CONCRETE

Concrete is the most used construction material in the world and the second most used material
by humankind, second just to water. Every year, 25 billion tonnes of concrete are poured around
the world. Owing to its strength, longevity, and ease in construction, concrete is widely used in
the construction of most of the civil engineering structures, including residential houses, high-
rise buildings, industrial buildings, bridges, roads, and dams. The sheer volume of concrete used
in the construction industry makes it one of the most important civil engineering materials.

Concrete is essentially a mixture of water, fine aggregates (sand), coarse aggregates (gravel or
crushed stone), and cement. Apart from these basic constituent materials, other admixtures are
often added to the concrete mix to alter its properties. Fresh concrete, obtained by mixing these
materials, is workable and can be moulded into any desired shapes. This unique trait of concrete
gives it the required flexibility to construct a wide range of structures. Within a few hours of
mixing, cement undergoes a chemical reaction with water, forming a hardened paste. This
reaction is generally known as the hydration of cement. The hardened paste binds aggregates,
forming a hard, stone-like material called concrete. The hydration reaction may continue for
weeks, months, and years under suitable conditions, increasing the strength of concrete with
time. The properties of fresh and hardened concrete are governed by the type and amount of
constituent materials used in the concrete mix, the handling and placing of the mix, and the curing
of the concrete structure after being cast.

History of Concrete

The concept of using concrete-like material in construction dates back to the ancient Egyptians
and Greeks. They used lime mortar with stone pieces in their constructions. However, the Romans
were the first to develop pozzolanic concrete. They mixed lime and volcanic ash with water to
form cementitious material, which they used as mortar for their stone constructions. Romans
obtained volcanic ash from a village called Pozzuoli, near Naples in Italy; the term pozzolana or
pozzolanic material refers to this place. They combined the pozzolana-based mortar with sand
and stone pieces to produce strong and weather-resistant construction material, often referred
to as Roman concrete. Many of the remarkable Roman structures, like the Pantheon and the
Colosseum, were built using this material. The Pantheon (Figure 8.1) in Rome, built in 126 CE, is
still the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome in the world. This underscores the strength and
longevity of the concrete structures. Modern-day concrete mostly uses Portland cement,
manufactured by heating a mixture of crushed limestone and clay to a sufficiently high
temperature in a furnace. Portland cement is a hydraulic cement, which means it reacts with
water to form water-insoluble hardened material. Portland cement is mixed with water and
aggregates to produce concrete. In modern days, the type and proportion of constituent materials
in concrete are designed and controlled carefully to achieve the desired strength and durability.

Advantages of Concrete

Concrete is widely used as a construction material in the world because of its numerous
advantages. The raw materials required for producing concrete are available abundantly in most
of the world and are comparatively cheaper than other construction materials. Concrete is also a
very versatile construction material. Fresh concrete is workable and mouldable and can be cast
into various forms and shapes, which gives flexibility in construction. Another major advantage
of concrete is its fire resistance. In comparison with other commonly used construction materials,
concrete has the best fire resistance. It neither burns nor emits any toxic gases or molten particles
when exposed to fire.

Concrete is often used to construct fire shields and to protect other structural materials from fire
damage. Because of their inherent fire-resisting properties, concrete structures (unlike steel and
timber structures) do not require any additional measures to prevent fire damage. Concrete
structures, if designed and constructed properly, are also resistant to water and weather. They
sustain minimal damage in the event of flooding and can also be restored much more easily
compared to other structures. They are durable, and if designed properly, can withstand
tornadoes and significant earthquake forces as well. Roman concrete structures like the Pantheon
and the Colosseum are again a testament to the longevity of concrete structures. Other distinct
advantages of concrete are termite resistance, high thermal mass, and excellent acoustic
performance. Concrete structures require minimal extra expenditure for maintenance compared
to steel and timber structures, reducing the operational cost of the concrete structures.

Limitations of Concrete

Concrete has some inherent limitations, which should be taken into consideration while using it
as a construction material. Concrete is very strong in compression; however, it is very weak in
tension. Reinforcing steel is, therefore, embedded at strategic locations in concrete members to
take the tensile stresses. Concrete combined with reinforcing, called reinforced concrete, is a very
effective and versatile composite material. The reinforcing steel provides tensile strength and
ductility (the ability to withstand large deflections without failure) to concrete structures. On the
other hand, concrete protects the reinforcement from fire and corrosion damage. Concrete
construction requires expensive formworks for casting and moulding concrete into required
shapes. The cost of erecting formworks can be as high as 30 to 60 percent of the total cost of the
construction. Use of precast concrete technologies, where concrete members are cast in factories
and delivered to the site, can eliminate the need for formworks, saving costs and speeding up the
construction.
Concrete members are usually bulkier than steel and timber ones and can significantly increase
the dead load of the structure. High-strength concrete is often used in high-rise buildings and
long-span bridges to reduce the size of the structural members.

Concrete structures can sustain time-dependent deformations such as creep and shrinkage.
Creep is the increase in deformation in a structure at sustained loading. Shrinkage, on the other
hand, is the decrease in volume of the member due to the loss of absorbed water from the
concrete surface. Creep and shrinkage in concrete structures can result in excessive cracking and
deflection of the structural members under service load conditions.

PRODUCTION PROCESS OF CONCRETE:

A good quality concrete is essentially a heterogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates, and water that consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the
cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser aggregate
acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate.

The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the mixture is aided by the
cement paste, fines, and nowadays, increasingly by the use of admixtures. Most of the properties
of the hardened concrete depend on the care exercised at every stage of the manufacture of
concrete. A rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete is the essence of the mix design.
However, it may not guarantee having achieved the objective of the quality concrete work. The
aim of quality control is to ensure the production of concrete of uniform strength from batch to
batch. This requires some rules to be followed in the various stages of concrete production and
are discussed as follows. The stages of concrete production are:

• Batching or measurement of materials

• Mixing
• Transporting
• Placing
• Compacting
• Curing
• Finishing

1. Batching of Materials

For good quality concrete, a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients should be used.
The aggregates, cement, and water should be measured with an accuracy of 3 percent of the
batch quantity and the admixtures by 5 percent of the batch quantity. There are two prevalent
methods of batching materials, the volume batching and the weigh batching. The factors affecting
the choice of batching method are the size of the job, the required production rate, and the
required standards of batching performance. For the most important works, weigh batching is
recommended.

2. Mixing

✓ Hand Mixing
✓ Machine Mixing
✓ Tilting Mixers
✓ Non-tilting Mixer
✓ Reversing Drum Mixer
✓ Pan-type or Stirring Mixer
✓ Transit Mixer

3. Transporting

Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss of
homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of mixing is
permitted if trucks with agitators and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used for transporting
concrete. Also, it should be ensured that segregation does not take place during transportation
and placement. The methods adopted for transporting concrete depend upon the size and
importance of the job, the distance of the deposition place from the mixing place, and the nature
of the terrain. Some of the methods of transporting concrete are as below:

✓ Mortar Pan
✓ Wheel Barrow
✓ Chutes
✓ Dumper
✓ Bucket and Ropeway
✓ Belt conveyor
✓ Skip and Hoist
✓ Pumping

4. Placing

To achieve quality concrete, it should be placed with utmost care, securing the uniformity
achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting. Research has shown
that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate compressive strength provided the
concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes in hot weather, a delay of half to one hour
is allowed, whereas for wet mixes in cold weather, it may be several hours. The various situations
in which concrete is placed are discussed below.
Foundations (Sub Structure)

Concrete foundations for walls and columns are provided below the ground surface. Before
placing the concrete in the foundation, all the loose earth, roots of trees, etc., are removed. If the
surface is found dry, it is made wet so that earth does not absorb water from concrete. On the
other hand, if the foundation bed is wet, the water and mud are removed, and cement is sprinkled
before placing concrete.

Beams, Columns, and Slabs (Super Structure)

Before placing the concrete, the forms must be examined for correct alignment. They should be
adequately rigid to withstand the weight of concrete and construction loads without undue
deformation. Forms should be light enough to avoid any loss of mortar, resulting in honeycombed
concrete. The insides of the forms should be cleaned and lubricated (oiled) before use to avoid
any sticking of concrete with the forms and make their stripping off difficult. Concrete should not
be dropped but placed in position to prevent segregation. It should be dropped vertically from as
small a height as possible. It should be placed at one point in the formwork and allowed to flow
sideways to take care of honeycombing.

Laitance formation should be avoided. It can be checked by restricting the thickness of the layer
of concrete by 150-300 mm for R.C.C. work. Laitance, however, if formed, must be removed
before placing the next layer of concrete. Several such layers form a lift, provided they follow one
another quickly enough to avoid cold joints. The surface of the previous lift is kept rough, and all
the laitance is removed before placing the next lift. The reinforcement should be checked for
tightness and clean surface. The loose rust or scales, if any, are removed by wire brush. Paint, oil,
or grease, if found, should be removed. The minimum cover for reinforcement should be checked
before concreting.

Mass Concreting

When the concrete is to be laid in mass as for raft foundation, dam, bridge, pier, etc., concrete is
placed in layers of 350-450 mm thickness. Several such layers placed in quick succession form a
lift. Before placing the concrete in the next lift, the surface of the previous lift is cleaned
thoroughly with water jets and scrubbing by wire brush. In the case of dams, sandblasting is done.
The laitance and loose materials are removed, and cement slurry is applied. When the concrete
is subjected to lateral thrust, bond bars or bond stones are provided to form a key between
different layers.

Concreting Highways and Runways

Concrete is laid in bays for highways, runways, or floor slabs. First, the ground on which concrete
is to be laid is prepared, and all the loose materials and grass, etc., are removed. The earth is
wetted and compacted. The subgrades over which concrete is to be laid should be properly
compacted and damped to avoid any loss of moisture from concrete. Concrete is then laid in
alternate bays. This allows the concrete to undergo sufficient shrinkage, and cracks do not
develop afterward. Concrete is not placed in a heap at one place and then dragged; instead, it is
placed in uniform thickness.

Concreting Underwater

Concrete may be placed underwater with the help of bottom dump buckets. The concrete is taken
through the water in a watertight bucket. On reaching the place of deposition, the bottom of the
bucket is made to open, and the concrete is dumped. In this process, a certain amount of cement
is washed away, causing a reduction in the strength of concrete. Another way of concreting
underwater is by filling a cement bag with a dry or semi-dry mix of cement and aggregates and
lowering it to the place of deposition. The drawback of this method is that the concrete will be
full of voids interspersed with participle gunny bags.

The best method of placing concrete underwater is by the use of a termite pipe. The concrete is
poured into it through a funnel. The bottom end of the pipe is closed with a thick polyethylene
sheet, with the bottom end of the pipe at the place of deposition. The concrete (slump 150-200
mm) is poured into the funnel till the whole pipe is filled with concrete. The pipe is slightly lifted,
and given a jerk, the polythene sheet cover falls, and concrete is discharged. It should be ensured
that the end of the pipe remains inside the concrete so that water does not enter the pipe. The
pipe is again filled with concrete through a funnel, and the process is repeated till the concrete
level comes above the water level. No compaction is required for underwater concrete as it gets
compacted by the hydrostatic pressure of water. Concrete can also be placed underwater with
the help of pipes and pumps.

5. Compacting

After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of concrete
production is its compaction. Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within the moulds or
frameworks and around embedded parts and reinforcement steel. A considerable quantity of air
is entrapped in concrete during its production, and there is possible partial segregation also. Both
of these adversely affect the quality of concrete. Compaction of the concrete is the process to get
rid of the entrapped air and voids; elimination of segregation occurred to form a uniform dense
mass. It has been found that 5 percent voids in hardened concrete reduce the strength by over
30 percent, and 10 percent voids reduce the strength by over 50 percent. Therefore, the density
and consequently the strength and durability of concrete largely depend upon the degree of
compaction. For maximum strength, the driest possible concrete should be compacted 100
percent.
The voids increase the permeability of concrete. Loss of impermeability creates easy passage of
moisture, oxygen, chlorides, and other aggressive chemicals into the concrete. This causes rusting
of steel and spalling (disintegration) of concrete, i.e., loss of durability. Easy entry of sulphates
from the environment causes an expansive reaction with the tricalcium aluminate (C3A) present
in cement. This causes disintegration of concrete and loss of durability. The entry of carbon
dioxide causes carbonation of concrete, i.e., loss of alkalinity of concrete or loss of the protective
power that concrete gives to the reinforcement or other steel embedded in it. Once the
carbonation depth exceeds the thickness of concrete cover to the embedded steel, steel becomes
vulnerable to the attack of moisture. This expedites rusting of steel as the protective concrete
cover remains no longer alkaline in nature.

Voids also reduce the contact between embedded steel and concrete. This results in the loss of
bond strength of the reinforced concrete member, and thus the member loses strength. Voids
such as honeycombs and blowholes on the exposed surface produce visual blemishes. Concrete
surfaces are not good to look at with all such blemishes. Concrete with a smooth and perfect
surface finish not only looks good but is also stronger and more durable.

Compaction is achieved by imparting external work over the concrete to overcome the internal
friction between the particles forming the concrete, between concrete and reinforcement, and
between concrete and forms, and by reducing the air voids to a minimum. The compaction of
concrete can be achieved by the following methods.

✓ Hand Compaction
✓ Compaction by Vibration
a. Needle Vibrator:
b. Formwork Vibrator
✓ Compaction by Spinning
✓ Compaction by Jolting
✓ Compaction by Rolling

6. Curing

Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement and water.
This chemical reaction requires moisture, favourable temperature, and time referred to as the
curing period. Curing of freshly placed concrete is very important for optimum strength and
durability. The major part of the strength in the initial period is contributed by the clinker
compound C3S and partly by C2S and is completed in about three weeks. The later strength
contributed by C2S is gradual and takes a long time. As such, sufficient water should be made
available to concrete to allow it to gain full strength. The process of keeping concrete damp for
this purpose is known as curing. The object is to prevent the loss of moisture from concrete due
to evaporation or any other reason, supply additional moisture or heat and moisture to accelerate
the gain of strength. Curing must be done for at least three weeks and in no case for less than ten
days.

Approximately 14 litres of water are required to hydrate each bag of cement. Soon after the
concrete is placed, the increase in strength is very rapid (3 to 7 days) and continues slowly
thereafter for an indefinite period. Concrete moist cured for 7 days is about 50 percent stronger
than that which is exposed to dry air for the entire period. If the concrete is kept damp for one
month, the strength is about double that of concrete exposed only to dry air.

Methods of Curing

Concrete may be kept moist by a number of ways. The methods consist of either supplying
additional moisture to concrete during the early hardening period by ponding, spraying,
sprinkling, etc., or by preventing loss of moisture from concrete by sealing the surface of concrete
with a membrane formed by curing compounds. Following are some of the prevalent methods of
curing.

✓ Water Curing
✓ Steam Curing
✓ Curing by Infra-Red Radiation
✓ Electrical Curing
✓ Chemical Curing

7. Finishing

Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the finish of the
ultimate product is not that pleasant. In the past couple of decades, efforts have been made to
develop surface finishes to give a better appearance to concrete surfaces and are as follows.

✓ Formwork Finishes
✓ Surface Treatments
✓ Applied Finishes

Mix Proportions and Grades of Concrete

Nominal Concrete Mix Ratios

In the past, the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine, and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratios, which ensure adequate strength, are
termed nominal mixes. Nominal mixes offer simplicity and, under normal circumstances, have a
margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mixed ingredients, the
nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength. Nominal mix ratios for concrete
are 1:2:4 for M15, 1:1.5:3 for M20 etc.

Standard Mixes or Ratio

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and may
result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has been
included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-2000 has
designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35, and
M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28-day
cube strength of the mix in N/mm². The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20, and M25 correspond
approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

Designed Mix Ratio of Concrete

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer, but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement
content can be laid down. This is the most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions
with specific materials in mind, possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach
results in the production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically.
However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct
mix proportions for the prescribed performance. For the concrete with undemanding
performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients
per cubic meter and by slump), they may be used only for very small jobs when the 28-day
strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm². No control testing is necessary, reliance being
placed on the masses of the ingredients. The following table provides details of different types of
concrete mix ratios and their strengths.

Concrete Grade Mix Ratio Compressive Strength

(Nominal Mix) MPa psi
Normal Grade of Concrete
M5 1:5:10 5 MPa 725 psi
M7.5 1:4 :8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi
M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi
M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi
M20 1:1.5:3 20 MPa 2900 psi
M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi

DIFFERENT STAGES OF CONCRETE

Three different stages of concrete are shown in Figure

Plastic State

Concrete is fluid and soft just after mixing. It can be worked and moulded into different shapes.
Concrete at this state is called plastic state concrete or simply fresh concrete. The plastic state of
concrete lasts only for a few hours, after which it starts to stiffen and gain strength. Concrete
needs to be properly mixed, transported, placed, and compacted when it is still in the plastic
state.

Setting State

After concrete is being placed and compacted, it starts to stiffen due to the formation of early-
stage calcium silicate hydrates. Concrete at this stage is no longer fluid. However, at this stage the
concrete is still weak as it has not achieved its full strength. Elapsed time from the mixing of
concrete to the time when it becomes stiff and cannot be vibrated without damaging the concrete
is called initial setting time. Final setting time is referred to as the point when the concrete starts
to develop mechanical stiffness and strength. In a hot climate, the setting time of concrete is
considerably reduced. Set-retarders can be used in hot weather conditions to get sufficient time
for transporting, placing, compacting, and finishing the concrete. On the other hand, in the low-
temperature conditions, setting time is considerably delayed. Accelerators can be used to reduce
the setting time of concrete in cold weather conditions.

Hardening State
Concrete gains mechanical strength and stiffness notably during the hardening state. The
proceeding hydration of cement contributes toward the development of strength of concrete
with time. Concrete continues to gain strength for weeks, months, and even years. The rate of
strength gain is rapid at the initial stage but decreases in the later weeks.

Setting of Concrete

Setting is defined as the onset of rigidity in fresh concrete. Hardening is the development of
useable and measurable strength; setting precedes hardening. Both are gradual changes
controlled by hydration. Fresh concrete will lose measurable slump before initial set, and
measurable strength will be achieved after final set.

Setting is controlled by the hydration of C3S. The period of good workability is during the dormant
period (stage 2). The initial set corresponds to the beginning of stage 3, a period of rapid
hydration. The final set is the midpoint of this acceleration phase. A rapid increase in temperature
is associated with stage 3 hydration, with a maximum rate at the final set.

If large amounts of ettringite rapidly form from C3A hydration, the setting times will be reduced.
Cements with high percentages of C3A, such as expansive or set-regulated cements, are entirely
controlled by ettringite formation.

Abnormal Setting Behavior

False Set -- Early stiffening of concrete, fluidity may be restored by remixing. Basically, it is a result
of the hydration of dehydrated gypsum, which forms rigid crystals. Because there are few of these
crystals and they are weak, the matrix can be destroyed by remixing. Accelerated hydration of
C3A will cause rapid development of ettringite and false set.

Flash Set -- Stiffening of concrete due to the rapid development of large quantities of C 3A
hydration products, which cannot be returned to a fluid state with mixing. This is generally no
longer a problem since the introduction of gypsum to control C3A hydration. However, some
admixtures will increase C3A hydration, and flash set may be a problem.

PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Concrete needs to be in the plastic state during transportation, placement, compaction, and
finishing. Important properties of plastic concrete are workability, consistency, and cohesiveness.
The properties of fresh concrete also affect the long-term strength, durability, and other
properties of hardened concrete.

1. WORKABILITY
Workability is the ease with which the concrete ingredients can be mixed, transported, placed,
compacted, and finished with minimum homogeneity loss. Workability is essentially a property
of fresh concrete; however, it has significant influence on the properties of hardened concrete.
Sufficient workability in concrete ensures proper compaction and prevents segregation of
concrete, resulting in a strong and durable concrete. Workability cannot be directly measured;
nevertheless, it is a very important property of concrete. It is assessed on-site by concrete layers
in terms of the effort required in handling the concrete mix.

Factors Affecting Workability

Workable concrete is the one that exhibits very little internal friction between particle and
particle or that overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the formwork surface or
reinforcement contained in the concrete with just the amount of compacting efforts forthcoming.
The factors helping concrete to have a more lubricating effect to reduce internal friction for
helping easy compaction are given below:

A. Water Content
B. Mix Proportions
C. Size of Aggregates
D. Shape of Aggregates
E. Surface Texture of Aggregate
F. Grading of Aggregate
G. Use of Admixtures.

Water Content:

Water content in a given volume of concrete will have significant influences on the workability.
The higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will be the fluidity of
concrete, which is one of the important factors affecting workability. At the work site, supervisors
who are not well versed with the practice of making good concrete resort to adding more water
for increasing workability. This practice is often resorted to because this is one of the easiest
corrective measures that can be taken at the site. It should be noted that from the desirability
point of view, an increase in water content is the last recourse to be taken for improving
workability even in the case of uncontrolled concrete. For controlled concrete, one cannot
arbitrarily increase the water content. In case all other steps to improve workability fail, only as a
last recourse the addition of more water can be considered. More water can be added, provided
a correspondingly higher quantity of cement is also added to keep the water/cement ratio
constant so that the strength remains the same.

Mix Proportions
The aggregate/cement ratio is an important factor influencing workability. The higher the
aggregate/cement ratio, the leaner the concrete is. In lean concrete, less quantity of paste is
available for providing lubrication per unit surface area of aggregate, and hence the mobility of
aggregate is restrained. On the other hand, in the case of rich concrete with a lower
aggregate/cement ratio, more paste is available to make the mix cohesive and fatty to give better
workability.

Size of Aggregate

The bigger the size of the aggregate, the less the surface area, and hence a smaller amount of
water is required for wetting the surface, and less matrix or paste is required for lubricating the
surface to reduce internal friction. For a given quantity of water and paste, bigger sizes of
aggregates will give higher workability. The above, of course, will be true within certain limits.

Shape of Aggregates

The shape of aggregates influences workability in good measure. Angular, elongated, or flaky
aggregate makes the concrete very harsh when compared to rounded aggregates or cubical-
shaped aggregates. Contribution to better workability of rounded aggregate will come from the
fact that for the given volume or weight it will have less surface area and less voids than angular
or flaky aggregate. Not only that, being round in shape, the frictional resistance is also greatly
reduced. This explains the reason why river sand and gravel provide greater workability to
concrete than crushed sand and aggregate.

The importance of the shape of the aggregate will be of great significance in the case of present-
day high-strength and high-performance concrete when we use a very low w/c in the order of
about 0.25. We have already talked about that in the years to come, natural sand will be
exhausted or costly. One has to go for manufactured sand. The shape of crushed sand as available
today is unsuitable, but the modern crushers are designed to yield well-shaped and well-graded
aggregates.

Surface Texture

The influence of surface texture on workability is again due to the fact that the total surface area
of rough textured aggregate is more than the surface area of smooth rounded aggregate of the
same volume. From the earlier discussions, it can be inferred that rough textured aggregate will
show poor workability and smooth or glassy textured aggregate will give better workability. A
reduction of interparticle frictional resistance offered by smooth aggregates also contributes to
higher workability.

Grading of Aggregates
This is one of the factors that will have maximum influence on workability. A well-graded
aggregate is the one that has the least amount of voids in a given volume. Other factors being
constant, when the total voids are less, excess paste is available to give a better lubricating effect.
With an excess amount of paste, the mixture becomes cohesive and fatty, which prevents
segregation of particles. Aggregate particles will slide past each other with the least amount of
compacting efforts. The better the grading, the less the void content and the higher the
workability. The above is true for the given amount of paste volume.

Use of Admixtures

Of all the factors mentioned above, the most important factor that affects workability is the use
of admixtures. Admixtures are the materials added to concrete to modify particular properties of
fresh or hardened concrete. Admixtures are added just before or during the mixing of concrete,
at the batching plant or at the site. They are usually added as solutions so that they can easily be
mixed with concrete. ASTM C494 (2011) classifies admixtures, according to their functions, in the
following basic categories: air-entraining, set-retarding, accelerators, water reducers, and
superplasticizers. These are described below.

Air-Entraining

Air-entraining agents create minute air bubbles (about 10 μm to 1000 μm in diameter),

distributed throughout the concrete. These tiny air-filled voids give space for the expansion of
water during the freezing and thawing cycles. Entrained air bubbles are, however, different than
the accidentally entrapped large air bubbles in the concrete. Air-entraining agents also help to
minimise bleeding and segregation and improve workability in concrete. However, due to the
increase in voids, the addition of air-entraining agents may reduce the strength of concrete.
Examples of air-entraining agents are salts of fatty acids derived from animal and vegetable fats
and oils, alkali salts of wood resins, and alkali salts of sulphate and sulfonated organic compounds.

Set-Retarding

As the name suggests, retarding admixtures (retarders) cause a delay in the setting time and may
also slow down the hardening of the cement paste. In hot and windy climates, concrete can set
very quickly. Use of retarders will help to delay the setting time, giving sufficient time to transport,
place, and compact the concrete. It is particularly useful to avoid cold joints during the
construction of large concrete structures in hot weather conditions. Retarders are also added
when concrete needs to be transported long distances. Examples of commonly used retarders are
sugar, carbohydrate derivatives, soluble zinc salts, soluble borates, and methanol. Early strength
of concrete can be reduced while using retarders. Retarding agents often have water-reducing
properties as well.

Accelerators
Accelerating admixtures, or accelerators, are added to concrete to accelerate the hydration
reaction and early strength gain in concrete. It, however, does not influence the long-term
strength of concrete. Accelerators are used in cold weather conditions or when formworks need
to be removed quickly. They are also useful for urgent repair works. In hot weather or mass
concrete constructions, accelerators can significantly increase the heat of hydration, causing
undesirable effects like shrinkage cracks in concrete. Calcium chloride and sodium chloride are
examples of accelerators that decrease the setting time and increase the rate of strength
development in concrete. However, the use of calcium chloride can be detrimental as the chloride
ions in concrete can cause corrosion of the embedded reinforcement. Furthermore, it reduces
the resistance of concrete to sulphate attacks. For these reasons, calcium chloride should never
be used as an accelerator in reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, or even in plain concrete
structures that are susceptible to alkali-aggregate reaction and sulphate attacks. Alternatively,
calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, calcium formate, and sodium formate can be used as accelerators
in such conditions.

Water Reducers

Water-reducing admixtures, also known as plasticisers, reduce the water/cement ratio while
retaining the workability of the concrete. If the water/cement ratio is specified from the strength
requirement, the addition of water-reducing admixtures will improve the workability of the
concrete at the constant water/cement ratio. Use of water-reducing admixtures can reduce the
required water content of the mix by 5 to 10 percent; hence, they increase the strength of the
concrete. Concrete with a specified low water/cement ratio often uses water-reducers to achieve
sufficient workability. They are also used when concrete with high strength and high workability
is required. Lignosulfonic acids and their salts and hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their salts
are generally used as water-reducing admixtures. These admixtures also delay the setting time of
concrete. They also help to prevent segregation in concrete.

Superplasticizers

At a constant water/cement ratio, the addition of superplasticizers considerably improves the

workability of concrete, producing "flowing concrete." Concrete with superplasticizers can be
placed in difficult locations, such as inaccessible areas and where reinforcements converge,
resulting in congestion. On the other hand, superplasticizers are also used to produce extremely
high-strength concrete with normal workability. Use of superplasticizers can reduce the water
content by 25 to 35 percent, keeping the same workability. An extremely low water/cement ratio
will result in very high-strength concrete. Commonly used superplasticizers are sulfonated
melamine formaldehyde condensates and sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates.
The increase in workability with the addition of a superplasticizer lasts only for 30-60 minutes;
hence, it is important to place the concrete as soon as possible after its addition in the concrete
mix. Overdoses of superplasticizers can lead to extreme segregation of concrete; hence, their
dosage should be precisely controlled.

2. CONSISTENCY

Consistency of fresh concrete is defined as its relative mobility or ability to flow. In other words,
consistency measures the fluidity of the concrete.

Slump Test

Slump tests are widely used in the field and also in the laboratory to measure the consistency of
concrete. In addition, slump tests can be readily done to test the batch-to-batch consistency of
the supplied concrete at the site. Too high or too low a slump gives an immediate warning of
inconsistency in the supplied concrete.

A true slump is one where concrete slumps uniformly without breaking, which indicates good
cohesion in the mix. If one half of the concrete shears off in an inclined plane, it is called shear
slump, and the test should be repeated again. If the repeated test again gives a shear slump, it
indicates that the concrete mix is harsh and lacks cohesion. A collapsed slump indicates very high
workability or very wet concrete. The typical range of slump for various construction types
prescribed by

Slump Loss

Slump loss is the decrease in concrete slump with time. Slump loss is caused by the stiffening of
concrete due to the evaporation of water, absorption of water by the aggregates, and the initial
hydration of cement. Concrete with a high initial slump is more likely to have greater slump loss.
Slump loss is also influenced by the ambient temperature—the higher the ambient temperature,
the greater the slump loss is. Slump loss is also higher if dry aggregates are used. Furthermore,
use of supplementary cementitious materials can also affect the slump loss. Slump loss should be
monitored and controlled to ensure sufficient time for pouring and compaction of concrete. If the
concrete needs to be transported to longer distances, a mix with a higher slump is prepared. Slump
loss is also controlled by reducing the temperature of the concrete. Alternately, retarding
admixtures are also used to reduce slump loss.

3. COHESIVENESS

The ease with which concrete mixture can be placed and finished without losing its homogeneity
is termed cohesiveness. It is the resistance of the concrete against segregation and bleeding.

Segregation
Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good
concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous
mixture. If a sample of concrete exhibits a tendency for separation of, say, coarse aggregate from
the rest of the ingredients, then that sample is said to be showing the tendency for segregation.
Such concrete is not only going to be weak; lack of homogeneity is also going to induce all
undesirable properties in the hardened concrete. There are considerable differences in the sizes
and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the
materials show a tendency to fall apart.

Segregation may be of three types

- firstly, the coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix,
- secondly, the paste or matrix separating away from coarse aggregate and
- thirdly, water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest
specific gravity.

A well made concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size, shape
and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix. Such
concrete will not exhibit any tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of
matrix do not allow the aggregate to fall apart, at the same time, the matrix itself is sufficiently
contained by the aggregate. Similarly, water also does not find it easy to move out freely from the
rest of the ingredients. The conditions favourable for segregation are, the badly proportioned mix
where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the aggregates. Insufficiently mixed
concrete with excess water content shows a higher tendency for segregation. Dropping of
concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting will result in
segregation. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn
out blades, concrete shows a tendency for segregation. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor
belts, wheel barrow, long distance haul by dumper, long lift by skip and hoist are the other
situations promoting segregation of concrete.

Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be remembered

that only a comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. If a too-wet mix is excessively vibrated, it is
likely that the concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration is continued
just for the required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time,
particularly in too wet a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of
coarse aggregate in the matrix.

While finishing concrete floors or pavement, with a view to achieving a smooth surface, masons
are likely to work too much with the trowel, float, or tamping rule immediately on placing
concrete. This immediate working on the concrete on placing, without any time interval, is likely
to press the coarse aggregate down, which results in the movement of excess matrix or paste to
the surface. Segregation caused on this account impairs the homogeneity and serviceability of
concrete. The excess mortar at the top causes plastic shrinkage cracks.

From the foregoing discussion, it can be gathered that the tendency for segregation can be
remedied by correctly proportioning the mix, by proper handling, transporting, placing,
compacting, and finishing. At any stage, if segregation is observed, remixing for a short time would
make the concrete again homogeneous. As mentioned earlier, a cohesive mix would reduce the
tendency for segregation. For this reason, the use of certain workability agents and pozzolanic
materials greatly helps in reducing segregation. The use of an air-entraining agent appreciably
reduces segregation.

Segregation is difficult to measure quantitatively, but it can be easily observed at the time of the
concrete operation. The pattern of subsidence of concrete in the slump test or the pattern of
spread in the flow test gives a fair idea of the quality of concrete with respect to segregation.

Bleeding

Bleeding is sometimes referred to as water gain. It is a particular form of segregation, in which

some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete, being of the lowest
specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed in a
highly wet mix, badly proportioned, and insufficiently mixed concrete. In thin members like roof
slabs or road slabs, when concrete is placed in sunny weather, it shows excessive bleeding.

Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this
water, a certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up
with the trowel and floats, the aggregate goes down, and the cement and water come up to the
top surface. This formation of cement paste at the surface is known as “laitance.”. In such a case,
the top surface of slabs and pavements will not have good wearing quality. This laitance formed
on roads produces dust in summer and mud in the rainy season. Owing to the fact that the top
surface has a higher content of water and is also devoid of aggregate matter, it also develops
higher shrinkage cracks. If laitance is formed on a particular lift, a plane of weakness would form,
and the bond with the next lift would be poor. This could be avoided by removing the laitance
fully before the next lift is poured.

Water while traversing from bottom to top makes continuous channels. If the water-cement ratio
used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and unsegmented by the
development of gel. These continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for causing
permeability of the concrete structures. While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it
may be intercepted by aggregates. The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the
aggregate. This accumulation of water creates water voids and reduces the bond between the
aggregates and the paste. The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate.
Similarly, the water that accumulates below the reinforcing bars, particularly below the cranked
bars, reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete. The poor bond between
the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the paste due to bleeding can be remedied
by revibration of concrete. The formation of laitance and the consequent bad effect can be
reduced by delayed finishing operations.

Bleeding rate increases with time up to about one hour or so, and thereafter the rate decreases
but continues more or less till the final setting time of cement. Bleeding is an inherent
phenomenon in concrete. All the same, it can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform
and complete mixing. Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a
longer path for the water to traverse. It has already been discussed that the use of an air-
entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding. It is also reported that the bleeding
can be reduced by the use of finer cement or cement with low alkali content. Rich mixes are less
susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.

The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the surface is
equal to the rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in providing workability,
from the body of concrete by way of bleeding will do good to the concrete. Early bleeding when
the concrete mass is fully plastic may not cause much harm because concrete being in a fully
plastic condition at that stage will get subsided and compacted. It is the delayed bleeding, when
the concrete has lost its plasticity, that causes undue harm to the concrete. Controlled revibration
may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.

Bleeding presents a very serious problem when a slip form paver is used for the construction of
concrete pavements. If too much bleeding water accumulates on the surface of the pavement
slab, the bleeding water flows out over the unsupported sides, which causes collapsing of the
sides. Bleeding becomes a major consideration in such situations. In the pavement construction,
finishing is done by texturing or brooming. Bleeding water delays the texturing and application of
curing compounds.

Plastic Shrinkage

In a hot, dry, and windy environment, excessive drying can occur from the surface of the concrete.
When evaporation of surface water exceeds bleeding, drying, and contraction occur, especially
on the surface (Figure 8.18). This phenomenon is known as plastic shrinkage, which can lead to
the formation of surface cracking in random patterns or roughly diagonal/parallel patterns (Figure
8.19). These cracks, formed due to excessive loss of moisture from the surface, are called plastic
shrinkage cracks. The amount of water loss from the surface of concrete is directly influenced by
the ambient temperature, humidity, wind, and temperature of the concrete. The rate of
evaporation of concrete is generally restricted to 1 kg/m²/hour (0.21 lb/ft²/hour) to avoid
undesirable effects of plastic shrinkage. Plastic shrinkage cracking can be a critical issue while
casting large, flat works like slabs in hot and dry weather conditions. The large surface area of
slabs can lead to faster evaporation of surface water.

Plastic shrinkage cracks start to appear within hours after placing concrete, when the concrete is
still in a plastic state. These cracks are typically 300 to 500 mm (12 to 20 in.) long and 3 to 5 mm
(0.1 to 0.2 in.) wide and are usually shallow. Plastic shrinkage cracks as such may not cause
structural problems, but excessive plastic shrinkage cracking can lead to chloride ion ingress into
the concrete, which in turn will corrode the reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete. Plastic
shrinkage in concrete can be avoided by controlling the rate of evaporation from the surface of
the concrete. Casting of concrete during extreme weather should be avoided, especially in a hot,
dry, windy climate. Prewetting the formworks before concrete is poured will also cool down the
surface and reduce excessive drying of the surface water. A concrete mix with a reasonable
amount of bleeding will also help to reduce plastic shrinkage. Cooling of aggregates before mixing,
using chilled water in the mix, and using aliphatic alcohols are some of the commonly used
methods to avoid excessive plastic shrinkage.

SITE PRACTICE OF CONCRETE

As soon as concrete is poured into the form, it needs to be properly compacted, finished, and
cured to obtain the desired results.

Compaction

Freshly poured concrete needs to be compacted properly to remove air voids and to distribute
concrete ingredients uniformly throughout the form. Compaction has to be carried out before
the initial setting of the concrete. Concrete can be compacted by hand, using rodding or tamping,
or, more preferably, by using immersion vibrators, vibrating screeds, or external vibrators.
Insufficient vibration can lead to air voids in the finished structure, which results in poor finishing
and lower strength. However, excessive vibration can lead to segregation of concrete. Inadequate
compaction can lead to honeycombing in concrete structures. Honeycombing is the exposure of
coarse aggregate on the surface of the structure without sufficient mortar cover. Occurrence of
honeycombing can be avoided by ensuring sufficient workability, by increasing fines in the
concrete for proper packing, by avoiding reinforcement congestion, and by ensuring proper
compaction.

Finishing

Finishing is done to create a concrete surface with the desired texture and smoothness. The type
of concrete finishing depends upon the function of the structure. Warehouse concrete floors
need to be very level, smooth, and durable. However, internal floors that will have floor coverings
do not require such high-quality finishing. Screeding and floating are first done to level the surface
and remove extra concrete. Concrete is then left to set and bleed. Final finishing should be done
only after bleeding is completed. Troweling is then done by hand or power trowel to produce a
dense, hard, smooth, and durable surface. Edging will give stronger edges and prevent chipping.
Joints are also placed at necessary locations during this stage.
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

With the proceeding of the hydration reaction, concrete starts to gain strength and mechanical
properties. Some of the main properties of hardened concrete that are of interest are strength,
stiffness, durability, shrinkage, and creep. The properties of hardened concrete depend on the
age of the concrete, the nature and proportion of the ingredients used in the mixture, the amount
and distribution of pore space, and the quality of compaction and finishing.

Compressive Strength

One of the main advantages of concrete is that it is very strong in compression. Due to its very
high compressive strength, concrete is used widely as a construction material. Compressive
strength is one of the most important properties of hardened concrete and is often used to define
the quality of concrete. Compressive strength (fc) is the ability of concrete to resist compressive
stress and is measured in MPa (in SI units). For normal-strength concrete, the compressive
strength may range from 20 to 60 MPa (2.9 to 8.7 ksi). High-strength concrete with compressive
strength greater than 100 MPa (14.5 ksi) is often used for the construction of large structures like
high-rise buildings and long-span bridges. High-strength concrete helps to reduce the member
dimensions and to reduce the overall weight of the structure and cost of construction.

Hydration of cement and strength development in concrete continue for weeks, months, or even
years. The strength of concrete increases rapidly in early age, and the rate decreases with time.
The strength at 28 days is considered the standard strength of the concrete. By 28 days, concrete
is considered to have developed most of its strength. An increase in the water/cement ratio
adversely affects the strength of concrete. The higher the water-cement ratio, the lower the
strength of the concrete is. An increase in cement, on the other hand, can improve the strength
of concrete. Using an optimum proportion of supplementary cementitious material like fly ash,
silica fume, and ground granulated blast furnace also helps to increase the compressive strength
of concrete. The fineness of the cement used in the concrete also affects the strength of the
concrete; the use of finer cement particles increases the rate of hydration and results in a stronger
concrete.

Tensile strength

One of the main limitations of concrete is its low tensile strength. The tensile strength of concrete
is almost one-tenth of its compressive strength. The tensile strength of concrete is obtained from
the indirect tensile tests, as it is difficult to apply direct tensile force on the concrete specimens.
The tensile strength of concrete is one of the basic and important properties that greatly affect
the extent and size of cracking in structures. Moreover, the concrete is very weak in tension due
to its brittle nature. Hence. It is not expected to resist the direct tension. So, concrete develops
cracks when tensile forces exceed its tensile strength. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the
tensile strength of concrete to determine the load at which the concrete members may crack.

Creep in Concrete

Creep in concrete is another important phenomenon that affects the behaviour of hardened
concrete. Elastic deformation occurs in concrete structures as soon as a load acts on it. This causes
elastic strains in concrete members. If the load is sustained for a long period of time, the strain in
concrete gradually increases even without an increase in the load. This gradual increase in strain
in concrete with time at a sustained loading is called creep. Creep strain can be as high as three
times the elastic strain. Creep does not usually affect the strength of a concrete structure, but it
increases the deflection in concrete members and can cause serviceability issues under service
load conditions. The figure below shows creep deformation in concrete subjected to compressive
stress. As soon as the load is applied, elastic deformation occurs. At constant load, deformation
in the concrete member increases with time due to creep in concrete. The creep deformation rate
is higher at first, but the rate of increase in deformation decreases with time. If the load is
removed, part of the elastic deformation is immediately recovered. The deformation is further
recovered with time, which is called creep recovery. However, some permanent deformation can
remain in the structure even after the removal of the entire load.
Creep deformation increases with the duration of loading. Moreover, the higher the stress levels
in the concrete members, the higher the creep is. Loading of concrete members at an early age
can also result in high creep deformations. An increase in aggregate content reduces the creep in
concrete, whereas an increase in cement causes higher creep deformation. The types of
aggregates used in the concrete also have a significant influence on the creep of concrete.
Concrete with sandstone has higher creep than one with limestone.

Shrinkage in Concrete

The decrease in volume or the contraction of concrete due to loss of absorbed water is called
shrinkage. Some of the water in the concrete mix does not undergo a hydration reaction with
cement, and these water molecules are electrically bonded with concrete ingredients. Concrete
can lose this absorbed water, causing loss in volume of the concrete. This is called shrinkage or
drying shrinkage. Drying shrinkage can be reduced by using a low water-cement ratio, maximum
possible aggregate size, and shrinkage-limiting cement; and ensuring proper placing, compaction,
and curing of concrete. If the concrete undergoing drying shrinkage is exposed to a wet
environment again, it can partly regain the lost volume. If the contraction in a concrete member
is restrained, tensile stresses are developed in the concrete.

When this tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, it cracks. In concrete slabs,
drying shrinkage cracks can extend through the depth of the slab. These cracks can lead to water
penetration and corrosion of reinforcements and compromise the durability of the structure. The
building design codes often prescribe the minimum necessary reinforcement in concrete slabs to
control shrinkage cracking. Proper placement of contraction joints at appropriate intervals allows
the contraction of concrete and, hence, can prevent shrinkage cracking.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Durability of concrete can be defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
abrasion, or any other process of deterioration and its ability to maintain its desired engineering
properties throughout its service life. Along with strength, durability is an extremely important
property of hardened concrete. Durability requirements can be the governing criteria for the
design of concrete structures exposed to a severe environment. The ability of concrete to resist
deterioration is influenced by the concrete ingredients used and the pouring and curing practices.
Deterioration in concrete may be caused by chemical, physical, or mechanical attacks due to
external or internal sources.

Carbonation

Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere penetrates the concrete and,
in the presence of moisture, reacts with hydroxides in cement (primarily calcium hydroxide),
forming calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). The removal of Ca(OH)₂ results in a significant reduction of
alkalinity (pH) of the concrete, from a pH of about 13 to as low as a pH of 8.

The rate of carbonation is high when the atmospheric humidity is between 50 and 70 percent. At
lower humidity (<25%), the degree of carbonation is considered insignificant, and at higher
humidity (>75%), water inhibits CO₂ diffusion. Carbonation in good-quality concrete, with
sufficient reinforcement cover, does not have a detrimental effect on the structural properties of
the concrete. However, a reduction in the alkalinity of concrete can lead to corrosion of steel in
the concrete. Generally, in reinforced concrete structures, a thin protecting layer of oxide film
that forms around steel embedded in hydrating cement paste protects the steel from corrosion.
If the pH of concrete falls below 11, this protective oxide film layer is broken, which can lead to
corrosion of steel in the presence of moisture and oxygen.

Chloride Attack

When the chloride content in concrete exceeds the threshold limit (about 0.15% water-soluble
chloride by mass of cement), the protective oxide film layer around the steel is broken. This can
lead to the corrosion of steel in the presence of moisture and oxygen. Corrosion of steel produces
iron oxides, which cause expansion of steel in concrete. This induces internal stress and spalling
of concrete.

Chlorides can be present in the concrete as contaminants of aggregates or mixing water. In coastal
areas, concrete exposed to seawater can be subjected to chloride ion ingress. Use of certain
accelerating admixtures, such as calcium chloride and deicing salts, can also introduce chloride
into concrete. The resistance of concrete to chloride ingress can be improved by lowering the w/c
ratio, proper curing (at least seven days of moist curing), and using SCMs, which reduces the
permeability of concrete. Providing sufficient concrete cover over the steel also helps protect
against chloride ions reaching the reinforcing steel.

Sulfate Attack

Sulphates and other salts in soil, groundwater, or seawater can attack hardened concrete and
have the potential to cause serious damage to concrete structures. Sulphates, such as calcium
sulphate, sodium sulphate, and magnesium sulphate, can react with aluminates, silicates, and
calcium hydroxide in concrete, forming ettringite and gypsum. These expansive products can lead
to expansion and cracking of concrete. Sulphate attack is more critical in concrete structures that
are exposed to wetting and drying cycles than those exposed to continuously dry or wet
conditions. Sulphate attack in concrete can be mitigated by using a low w/c ratio and using
sulphate-resistant cements that have low C3A content. Use of SCMs like fly ash is also an effective
and economical method to improve the sulphate resistance of concrete.

Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)

Aggregates containing reactive silica can react with alkali hydroxides from cement and other
materials, causing expansion and deterioration of concrete. ASR can cause irregular superficial
cracks with crack widths ranging from 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) to 10 mm (0.4 in.) and less than 25 mm
(1 in.) deep. ASR mostly affects the serviceability of structures and may not directly impact their
strength. However, the formation of ASR cracks can facilitate the ingress of other harmful agents
into the concrete, which can lead to the deterioration of concrete and the corrosion of steel in
concrete.

ASR can be mitigated by using a sufficient amount of SCMs. A very effective and economical
method to prevent ASR is to partially replace Portland cement with fly ash (>20%) in the concrete
mix.

Freezing and Thawing Actions

Alternating freezing and thawing of concrete and the use of deicing salts can cause damage in
concrete. Moisture present in concrete can freeze in very low temperatures, causing its
expansion. An increase in hydraulic pressure due to expansion can cause deterioration of
concrete. Freezing and thawing damage can be controlled by using high-quality aggregates, a low
w/c ratio, and air-entraining admixtures. Air-entraining admixtures create microscopic air bubbles
in the paste. These tiny air-filled voids give space for expansion of water during the freezing and
thawing cycles and help in relieving the hydraulic pressure generated. Air-entrained concrete
(with 5% to 8% air content) and low w/c ratio is ideal for resisting the harmful effects of freezing
and thawing actions. Table 8.8 displays the approximate air content percentage per cubic meter
of concrete for non-air-entrained and air-entrained concrete.

RHEOLOGY OF CONCRETE

Rheology is the science of the flow and deformation of matter and describes the interrelation
between force, deformation, and time. The term comes from the Greek word rheos, meaning to
flow. Rheology is applicable to all materials, from gases to solids. The rheological principles and
techniques as applied to concrete include the deformation of hardened concrete, handling and
placing of freshly mixed concrete, and the behaviour of its constituent parts, namely, cement
slurries and pastes. The rheology of fresh concrete, like workability, includes the parameters of
stability, mobility, and compactability. The mechanical behaviour of hardened cement paste,
which exhibits both elastic and inelastic deformations, can be expressed in rheological terms.

Factors Affecting Rheological Properties

1. Mix Proportions: A concrete mix having an excess amount of coarse aggregate will lack
sufficient mortar to fill the void system, resulting in a loss of cohesion and mobility. Such
 a mix is termed harsh and requires a great amount of effort to place and compact. On the
other hand, an excessive amount of fine aggregate or entrained air in a concrete mixture
will greatly increase the cohesion and render the concrete difficult to move.

Consistency: The consistency of concrete measured by the slump test is an indicator of

the relative water content in the concrete mix. An increase in the water content or
slump above that required to achieve a workable mix produces greater fluidity and
decreased internal friction. Thus, a water content more than that needed will not
improve the rheological properties of concrete. On the other hand, too low a slump or
water content will reduce the mobility and compactibility, which may pose difficulties in
placement and consolidation.
2. Hardening and stiffening: Elevated temperature, use of rapid hardening cement, cement
deficient in gypsum and use of accelerating admixtures, increase the rate of hardening
which reduce the mobility of concrete.

Aggregate shape and texture: The rough and highly angular aggregate particles will
result in a higher percentage of voids being filled by mortar, requiring higher fine
aggregate contents and correspondingly higher water content. Similarly, an angular fine
aggregate will increase internal friction in the concrete mixture and require higher water
contents than well-rounded natural sands.
3. Aggregate grading: A well graded aggregate gives good workability. Gap graded aggregate
affects void system and workability. These effects are greater in fine aggregate.

4. Maximum size of aggregate: An increase in the maximum size of aggregate will reduce
the fine aggregate requirement to maintain a given workability and will thereby reduce
the surface area to be wetted and hence the cement content necessary for a constant
water/cement ratio.

5. Admixtures: The admixtures that have a significant effect on the rheology of concrete are
plasticisers and superplasticisers, air-entraining agents, accelerators, and retarders.
Lignosulphate salt-based plasticisers (0.15%) reduce the water content by 10% without
any detrimental effect. Superplasticisers and plasticisers prevent the formation of
flocculated structures by changing the interparticle attraction/repulsion. The air-
entraining agents introduce spherical air bubbles 10 to 25 mm in diameter by modifying
the surface tension of the aqueous phase in the mix. The bubbles act like ball bearings to
allow larger particles to flow past each other more easily, thus decreasing plastic viscosity.
The air-entrainment changes the rheology of concrete very significantly by increasing
cohesion and reducing the tendency for bleeding.