified for the effects of member applicable:
curvature.
a. Structural systems designated as part of the
Mc = 𝛿M2 seismic-force-resisting system, including
diaphragms, moment frames, structural walls,
Magnification factor 𝛿 shall be calculated by: and foundations;
𝐶𝑚 b. Members not designated as part of the seismic-
𝛿= ≥ 1.0
1−
𝑃𝑢
0.75𝑃𝑐
force-resisting system but required to support
other loads while undergoing deformations
𝐶𝑚 shall be calculated be in accordance with (a) or associated with earthquake effects.
(b):
11
Reinforced Concrete Design

CONCRETE: DESIGN AND DURABILITY Lightweight Concrete (Section 419.2.4)

REQUIREMENTS (Section 419)
To account for the properties of lightweight concrete, a
Concrete Design Properties (Sec. 419.2) modification factor 𝜆 is used as a multiplier of 𝑓'𝑐 in
all applicable provision of this code.
The value of 𝑓'𝑐 shall be specified in construction
documents and shall be in accordance with (a) through The value of 𝜆 shall be based on the composition of the
(c): aggregate in the concrete mixture in accordance with
Table 419.2.4.2 or as permitted in Section 419.2.4.3
a. Limits in Table 419.2.1.1;
b. Durability requirements in Table 419.3.2.1;
c. Structural strength requirements. Table 419.2.4.2
Modification Factor
Table 419.2.1.1 Composition of
Concrete 𝜆
Limits for 𝑓'𝑐 Aggregates
Fine: ASTM C330M
Application Concrete Mi. 𝒇'𝒄, Ma. 𝒇'𝒄 , All-lightweight 0.75
Coarse: ASTM C330M
MPa MPa Fine: Combination of 0.75
General Normal Lightweight,
ASTM C330M and C33M to
weight and 17 None fine blend
Coarse: ASTM C330M 0.85
lightweight Sand- Fine: ASTM C33M
Special Normal 0.85
21 None lightweight Coarse: ASTM C330M
moment weight Sand- Fine: ASTM C33M 0.85
frames and lightweight, Coarse: Combination of to
special coarse blend ASTM C330M and C33M 1.00
Lightweight 21 35[1]
structural Fine of Coarse: ASTM
walls Normal-weight 1.00
[1]
C33M
The limit is permitted to be exceeded where demonstrated by
experimental evidence that members made with lightweight
concrete provide strength and toughness equal to or exceeding
those of comparable members made with normal weight concrete o STEEL REINFORCEMENT PROPERTIES,
the same strength
DURABILITY, AND EMBEDMENTS
Modulus of Elasticity (Section 419.2.2) (Section 420)

Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸𝑐 , for concrete shall be This section shall apply to steel reinforcement, and
permitted to be calculated as (a) or (b): shall govern (a) through (c):

a. For values of 𝑤𝑐 between 1440 and 2560 a. Material properties;

kg/m3. b. Properties to be used for design;
c. Durability requirements, including minimum
𝐸𝑐 = 𝑤𝑐 1.5 0.043 𝑓'𝑐
specified cover requirements.
b. For normal weight concrete
𝐸𝑐 = 4700 𝑓'𝑐

Modulus of Rupture (Section 419.2.3)

Modulus of rupture, 𝑓𝑟 for concrete shall be calculated

by:

𝑓𝑟 = 0.62𝜆 𝑓'𝑐

Where the value of 𝜆 is in accordance with Section

419.2.4.

12
Reinforced Concrete Design
Table 420.6.1.3.2
Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place Prestressed
Specified Concrete Cover Requirements Concrete Members

Table 420.6.1.3.1 Specif

Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place Non- Concrete Reinforce- ied
Member
Prestressed Concrete Members Exposure ment Cover
, mm
Specif Cast against
Concrete Reinforce- ied and
Member
Exposure ment Cover permanently All All 75
, mm in contact
Cast against with ground
and Slabs,
permanently All All 75 Exposed to joists,
All 25
in contact weather to and
with ground weather or walls
20 mm dia. in contact
through 58 50 with ground All other All 40
Exposed to
mm dia. bars
weather to
16 mm dia. Slabs,
weather or All
bar, MW200 joists
in contact All 20
or MD200 40 Not and
with ground
wire, and exposed to walls
smaller weather or Beams, Primary
40 mm dia. 40
in contact columns, reinforcement
Slabs, and 58 mm 40 with ground and Stirrups, ties,
joists dia. bars tension spirals, and 25
and 36 mm dia. bars
Not hoops
walls bar and 20
exposed to
smaller
weather or For bundled bars, specified concrete cover shall be at
Beams,
in contact Primary least the smaller of (a) and (b):
columns,
with ground reinforcement,
pedestal,
stirrups, ties, 40 a. The equivalent diameter of the bundle;
and
spirals and b. 50 mm
tension
hoops
bars
And for concrete cast against and permanently in
contact with ground, the specified cover shall be 75
mm.

STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS

(Section 421)

Strength Reduction Factors for Structural Concrete

Members and Connections (Sec. 421.2)

Strength reduction factors, ∅, shall be in accordance

with Table 421.2.1, except as modified by Sections
421.2.2, 421.2.3, and 421.2.4.

13
Reinforced Concrete Design
Table 421.2.1
Strength Reduction Factors, ∅

Action or Structural Element ∅ Exceptions

0.65 to 0.90 in Near ends of pretensioned members where
Moment, axial force, or combined
(a) accordance with strands are not fully developed, ∅ shall be in
moment and axial force
Section 421.2.2 accordance with Section 421.2.3
Additional requirements are given in
(b) Shear 0.75 Section 421.2.4 for structures designed to
resist earthquake effects.
(c) Torsion 0.75 -
(d) Bearing 0.65 -
(e) Post-tensioned anchorage zones 0.85 -
(f) Brackets and corbels 0.75 -
Struts, ties, nodal zones and bearing
(g) areas designed in accordance with 0.75 -
strut -and-tie method in Section 423
Components of connections of
(h) precast members controlled by 0.90 -
yielding of steel elements in tension
(i) Plain concrete elements 0.60 -
0.45 to 0.75 in
(j) Anchors in concrete elements accordance with -
Section 417

Table 421.2.2
Strength Reduction Factor, ∅, for Moment, Axial Force, or Combined Moment and Axial Force

∅
Net Tensile Type of Transverse Reinforcement
Classification
Stain, 𝜺𝒕 Spirals conforming to Sec.
Other
425.7.3
Compression
𝜀𝑡 ≤ 𝜀𝑡𝑦 0.75 (a) 0.65 (b)
controlled
𝜀𝑡 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦 𝜀𝑡 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦
𝜀𝑡𝑦 < 𝜀𝑡 < 0.005 Transition 0.75 + 0.15 (c) 0.65 + 0.25 (d)
0.005 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦 0.005 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦
𝜀𝑡 ≥ 0.005 Tension Controlled 0.90 (e) 0.90 (f)
𝑓 g. Shear Friction
For deformed reinforcement, 𝜀𝑡𝑦 shall be 𝑦 𝐸 . For
𝑠
Grade 280 deformed reinforcement, it shall be Sectional strength requirements of this chapter shall be
permitted to take equal to 0.002. For all prestressed satisfied unless the member or region of the members
reinforcement 𝜀𝑡𝑦 shall be taken as 0.002. is designed in accordance with Section 423.

SECTIONAL STRENGTH (Section 422) Design Assumptions for Concrete (Section 422.2.2)

This section shall apply to calculating nominal strength Maximum strain at the extreme concrete compression
at sections of members, including (a) through (g): fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.

a. Flexural strength; Concrete stress of 0.85𝑓'𝑐 shall be assumed uniformly

b. Axial strength or combined flexural and axial distributed over an equivalent compression zone
strength; bounded by edges of the cross-section and a line
c. One—way shear strength; parallel to the neutral axis located a distance 𝛼 from
d. Two-way shear strength; the fiber of maximum compressive strain, as calculated
e. Torsional strength; by:
f. Bearing;
14
Reinforced Concrete Design
𝛼 = 𝛽1 𝑐 Tie reinforcement for lateral support of longitudinal
reinforcement in compression members shall satisfy
Distance from the fiber of maximum compressive Sections 410.7.6.2 and 425.7.2.
strain to the neutral axis, 𝑐 shall be measured
perpendicular to the neutral axis. Spiral reinforcement for lateral support of longitudinal
reinforcement in compression members shall satisfy
Values of 𝛽1 shall be in accordance with Table Sections 410.7.6.3 and 425.7.3.
422.2.2.4.3.
One-way Shear Strength (Section 422.5)
Table 422.2.2.4.3
Values of 𝛽1 for Equivalent Rectangular Concrete Nominal one-way shear strength at a section 𝑉𝑛 , shall
Stress Distribution be calculated by:

𝑓'𝑐 , MPa 𝛽1 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑠 (422.5.1.1)

17 ≤ 𝑓' 𝑐 ≤ 28 0.85 (a)
0.05 𝑓'𝑐 − 28 Cross-sectional dimension shall be calculated to satisfy
28 < 𝑓' 𝑐 < 55 0.85 − (b)
7 Eq. 422.5.1.2.
𝑓' 𝑐 ≥ 55 0.65 (c)
𝑉𝑢 ≤ ∅ 𝑉𝑐 + 0.67 𝑓'𝑐 𝑏𝑤 𝑑 (422.5.1.2)
Axial Strength or Combined Flexural and Axial
Strength (Section 422.4) For non-prestressed members, 𝑉𝑐 shall be calculated in
accordance with Section 422.5.5, 422.5.6, or 422.5.7.
Nominal flexural and axial strength shall be calculated
in accordance with the assumptions of Section 422.2. 𝑉𝑠 shall be calculated in accordance with Section
422.5.10.
Nominal axial compressive strength, 𝑃𝑛 , shall not
exceed 𝑃𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 in accordance with Table 422.4.2.1, Effect of any openings in members shall be considered
where 𝑃𝑜 is calculated by Eq. 422.4.2.2 for non- in calculating 𝑉𝑛.
prestressed members and composite steel and concrete
members, and by Eq. 422.4.2.3 for prestressed Effect of axial tension due to creep and shrinkage in
members. restrained shall be considered in calculating 𝑉𝑐.

Table 422.4.2.1 Effect of inclined flexural compression in variable

Maximum Axial Strength depth members shall be permitted to be considered in
calculating 𝑉𝑐 .
Transverse
Member 𝑷𝒏,𝒎𝒂𝒙
Reinforcement For calculation of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝑉𝑠 in solid, circular sections,
Ties conforming to 𝑑 shall be permitted to be taken as 0.8 times the
Non- Section 422.4.2.4
0.80𝑃𝑜 (a)
diameter and 𝑏𝑤 shall be permitted to be taken as the
prestressed Spirals conforming
0.85𝑃𝑜 (b)
to Section 422.4.2.5 diameter.
Ties 0.80𝑃𝑜 (c)
Prestressed The value of 𝑓'𝑐 used to calculate 𝑉𝑐 , 𝑉𝑐𝑡 , and 𝑉𝑐𝑤
Spirals 0.85𝑃𝑜 (d)
Composite steel for one-way shear shall not exceed 8.3 MPa, unless
and concrete allowed in Section 422.5.3.2.
columns in All 0.85𝑃𝑜 (e)
accordance with
Section 410
For non-prestressed members without axial force, 𝑉𝑐
shall be calculated by:
For non-prestressed members and composite steel and
concrete members, 𝑃𝑜 shall be calculated by 𝑉𝑐 = 0.17𝜆 𝑓'𝑐𝑏𝑤𝑑 (422.5.5.1)

𝑃𝑜 = 0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝐴𝑔 − 𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (422.4.2.2) unless a more detailed calculation is made in

accordance with Table 422.5.5.1
where 𝐴𝑠𝑡 is the total area of non-prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement.
15
Reinforced Concrete Design
For non-prestressed members with axial compression, Provisions Sections 422.6.1 through 422.6.8 apply to
𝑉𝑐 shall be calculated by: the nominal shear strength of two-way members with
and without shear reinforcement. Where structural
𝑉𝑐 = 0.17 1 + 14𝐴𝑢
𝑁
𝜆 𝑓'𝑐 𝑏𝑤𝑑 (422.5.6.1) steel I- or channel-shaped sections are used as shear
𝑔 heads, two-way members shall be designed for shear in
accordance with Section 422.6.9.
unless a more detailed calculation is made in
accordance with Table 422.5.6.1, where 𝑁𝑢 is positive Nominal shear strength for two-way members without
for compression. shear reinforcement shall be calculated by

One-way Shear Reinforcement (Section 422.5.10) 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑐

At each section where 𝑉𝑢 > ∅𝑉𝑐 , transverse Nominal shear strength for two-way members with
reinforcement shall be provided such that Eq. shear reinforcement other than shear heads shall be
422.5.10.1 is satisfied calculated by

𝑉𝑢 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑣𝑠
𝑉𝑠 ≥ ∅
− 𝑉𝑐 (422.5.10.1)
Two-way shear shall be resisted by a section with a
For one-way members reinforced with transverse depth 𝑑 and an assumed critical perimeter 𝑏𝑜 as
reinforcement, 𝑉𝑠 shall be calculated in accordance defined in Section 422.6.4.
with Section 422.5.10.5.
𝑣𝑐 for two-way shear shall be calculated in accordance
One-way Shear Strength Provided by Transverse with Section 422.6.6. For two-way members with
Reinforcement (Section 422.5.10.5) shear reinforcement, 𝑣𝑐 shall not exceed the limits in
Section 422.6.6.1.
In non-prestressed and prestressed members, shear
reinforcement satisfying (a), (b) or (c) shall be For calculation of 𝑣𝑐 , 𝜆 shall be in accordance with
permitted: Section 419.2.4.
For two-way members reinforced with single or multi-
a. Stirrups, ties, or hoops perpendicular to leg stirrups, 𝑣𝑠 shall be calculated in accordance with
longitudinal axis of member, Section 422.6.7.
b. Axial welded wire reinforcement with wires
located perpendicular to longitudinal axis of For two-way members reinforced with headed shear
members, stud reinforcement, 𝑣𝑠 shall be calculated in
c. Spiral reinforcement. accordance with Section 422.6.8.

𝑉𝑠 for shear reinforcement in Section 422.5.10.5.1 Two-way Shear Strength Provided by Concrete (Sec.
shall be calculated by: 422.6.5)
For non-prestressed two-way members, 𝑣𝑐 shall be
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦𝑡 𝑑
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑠
(422.5.10.3) calculated in accordance with Section 422.6.5.2. For
prestressed two-way members, 𝑣𝑐 shall be calculated
where 𝑠 is the spiral pitch or the longitudinal spacing in accordance with (a) or (b):
of the shear reinforcement and 𝐴𝑣 is given in Section
a. Section 422.6.5.2
422.5.10.5.5 or 422.5.10.5.6.
b. Section 422.6.5.5, if the conditions of Section
For each rectangular tie, stirrup, hoop, or crosstic, 𝐴𝑣 422.6.5.4 are satisfied
shall be the effective area of all bar legs or wires 𝑣𝑐 shall be calculated in accordance with Table
within spacing 𝑠. 422.6.5.2.

For each circular tie or spiral, 𝐴𝑣 shall be two times the

area of the bar or wire within spacing 𝑠.

Two-Way Shear Strength (Section 422.6)

16
Reinforced Concrete Design
Table 422.6.5.2 This section shall apply to member design for
Calculation of 𝑣𝑐 for Two-way Shear minimum serviceability, including (a) through (d):
𝑣𝑐
0.33𝜆 𝑓'𝑐 (a) a. Section 424.2 deflection due to service-level
2 gravity loads;
Least of (a), 0.17 1 + 𝜆 𝑓'𝑐 (b) b. Section 424.3 distribution of flexural
(b) and (c): 𝛽
𝑎𝑠𝑑 reinforcement in one-way slabs and beams to
0.083 2 + 𝜆 𝑓'𝑐 © control cracking;
𝑏𝑜
Note: 𝛽 is the ratio of long side to short side of the column, c. Section 424.4. permissible stresses in
concentrated load, or reaction area and 𝛼𝑠 is given in Section prestressed flexural members.
422.6.5.3.
Deflection calculated in accordance with Sections
The value of 𝑎𝑠 is 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge 424.2.3 through 424.2.5 shall not exceed the limits in
columns, and 20 for corner columns. Table 424.2.2.

SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS Immediate deflection shall be calculated using

(Section 424) methods or formulas for elastic deflections,
considering effects of cracking and reinforcement on
member stiffness.

Table 424.2.2
Maximum Permissible Calculated Deflection
Deflection
Member Condition Deflection to be considered
Limitation
Not supporting or attached to non- Immediate deflection due to
Flat roofs
maximum of 𝐿𝑟 and 𝑅 𝑙 180[1]
structural elements likely to be damaged
Floors by large deflections Immediate deflection due to 𝐿 𝑙 360
Likely to be That part of the total deflection
damaged by large occurring after attachment of non- 𝑙 480[3]
Supporting or deflections structural elements, which is the sum
Roof or floors attached to non- of the time-dependent deflection due
Not likely to be
structural elements to all sustained loads and the
damaged by large
immediate deflection due to any 𝑙 240[4]
deflections
additional live load[2]
[1]
Limit not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding shall be checked by calculations of deflection, including added
deflections due to ponded water, and considering time-dependent effects of sustained leads, camber, construction tolerances, and
reliability of provisions for drainage.
[2]
Time-dependent deflections shall be calculated in accordance with Section 424.2.4, but shall be permitted to be reduced by
amount of deflection calculated to occur before attachment of non-structural elements. This amount shall be calculated on basis of
accepted engineering data relating to time-deflection characteristics of members similar to those being considered.
[3]
Limit shall be permitted to be exceeded if measures are taken to prevent drainage to supported or attached elements.
[4]
Limit shall not exceed tolerance provided for nonstructural elements

𝑓𝑟 𝐼𝑔
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = (424.2.3.5b)
For non-prestressed members, effective moment of 𝑦𝑡

inertia, 𝐼𝑒 shall be calculated by Eq. 424.2.3.5a unless

obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, but 𝐼𝑒 For continuous one-way and beams, 𝐼𝑒 shall be
shall not be greater than 𝐼𝑔 . permitted to be taken as the average of values obtained
from Eq. 424.2.3.5a for the critical positive and
𝑀𝑐𝑟 3 𝑀𝑐𝑟 3
negative moment sections.
𝐼𝑒 =
𝑀𝑎
𝐼𝑔 + 1−
𝑀𝑎
𝐼𝑐𝑟 (424.2.3.5a)
For prismatic one-way slabs and beams, 𝐼𝑒 shall be
where 𝑀𝑐𝑟 is calculated by permitted to be taken as the value obtained from Eq.
424.2.3.5a at mid-span for simple and continuous
spans, and at the support for cantilevers.
17
Reinforced Concrete Design
Calculation of Time-Dependent Deflection (Section Table 424.4.3.2
424.2.4.1) Minimum Ratios of Deformed Shrinkage and
Temperature Reinforcement Area to Gross Concrete
Unless obtained from a more comprehensive analysis, Area
additional time-dependent deflection resulting from
Reinforcement 𝒇𝒚 Minimum Reinforcement
creep and shrinkage of flexural members shall be
Type MPa Ratio
calculated as the product of the immediate deflection Deformed
caused by sustained load and the factor 𝜆∆ <420 0.0020
bars
Deformed 0.0018 × 420
ℰ
𝜆∆ = 1+50𝜌' (424.2.4.1.1) bars or Greater 𝑓𝑦
≥ 420
welded wire of:
reinforcement 0.0014
In Eq. 424.2.4.1.1, 𝜌' shall be calculated at mid-span
for simple and continuous spans, and at the support for
The spacing of deformed shrinkage and temperature
cantilevers.
reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser of 5ℎ and
In Eq. 424.2.4.1.1, values of the time dependent factor 450 mm.
for sustained loads, ℰ , shall be in accordance with
REINFORCEMENT DETAILS (Section 425)
Table 424.2.4.1.3.
This section shall apply to reinforcement details
Table 424.2.4.1.3
including:
Time-dependent Factor for Sustained Loads

Sustained load Time-dependent factor, a. Minimum spacing;

duration, months 𝓔 b. Standard hooks, seismic hooks, and crossties;
3 1.0 c. Development of reinforcement;
6 1.2 d. Splices;
12 1.4 e. Bundled reinforcement;
60 or more 2.0 f. Transverse reinforcement;
g. Post-tensioning anchorages and couplers.

Minimum Spacing of Reinforcement (Sec. 425.2)

Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (Section 424.4.3)
 For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement in a
Deformed reinforcement to resist shrinkage and horizontal layer, clear spacing shall be at least the
temperature stresses shall conform to Table greatest of 50 mm, db, and (4/3)dagg.
420.2.2.4(a) and shall be in accordance with Sections  For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement placed in
424.4.3.2 through 424.4.3.5. two or more horizontal layers, reinforcement in the
upper layers shall be placed directly above
The ratio of deformed shrinkage and temperature reinforcement in the bottom layer with a clear
reinforcement area to gross concrete area shall satisfy spacing between layers of at least 25 mm.
the limits in Table 424.4.3.2.
 For longitudinal reinforcement in columns, pedestals,
struts, and boundary elements in walls, clear spacing
between bars shall be at least the greatest of 40 mm,
1.5db and (4/3)dagg

Standard Hooks, Seismic Hooks, and Minimum Inside

Bend Diameters (Sec. 425.3)

 Standard Hooks for the development of deformed

bars in tension shall conform to table 425.3.1
 Minimum inside bend diameters for bars used as
traverse reinforcement and standard hooks for bars
used to anchor stirrups, ties, hoops, and spirals shall

18
Reinforced Concrete Design
conform to Table 425.3.2. Standard hooks shall
enclose longitudinal reinforcement.

19
Reinforced Concrete Design
 Seismic hooks used to anchor stirrups, ties, hoops, of the hook equal to or greater than
and cross-ties shall be in accordance with (a) and (b): 0.17𝑑𝑏 𝑓𝑦𝑡/ 𝜆 𝑓'𝑐 , with 𝜆 as given in Table
a. Minimum bend of 90 degrees for circular hoops 425.4.3.2;
and 135 degrees for all other hoops; c. In joist construction, for 12 mm ∅ bar and
b. Hook shall engage longitudinal reinforcement MD130 wire and smaller, a standard hook.
and the extension shall project into the interior of
the stirrup or hoop. Anchorage of each leg of welded plain wire
reinforcement forming a single U-stirrup shall be in
Bundled Reinforcement (Section 425.6) accordance with (a) or (b):

For Non-prestressed Reinforcement a. Two longitudinal wires spaced at a 50 mm

spacing along the member at the top of the U;
 Group of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact b. One longitudinal wire located not more than
to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one 𝑑/4 from the compression face and a second
bundle. wire closer to the compression face and spaced
 Bundled bars shall be enclosed within transverse not less than 50 mm from the first wire. The
reinforcement. Bundled bars in compression second wire shall be permitted to be located on
members shall be enclosed by transverse the stirrup leg beyond a bend, or on a bend
reinforcement at least 12 mm diameter in size. with an inside diameter of bend of at least 8𝑑𝑏 .
 Bars larger than a 36 mm dia. shall not be bundled in
beams. Stirrups used for torsion or integrity reinforcement
 Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the shall be closed stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the
span of flexural members shall terminate at different member. Where welded wire reinforcement is used,
points with at least 40db stagger. transverse wires shall be perpendicular to the axis of
 A unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar the member. Such stirrups shall be anchored by (a) or
with an area equivalent to that of the bundle and a (b):
centroid coinciding with that of the bundle.
a. Ends shall terminate with 135-degree standard
Transverse Reinforcement (Section 425.7) hooks around a longitudinal bar;
b. In accordance with Section 425.7.1.3(a) or (b)
Stirrups shall extend as close to the compression and or Section 425.7.1.4, where the concrete
tension surfaces of other member as cover surrounding the anchorage is restrained against
requirements and proximity of other reinforcement spalling by a flange or slab or similar member.
permits and shall be anchored at both ends. Where
used as shear reinforcement, stirrups shall extend a Ties (Sec. 425.7.2)
distance 𝑑 from extreme compression fiber.
Ties shall consist of a closed loop of deformed bar or
Between anchored ends, each bend in the continuous deformed wire with spacing in accordance with (a) and
portion of a single or multiple U-stirrup and each bend (b):
in a closed stirrup shall enclose a longitudinal bar or 4
strand. a. Clear spacing of at least 3
𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑔 ;
b. Center-to-center spacing shall not exceed the
Anchorage of deformed bar and wire shall be in least of 16𝑑𝑏 of longitudinal bar, 48𝑑𝑏 of tie
accordance with (a), (b), or (c): bar, and smallest dimension of member.

a. For 16 mm ∅ bar and MD200 wire, and Diameter of tie bar or wire shall be at least (a) or (b):
smaller, and for 20 mm ∅ through 25 mm ∅
bars with 𝑓𝑦𝑡 ≤ 280 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , a standard hook a. 10 mm Ø enclosing 32 mm Ø or smaller
around longitudinal reinforcement; longitudinal bars;
b. For 20 mm ∅ through 25 mm ∅ bars with b. 12 mm Ø enclosing 36 mm Ø or larger
𝑓𝑦𝑡 > 280 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , a standard hook around a longitudinal bars or bundled longitudinal bars.
longitudinal bar plus an embedment between
mid-height of the member and the outside end Rectilinear ties shall be arranged to satisfy (a) and (b):
20
Reinforced Concrete Design
a. Every corner and alternate longitudinal bar 1
Shear carried by concrete, 𝑣𝑐 . . . . . . . . 11 𝑓'𝑐
shall have lateral support provided by the
corner of a tie with an included angle of not Two-way slabs and footings:
more than 135 degrees; 1 2
b. No unsupported bar shall farther than 150 mm Shear carried by concrete, 𝑣𝑐 . 12 1 + 𝛽 𝑓'𝑐
𝑐
clear on each side along the tie from a laterally 1
supported bar. But not greater than . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 𝑓'𝑐

Spirals (Sec. 425.7.3) 3. Bearing on loaded area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3𝑓'𝑐

Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or Tensile stress in reinforcement 𝑓𝑠 shall not exceed the
wire with clear spacing conforming to (a) and (b): following:
4 1. Grade 280 reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 140
a. At least the greater of 25 mm and 3
𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑔 ;
MPa
b. Not greater than 75 mm.
2. Grade 420 reinforcement or greater and
For cast-in-place construction, spiral bar or wire welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) . . . . .
diameter shall be at least 10 mm. 170 MPa
3. For flexural reinforcement, ∅ 10 mm or less, in
Volumetric spiral reinforcement ratio 𝜌𝑠 shall satisfy one-way slabs of not more than 4 m span but
not greater than 200 MPa . . . . . . . . . . 0.5𝑓𝑦
𝐴𝑔 𝑓'𝑐
𝜌𝑠 ≥ 0.45 −1 Flexure (Section 429.6)
𝐴𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑦𝑡

Where the value of 𝑓𝑦𝑡 shall not be taken greater than It shall be permitted to take the modular ratio, 𝑛 = 𝐸𝑠 /
𝐸𝑐 , as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6).
700 MPa.
Except in calculations for deflections, value of 𝑛 for
Spirals shall be anchored by 1-1/2 extra turns of spiral lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same
bar or wire at each end. as for normal weight concrete of the same strength.

ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD (Section 429) In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective
modular ratio of 2𝐸𝑠/𝐸𝑐 shall be used to transform
Load factors and strength reduction factors shall be compression reinforcement for stress computations.
taken as unity for members designed by the Alternate Compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not
Design Method. exceed permissible tensile stress.

Permissible Service Load Stresses (Section 429.4) Shear and Torsion (Section 429.8)

Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following: Design shear stress 𝑣 shall be computed by:

1. Flexure 𝑣 = 𝑉/ 𝑏𝑤𝑑
Extreme fiber stress in compression . . . . . .
0.45𝑓'𝑐 where 𝑉 is design shear force at section considered.

2. Shear When the reaction, in direction of applied shear,

introduces compression into the end regions of a
Beams and one-way slabs and footings: member, sections located less than a distance 𝑑 from
1
Shear carried by concrete, 𝑣𝑐 . . . . . . . . 𝑓'𝑐 face of support shall be permitted to be designed for
11
the same shear 𝑣 as that computed at a distance 𝑑.
Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear
3
reinforcement, 𝑣𝑐 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 𝑓'𝑐 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete (Section 429.8.4)

Joists: For members subject to shear and flexure only, shear

stress carried by concrete 𝑣𝑐 shall not exceed 0.09 𝑓'𝑐
21
Reinforced Concrete Design
unless a more detailed calculation is made in When inclined stirrups are used as shear reinforcement:
accordance with Section 429.8.4.5.
(𝑣−𝑣𝑐 )𝑏𝑤 𝑠
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑓 sin 𝛼+cos 𝛼
(429.8.5.6.3)
Spacing Limits for Shear Reinforcement (Section 𝑠

429.8.5.4)
When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a
Spacing of shear reinforcement placed perpendicular to single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
axis of members shall not exceed 𝑑/2 nor 600 mm. distance from the support:

(𝑣−𝑣𝑐 )𝑏𝑤𝑑
When (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 ) exceeds
1
𝑓'𝑐 , maximum spacing 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑓𝑠 sin 𝛼
(429.8.5.6.4)
6
given in Section 429.8.5.4.1 and 429.8.5.4.2 shall be 1
reduced by one-half. where (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 ) shall not exceed 8 𝑓'𝑐

Minimum Shear Reinforcement (Section 429.8.5.5) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of
parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars
A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be at different distances from support, required area shall
provided in all reinforced concrete flexural members be computed by Eq. 429.8.5.6.3.
where designed shear stress 𝑣 is greater than one-half
the permissible shear stress 𝑣𝑐 carried by concrete Only the center three-quarters of the inclined portion
except: of any longitudinal bent bar shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement.
1. Slabs and footings;
2. Concrete joist construction defined by Section When more than one type of shear reinforcement is
408.8 of this section; used to reinforce the same portion of a member,
3. Beam with total depth not greater than 250 required area shall be computed as the sum of the
mm, 2.5 times thickness of flange or one-half various types separately. In such computations, 𝑣𝑐
the width of web, whichever is greatest. shall be included only once.

Minimum shear reinforcement requirements of Section 3

Value of (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 ) shall not exceed 8 𝑓'𝑐
429.8.5.5.1 shall be permitted to be waived if shown
by test that required ultimate flexural and shear
Special Provision for Slabs and Footings (Section
strength can be developed when shear reinforcement is 429.8.7)
omitted.
Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of
Where shear reinforcement is required by Section concentrated loads or reactions is governed by the
429.8.5.5.1 or by analysis, minimum area of shear
more severe of two conditions:
reinforcement shall be computed by:
Beam action for slab or footing, with a critical section
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑏𝑤 𝑠/3𝑓𝑦 extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance 𝑑 from face of concentrated load
where 𝑏𝑤 and 𝑠 are in mm. or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing
shall be designed in accordance with Section 429.8.1
Design of Shear Reinforcement (Section 429.8.5.6)
through 429.8.5.
Where design shear stress 𝑣 exceeds shear stress
Two-way action for slab or footing, with a critical
carried by concrete 𝑣𝑐 , shear reinforcement shall be
section perpendicular to plane of slab and located so
provided in accordance with Section 429.8.5.6.2
that its perimeter is a minimum, but need not approach
through 429.8.5.6.8.
closer than 𝑑/2 to perimeter of concentrated load or
When shear reinforcement perpendicular to axis of reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing
member is used: shall be designed in accordance with Sections
429.8.7.2 and 429.8.7.3
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 𝑏𝑤𝑠/𝑓𝑦 (329.8.5.6.2)

22
Reinforced Concrete Design
Design shear stress 𝑣 shall be computed by: 𝑣𝑐 =
1
1+𝛽
2
𝑓'𝑐 (429.8.7.3)
12 𝑐

𝑣 = 𝑉/ 𝑏𝑜𝑑 1
but 𝑣𝑐 shall not exceed 6
𝑓'𝑐 𝛽𝑐 is the ratio of long
where 𝑉 and 𝑏𝑜 , shall be taken at the critical section side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area.
defined in Section 429.8.7.1.2. When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the
modifications of Section 429.8.4.6 shall apply.
Design shear stress 𝑣 shall not exceed 𝑣𝑐 given by Eq.
429.8.7.3 unless shear reinforcement is provided

23