GEOLOGY

Geo (Earth): Logos (Study) -science that Earth System

pursues an understanding of planet
1. Atmosphere – Air, weather, climate,
forecasting, droughts

DIVIDED INTO TWO BROAD AREAS 2. Hydrosphere – Water, ocean, dessert,

groundwater
1. Physical Geology – examines the materials
composing Earth and seeks to understand 3. Biosphere – Life form Earth, beneath
the man processes under the ocean

2. Historical Geology – understand the origin 4. Lithosphere – volcanoes, earthquakes

of the Earth and its development through
time.
System - Interaction of individual to function
3. Chemical Geology – Investigates the
as one
chemical composition that make up the
Earth Closed System – interaction of
individual components within the


system without interacting with other

DIFFERENT AREAS OF GEOLOGIC STUDY components
Open System - interaction of
Archaeological Study
individual components within the


Bio geosciences

system while interacting with other
Engineering Geology

components
Forensic Geology


Geochemistry


Geomorphology


Feedback Mechanism – describes the effects

Geophysics


of the interaction of one or more systems

History of Geology


Hydrogeology Negative Feedback – maintains the



Medical Geology status quota of the system

 

Mineralogy Positive Feedback – enhances / drives



Ocean Science change

 

Paleoclimatology


Petrology


Planetary Geology


Sedimentary Geology


Seismology


Structural Geology


Tectonics


Volcanology



WHY STUDY GEOLOGY? What Powered the Earth System

1. Geohazard Impact Assessment 1. Sun – water circulation, weather

2. Environmental Impact Assessment

3. Social Impact Assessment

2. Earth’s Interior – volcanism, tectonics Plutonism

Lead by James Hutton

Argued that the formation of the


Earth through the gradual



solidification of a molten mass at a

slow rate.

19th Century

Age of Industrial Revolution

Before Common Era (BCE) Willian Smith, Georges Cuvier


Discovered fossils as a means of


540-490 BCE: Discovery and early reports of
distinguishing between otherwise

fossil fishes found on mountains by
Xenophanes and Herodotus. similar formations.
Charles Lyell – published the
14th Century BCE: Observation of the slow of “Principles of Geology”


geological change by Aristotle.

17th Century: Age of Scientific Revolution

Catastrophism
Willian Whiston
- published a book “A New Theory of Popularized by George Cuvier


Proposed that each geologic epoch


the Earth”
ended with violent and sudden natural

 postulated the correlation between
the great flood catastrophes
Nicholas Steno Uniformitarianism
 Defines the earth’s strata as


horizontal layers of rocks having Lead by James Hutton

“The present is the key to the past”

approximately the same
Geological Event occurs at the same

composition throughout.
ratio


18th Century

Abraham Werner Charles Darwin

Presented the detailed system for Popularized the theory of Evolution by

Natural Selection

identifying specific minerals based


on external characteristics Willian Thomson

Georges – Louis Lecierc, Conde de Buffen Calculated the age of the Earth
(between 20m – 40m years)

Contradicted the age of the earth
inferred from the bible. Radioactive elements (bases a


calculation of the age of the Earth)



Neptunism

Lead by Abraham Werner

Argued that the Earth’s layer had 20th Century


formed a precipitate from an ocean


Alfred Wegner
that covered the entire Earth.
Proposed the theory of Continental
Drift

 Suggests that the continents were 4.5 B years ago
joined together in the past form, Collision of the proto-Earth and mars
 

formed a single landmass (Pangea) sized planet



The debris of the collision condenses

Arthur Holmes
forming the moon revolving around


Father of Modern Geochronology the Earth.

Pioneer the use f radioactive decay as


a means of measure


Geologic Clock / Geologic Time Scale

Mantle Convection – provide a mechanism
It is the representation of the time
Bruce Heezen
based on the rock record of the Earth.


Published the concept of Mid Ocean

Ridges


Internal Structure of Earth

Robert Dietz, Harry Hess
Focus sa chemical
Proposed the seafloor spreading


hypothesis 1. Core


Tuzo Wilson Centermost layer

Composed of Iron – Nickel


Popularized the Wilson Cycle, one of



the systems of the plate tectonic Outer Core



The liquid region of the core

2,270 km thick


Evolution of the Universe and the Solar

Region of the Earth that generates the


System
magnetic field


Bigbang Theory
Inner Core
13.7 B years ago
Solid region because of the pressure
Originates an incomprehensively large

1,216 km thick


explosion sending all materials many




from the source. 2. Mantle

Debris began to cool and condenses
Earth’s thickest layer
forming stars and galaxies


Generally made up of iron and



magnesium – pendetide


Nebular Theory Lower Mantle

4.5 B years ago Depth of 660km – 2,700km

Began as the debris of the Big Bang Solid plastic layer
 

cools and condenses forming a

 

Upper Mantle
nebula.
The nebula contracted into a rotating Lithosphere
disk

made up of the crust and the upper


Continuous process led to the part of the upper mantle

-

formation of the solar system


Relative cool rigid layer
Around 100 – 250 km thick
-
Asteroid Belt – separates terrestrial planets
Asthenosphere
-

Theia – Gaia Collision Comparatively weak layer


-
 Top portion has a relatively small Mineralogy (mineral = mineral; ology=
amount of melting. study of), because minerals are the building
-

blocks of rocks
3. Crust

Thinnest layer
Geologists define mineral as any naturally
Oceanic Crust
occurring inorganic solid that possesses an
Has an average thickness of 7km

orderly crystalline structure and can be
composed of dark igneous rock-
-
represented by a chemical formula.
basalts.
Continental
Thickness of 35-70 km


Characteristics of Minerals
Many rock types but generally
-

granodioritic in composition N – Naturally occurring

-

I - Inorganic
-

Earth's Layer Thickness Composition

(km) D – Definite Chemical Composition
Crust O – Orderly Crystalline Structure
Oceanic 7 Si & Ma
Continental 35-70 Si & Al H – Homogenously Solid
Mantle
Upper 640 Fe & Mg
Atom
Lower 2000 Fe & Mg
Core  smallest particles that cannot be
Outer 2,200 Fe & Ni (l) chemically split
Inner 1, 200 Fe & Ni (s)  minute building blocks
 Proton (+) Electron (-)

Earth Discontinuity

Discontinuity – structural breaks in geologic Atomic Number

material, observed by sudden changes in  number of protons in the nucleus of
seismic velocity an atom
Conrad – borders the upper and lower part  determines its chemical nature
of the continental crust; 15 – 20 km depth Element
Mohorovic – transition zone between the  a group of the same kind of atoms
crust and the mantle; 35 km depths
(continents) and 8 km depths (oceanic) Octet Rule

Repettic – transition zone between the upper  observation led to a chemical

& lower mantle; loc. Depth of 900km guideline
 Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share
Gutenberg – mantle; transition zone; 2,900 electrons until they are surrounded by
km depth eight valence electrons.
Lehmann Discontinuity – transition zone Chemical Bond
between the outer & inner core; 5,100 km
 transfer or sharing of electrons that
allows each atom to attain a full
MINERALS valence shell of electrons.
Ionic Bond  e color of the mineral in powdered
form
 attraction of oppositely charged ions
to one another, producing an
electrically neutral compound
Crystal Shape or Habit
Covalent Bond
 common or characteristic shape of a
 strong attractive force that holds two crystal or aggregate of crystals
hydrogen atoms together

Metallic Bonds
Mineral Strength
 valence electrons are free to move
1. Tenacity - a mineral’s toughness, or its
from one atom to another so that all
resistance to breaking or deforming.
atoms share the available valence
Minerals that are ionically bonded, such as
electrons
fluorite and halite, tend to be brittle and
Mass Number shatter into small pieces when struck.

 total number of its protons and 2. Hardness - measure of the resistance of a

neutrons. mineral to abrasion or scratching. Mohs
scale
Isotopes
3. Cleavage – (Kleiben = carve) is the
 same number of protons but different
tendency of a mineral to break (cleave)
numbers of neutrons
along planes of weak bonding.
Radioactive Decay
4. Fracture - Minerals having chemical
 unstable means that the nuclei change bonds that are equally, or nearly equally,
through a random process strong in all directions exhibit a property.

Density – mass per unit Volume

Optical Properties Specific Gravity – related measure to

describe the density of minerals.
1. Luster
 The appearance or quality of light
reflected from the surface of a
mineral
Silicates

2. Ability to Transmit Light 

 When no light is transmitted, the
Rock-forming minerals
 Composed of Silicon and Oxygen
mineral is described as opaque; when
light, but not an image, is transmitted
Non-silicates

through a mineral it is said to be 

translucent. When both light and an
Economic minerals
 Minerals used for construction
image are visible through the sample,  Other minerals
the mineral is described as
transparent
Silicates

3. Color  Rock-forming minerals

 most conspicuous characteristic of  Composed of Silicon and Oxygen (SiO4+)
any mineral, it is considered a
diagnostic property of only a few
minerals
4. Streak
  Tetrahedron-shaped bond – a pyramid shape
with four identical faces
MINERALS WITH CHAIN OR SHEET STRUCTURES. One
reason for the great variety of silicate minerals is the
ability of SiO4 tetrahedra to link to one another in a
variety of configurations. This important phenomenon,
called polymerization, is achieved by the sharing of one,
two, three, or all four of the oxygen atoms with
adjaccent tetrahedra.

MINERALS WITH THREE-DIMENSIONAL FRAMEWORKS.

In the most common silicate structure, all four oxygen
ions are shared, producing a complex threedimensional
framework (Figure 2.22E). Quartz, a hard, durable
mineral, has the simplest structure in which all of the
oxygens are shared.
Collectively, these few make up most of the rocks of
Earth’s crust and, as such, are often referred to as the
rock-forming minerals.

Furthermore, these two elements readily combine to

Light Silicates

 light (or non-ferromagnesian) silicates are

generally light in color and have a specific
gravity of about 2.7, which is considerably less
than the dark (ferromagnesian) silicates.

FELDSPAR GROUP. Feldspar, the most common mineral

group, can form under a wide range of temperatures
and pressures, which partially accounts for its
abundance

form the basic “building block” for the most common QUARTZ. Quartz is the only common silicate mineral
mineral group, the silicates. consisting entirely of silicon and oxygen

Earth’s crust than the silicates, they are often grouped

together under the heading nonsilicates.

MINERALS WITH INDEPENDENT TETRAHEDRA. One of

the simplest silicate structures consists of independent
tetrahedra that have their four oxygen ions bonded to
positive ions, such as Mg2+, Fe2+and Ca2+.
MUSCOVITE. Muscovite is a common member of the
mica family. It is light in color and has a pearly luster.

Dark Silicates

 those minerals containing ions of iron

(iron=ferro) and/or magnesium in their
structure. Because of their iron content,
ferromagnesian silicates are dark in color and
have a greater specific gravity, between iron =
ferro Important Nonsilicate Minerals 55 3.2 and
3.6, than non-ferromagnesian silicates

OLIVINE GROUP. Olivine is a family of high-temperature

silicate minerals that are black to olive green in color
and have a glassy luster and a conchoidal fracture.

PYROXENE GROUP. The pyroxenes are a group of

complex minerals that are important components in
dark colored igneous rocks.

AMPHIBOLE GROUP. Hornblende is the most common

member of a chemically complex group of minerals
called amphiboles.

BIOTITE. Biotite is the dark, iron-rich member of the

mica family

GARNET. Garnet is similar to olivine in that its structure

is composed of individual tetrahedra linked by metallic
ions.

Mineral Sources

 are the endowment of useful minerals

ultimately available commercially
 Reserves - Resources include already identified
deposits from which minerals can be extracted
profitably deposits that are not yet economically
or technologically recoverable.
 Ore - is used to denote those useful metallic
minerals that can be mined at a profit

INTRODUCTION TO IGNEOUS ROCKS

Petrology – studies classification, texture,

structure, composition, and genesis or mode of
formation of different types of rocks.
Types of Rocks

Igneous Rocks - Formed from the

solidification or cooling of molten


materials
Sedimentary Rocks – formed by
deposition, compaction, and cementation


of disintegrated rock fragments

Metamorphic Rocks – formed from the
deformation or transformation of other


rocks.

Magma

Molten material occurs at various levels

within the lithosphere


Lava
Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks
Molten material that reaches the surface
Ultramafic – Almost all minerals are rich


Components of Molten Materials:

in iron and magnesium


Solid: Silicate Materials Mafic (Basaltic) – Minerals with high

concentrations of iron, magnesium, and

Liquid: Magma or Lava


Gas: Volatiles calcium



Intermediate (Andesitic) – 25% of the



minerals are dark silicates, 75% are light



silicates, especially plagioclase feldspar

How do molten materials modify?
Felsic (Granitic) – Almost all minerals are
Plutonic Rocks rich in potassium and aluminum


Intrusive Igneous Rocks



Mineral grains are coarse – grained –



Phaneritic Texture

Bowen’s Reaction Series
Volcanic Rocks
Extrusive Igneous Rocks


Mineral grains are fine grained –



Aphanitic Texture


Dark (ferromagnesian) silicates are rich in iron and/or

magnesium and comparatively low in silica. Olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica are the common
dark silicate minerals of Earth’s crust.

The light (nonferromagnesian) silicates contain greater

amounts of potassium, sodium, and calcium rather
than iron and magnesium. As a group,
nonferromagnesian minerals are richer in silica than the
dark silicates.
Igneous Texture

Igneous Texture

Phaneritic (Coarse- Grained) Texture –

rocks with minerals that can be seen by


the naked eye.

Porphyritic Texture – rocks with minerals
varying mineral sizes. Phenocryst = large


crystals; Groundmass = smaller crystals.

Aphanitic (Fine-Grained) Texture – rocks
with minerals that are very small to


distinguish by the naked eye

Pyroclastic (Fragmental) Texture – rocks
that are formed from the consolidation of


rock fragments that are ejected during a

violent volcanic eruption.
Glassy Texture – rocks that are ejected
during the volcanic eruption that are


solidified in the atmosphere. INTODUCTION TO SEDIMENTAY ROCKS

Origin of Sedimentary Rocks

Common Igneous Rocks Weathering of rocs

Erosion and transport of weathered rock


fragments – sediments


Deposition of sediments
Precipitation of the cementing material


Lithification (compaction and



cementation) of older elements due to the



deposition of younger elements -

Diagenesis

Diagenesis

Collective term for all the chemical,

physical and biological changes take place


after the sediments are deposited.

 Compaction: process of adding sediments 3. Shale
to the initially deposited sediments  Collective term for the fine-grained


Cementation: crystallization of minerals rocks composed of silt-and/or clay

among the individual sediment grains sized particles


 Siltstone: silt sized particles

 Claystone: clay sized particles
Types of Sedimentary Rocks  Mudstone: other names for shale

Detrital (Clastic) Sedimentary Rocks:

formed from weathering, erosion, and

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
compaction of sediments
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: formed Rocks from the precipitation of dissolved
from the precipitation of soluble material ions that are carried in solution to lakes
 

produced primarily by chemical and seas

weathering Commonly formed in low energy
Organic Sedimentary Rocks: made up of environments


organic materials from the remains of 2 ways:



dead organisms  Organic: water dwelling organisms



 Inorganic: evaporation and

chemical activity

Detrital (Clastic) Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Classification of Clastic Rocks
Limestone
1. Clasts


a) Rock Fragments Most abundant chemical sedimentary

b) Quartz rocks


c) Clay Materials Mainly composed of calcite (CaCO3)

d) Feldspar Formed in either organic or inorganic


e) Micas means.


f) Fossils Coralline Limestone: Limestones made up

of fossilized corals


2. Particle Size: used as a primary basis for Coquina: Limestones made up of shell
distinguishing among various detrital fragments


sedimentary rocks Chalk: Limestones made up of the hard

3. Sorting: degree of similarity in particle parts of microscopic organisms


size Travertine: Limestones commonly found

4. Degree of Roundness: describes the shape in caves


of the sediments of fragments Dripstone: Travertine that are

5. Sediment Maturity: length of the time precipitated from the endless dripping of


that the sediment has been in water inside the cave.

sedimentary cycle

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

 Common Clastic Rocks
1. Conglomerate and Breccia Dolostone - Rock composed of dolomite
CaMgCO3

 Coarse to very coarse-grained
sediments Chert
 Composed of hard parts of an

 Poorly sorted
 Conglomerate: have more organism that is made up of
spherical grains microcrystalline quartz
 Breccia: have more angular grains  Flint: Dark colored variety of chert
2. Sandstone  Jasper: red variety
 Composed of sand-sized particles  Agate: banded form of chert
 Form in a variety of environments  Mode of Formation
  Deposition and lithification Provides the energy needed to drive the
– bedded cherts chemical reaction that results in the


 Dissolution, migration, recrystallization of minerals

precipitation – replacement Earth’s Interior
cherts


Evaporites
2. Confining Pressure
 From precipitation of dissolved


ions due to the evaporation of force applied in all directions

water containing pressure increases with depth


 Rock Salt: made up of Halite



 Rock Gypsum: made up of Gypsum 3. Differential Stress

 greater force applied in one direction

Organic Sedimentary Rocks 4. Chemically Active Fluids

Formed from the deposition of plant promotes recrystallization by enhancing

the migration of mineral matter

remains


Coal: formed in a swamp environment

where plants flourished during ancient


times 2 Types of Pressure: Confining Pressure &

Differential Stress

Common Sedimentary Structures

Parent Rock: Rocks subject to metamorphism
Strata or Bed: the single most common
and characteristic feature of sedimentary


rocks
Bedding Plane: flat surfaces along which
rocks tend to separate or break


Cross Beds: layers within it that are

inclined to the horizontal


Graded Beds: refers to a single

sedimentary layer that gradually changes


from coarse at the bottom to fine at the

top.
Ripple Marks: small waves of sand that
develop on the surface of a sediment layer


by the action of moving water or air

Mud Cracks: indicate that the sediment in
which they were formed was alternately


wet and dry.

INTRODUCTION TO METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic Texture

Undergo deformation or transformation – 1. Foliation

metamorphism

Planar arrangement of mineral grains or
structural features within the rock

Metamorphism – process that leads to changes in
the mineral content, texture, and sometimes the Slaty Cleavage: splitting property
(parallel)

chemical composition of rocks
Schistosity: when platy minerals are large
enough to be seen by the naked eye


(grains) (mica biotite/muscovite)

What drives Metamorphism?
 Gneissic Texture: Banded appearance
1. Heat
2. non-Foliation
 Do not exhibit any foliated texture
Porphyroblastic Texture: exhibit large


grains (porphyroblast) surrounded by



fine-grained matrix

3. Mineral Index
Foliated Rocks

1. Contact Metamorphism
Weakly -Foliated Rocks
 Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs
when rocks immediately surrounding a molten
igneous body are “baked” and therefore altered
from their original state. The altered rocks occur
in a zone called a metamorphic aureole
 PALIGID NG MAGMA

Non-Foliated Rocks
2. Hydrothermal Metamorphism

 often closely associated with the emplacement

of magma. As large magma bodies cool and
solidify, silica-rich fluids (mainly water) are
driven into the host rocks.
 HYDROTHERMAL FLUIDS NALULUTO

Metamorphic Environments

3. Regional Metamorphism

Pressure heat minor fluids

Exposed to subduction


  during mountain building when large segments Viscosity (viscos = stickly)

a degree of magma or lava’s mobility

of Earth’s crust are intensely deformed along

more viscous greater the resistance


convergent plate boundaries

flow


VOLATILES (the gaseous components of

magma, mainly water)

Factors

1. Temperature – High pressure = Low

Viscosity

2. Chemical Composition – silica content;

Lower Silica; Lower Viscosity

3. Amount of Volatiles – more volatiles in

magma, lower viscosity

Types of Volcanoes

Hawaiian (Effusive) Eruption

Eruptions that involve very fluid

basaltic magmas are often triggered


by the arrival of a new batch of melt

Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards
into a near-surface magma reservoir.
Low viscosity
Molten material


Volcano


Explosive Eruption
Geologic landforms with openings; lava,
tephra (small rocks) and steam erupt High Viscosity and High Pressure
All magmas contain some water and


other volatiles that are held in



Anatomy of a Volcano solution by the immense pressure of

the overlying rock.
 Pyroclastic Materials

Materials Extruded during an Eruption

Volcanoes extrude lava, large volumes of

gas, and pyroclastic materials (broken rock,
lava “bombs,” fine ash, and dust). In this
section we will examine each of these
materials

1. Lava Flows
Why do Volcanoes Erupt?
The vast majority of lava on Earth, more
than 90 percent of the total volume, is
2. Gases
estimated to be basaltic in composition.
Andesites and other lavas of intermediate Magmas contain varying amounts of
composition account for most of the rest, dissolved gases (volatiles) held in the molten
while rhyolitic (felsic) flows make up as little rock by confining pressure, just as carbon
as 1 percent of the total. dioxide is held in cans and bottles of soft
drinks. Sulfide/Sulfur
1.1. Aa Flows

Have surfaces of rough jagged blocks

with dangerously sharp edges and 3. Pyroclastic Materials


spiny projections.
Crossing an aa flow can be a trying When volcanoes erupt energetically,
they eject pulverized rock, lava, and

and miserable experience. Low


Viscosity glass fragments from the vent. The

particles produced are referred to as
1.2. Pahoehoe Flows pyroclastic materials (pyro = fire,
clast = fragment).
Exhibit smooth surfaces that often
These fragments range in size from
resemble the twisted braids of ropes.


very fine dust and sand-sized volcanic


Pahoehoe means “on which one can
ash (less than 2 millimeters) to pieces
walk.”
that weigh several tons.
Ruffy (like lake); High Viscosity
Block - Rocks part of volcano


1.3 Lava Tubes

Bombs - From volcano
Hardened basaltic flows commonly
contain cave-like tunnels that were


once conduits carrying lava from the

volcanic vent to the flow’s leading TYPES OF VOLCANOES
edge. Shield Volcanoes
Vent of Volcano
Shield volcanoes are produced by the


1.4. Block Lavas accumulation of fluid basaltic lavas



In contrast to fluid basaltic magmas, which and exhibit the shape of a broad,
can travel many kilometers, andesitic and slightly domed structure that
rhyolitic magmas tend to generate relatively resembles a warrior’s shield.
short prominent flows, a few hundred Broad, slightly domes structure,
resembling a shield’s warrior

meters to a few kilometers long. Their upper
surface consists largely of vesicle-free,  Have gentle slopes
detached blocks

1.5. Pillow Lavas

The result is a lava flow composed of Cinder Cone Volcano (Scoria Cones)
numerous tube-like structures, stacked one
atop the other. Pillow lavas are useful in the Built from ejected lava fragments that
take the appearance of a cinder

reconstruction of geologic history because
whenever they are observed, they indicate Composed of loose pyroclastic
materials

that the lava flow formed in an underwater
environment  Have steep slopes (30-40D)
 Have Large deep craters When large amounts of mafic molten
materials are extruded in numerous
 

fissures and travels over long

Stratovolcano (Composite Cones0 distances

Most are located in a relatively

narrow zone that rims the Pacific

Volcanic Neck and Pipes
Ocean, appropriately called the Ring
of Fire. Most volcanoes are fed magma
Most dangerous type of volcano through short conduits that connect a


Large, nearly symmetrical structure magma chamber to the surface



consisting of alternating pyroclastic Exposed part of the internal structure



materials and lava flows of a volcano due to weathering and



Mt. Pinatubo and Taal Volcano erosion

(Caldera)


Island Arc
Lahar
Formed due to continuous volcanic
destructive flows occur when volcanic debris
eruptions by subduction in the lower

becomes saturated with water and rapidly
part.
moves down steep volcanic slopes, generally
Strato & Cinder Cones
following gullies and stream valleys.


Continental Arc

Series of volcanoes
OTHER VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Ex. Western Coast


Calderas (caldaria = a cooking pot)



Divergent
are large depressions with diameters
Mid Ocean ridges
that exceed 1 kilometer and have a


Spreading center/ ridge


somewhat circular form.

Formed from the collapse of the
volcano


Intra Plate Volcanism

 Shield Volcano

WHERE DO VOLCANOES FORM?

Subduction

Intra Plate

Ridges

Volcanic Fissures

greatest volume of volcanic material is VOLCANIC HAZARDS

extruded from fractures in the crust called
1. Lava Flow
fissures (fissura = to split)
Rivers of incandescent molten rock or lava
moving downslope away from an eruption
Fissure Eruptions vent
 Philippine Institute Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS)

Predict the occurrence of volcanic

2. Pyroclastic Flow
eruptions and earthquakes and their


Mixture of fragmented volcanic related geotectonic phenomena

particles(pyroclastic) hot gases and ash that Generate sufficient data for
rush down the volcanic slopes or rapidly forecasting volcanic eruptions


outward from a source vent at high speeds. Mitigate hazards of volcanic activities
through appropriate detection,
3. Lateral Blast forecast and warning system
Laterally-directed thrust of hot gas and ash Formulate appropriate disaster
preparedness plans

that can be generated from an exploding
dome on the summit vent or inside the
edifice when sudden mass failure of the
volcanic flanks occurs. Classification of Philippine Volcanoes

4. Volcanic Gases Active Volcano (24 BATANES-SULU)

Composed of dissolved component of magma Erupted within historical times (within the
that is released into the atmosphere in large last 600 years), accounts of these eruptions
quantities during eruptions. were documented by man within the last
10,000 years based on the analyses of
5. Lahar material from young volcanic deposits.
Slurries of volcanic sediment, debris and Potentially Active Volcano
water that cascade down a volcano’s slopes
through rivers and channels Morphologically young-looking but with no
historical or analytical records of eruption.
Mainly generated by torrential rainfall on
unconsolidated deposits from a past Inactive Volcano
eruption.
No recorded eruptions physical form has
6. Debris Avalanche/ Sector Collapse been intensively weathered and eroded,
bearing deep and long gullies.
Mass failure of the flanks of a volcano
edifice due to magma intrusion, a strong
earthquake, or the movements of faults
Precursory Signs Associated with Taal
beneath the edifice.
Volcano Eruption
7. Volcanic Tsunami

Occur in caldera lakes when the water is

displaced by the deformation of the lake
floor caused by rising magma or the entry of
PDSs or landslides into the lake, or in sea
when water is displaced BY PDC’s or debris PHIVOLCS Volcano Alert Level Scheme
avalanches from volcanoes. Reference guide to understanding the state
8. Ground Subsidence and Fissuring of an active volcano, the current level of
threat it poses, and the steps that are
Sinking of the ground sue to the removal of needed to be taken to ensure public safety.
magma due to violent volcanic eruption.
Alert Level: represents the overall
condition of the volcano

 Monitoring Criteria: parameters from TVI; Slight positive microgravity changes in
instrumental, visual, and other TVI and TC; Increasing fumarole


sensory observations of the volcano temperature and acidity and upwelling in

that are primarily acquired by on-site the Main Crater Lake; Significant increases
Volcano Observatories and scientific in CO2 emission, instrumental detection of
surveys airborne S02 500 tonnes/day.
Interpretation: explains the probable
3 Intensified Unrest/ Magmatic Unrest
processes taking place within the


volcano based on monitoring criteria Intensifying changes in parameters: Sudden

and the potential dangers that may increase or decline in seismic activity;
arise from these processes Perceptible earthquakes, occurrence of
Recommendation: response measures swarms of volcano- tectonic and/or hybrid
that must be followed by the public earthquakes; Elevating S02 flux; Significant


and implemented by local and changes in Main Crater Lake temperature

national government units to ensure and/or acidity.
that populations are kept out of
harm's way. Accelerating increase in ground inflation,
Step-Down Criteria: conditions that rapid increase in ground tilt in TVI;
need to be met before the Alert Level Precursory phreatic or weak


is brought down to the next level. phreatomagmatic eruptions commence.

4 Hazardous Eruption in Imminent

Alert Levels Accelerating changes or abrupt decline in

parameters: Rapidly intensifying volcanic
0 Normal earthquakes, continuous volcanic tremor,
frequent felt earthquakes; Profuse degassing
Background parameters: Volcanic
or ash explosions along existing or new
earthquakes typically <5/day; Main Crater
vents and fissures; Elevated and/or sudden
Lake gas (diffuse CO2) emission within
drop in S02 flux; Accelerating increase or
1,000 tonnes/day, average water
reversal of ground deformation patterns and
temperature <35°C and acidity >pH2.5;
ground fissuring: Explosive eruption or lava
General stationary or deflationary trends in
effusion with or without volcanic lightning
ground deformation.
commence.
1 Low - Level Unrest
5 Highly Hazardous Eruption in Progress
Abnormal parameters: Moderate level of
Violently explosive magmatic eruption
seismic activity with some felt events; Main
ongoing: Continuous intense seismic
Crater Lake gas (diffuse CO2) emission
activity, including explosion- type volcanic
>1,000 tonnes/day, slight increases in
earthquakes and strong felt events;
fumarole and/or Main Crater Lake
Sustained tall eruption column with
temperatures and acidity; Slight and/or
expansive umbrella cloud accompanied by
localized inflationary ground deformation
loud booming sounds and volcanic lightning:
changes in TVI.
Generation of PDCs/base surges and
2 Increasing Unrest volcanic tsunami that transport across Taal
Lake and lakeshore towns; Ground fissuring
Increasing changes in parameters: Elevated
and large- particle tephra fall impacting
level of seismic activity with some felt events
lakeside communities and ashfall impacting
in TVI and Taal Caldera (TC); Occurrence of
farther areas.
earthquake swarms and low- frequency
events; Sustained increases in inflationary
ground deformation including ground tilt in
Volcanic Hazard Maps Mechanical Weathering: physical
weathering

Chemical Weathering: chemical

composition, sulfuric acid

Process of Mechanical Weathering

Rock with crack > Water enters cracks,

freezes and expands the Crack > Cracks
deeper, More Water enter and freezes >
Repeated freeze and thaw breaks up rocks
along the joint line.

Types of Mechanical Weathering

1. Frost Wedging - high altitude; 4 climates

(Water Filled Cracks > Freeze to Ice >

Break Rock)
Weathering & Soil Erosion
2. Exfoliation - "Onion Skin Weathering”;

Unloading (It is thought that this occurs, at

Two Processes of Weathering least in part, because of the great reduction
1. External Processes – occurs near the in pressure when the overlying rock is
surface; powered by solar energy; soil eroded away)
formation, weather patterns Rock surface heat up > Rock surface cools
2. Internal Processes - occur at depths; and contracts > Joints form in the outer part
energy of Earth's Interior, Plate Movement, of the rock > Original rock and broken rocks
Volcanism 3. Thermal Erosion – initial (Mt. Uluru)

4. Abrasion Weathering – polished samples,

External scratching, collision with other rocks.

Agents (Air, Water, Ice) 5. Biological Weathering – interaction with

plant and animals
1. Weathering - physical breakdown
(disintegration) chemical alteration 6. Salt Weathering / Haloclasty
(decomposition) of rocks at or near Earth's “Honeycomb Weathering”
surface Ions expands that solutes crystallize


creating combs

2. Mass Wasting - landslide; the transfer of
rock and soil downslope under the influence
of gravity.
Types of Chemical Weathering
3. Erosion - physical removal of material by
mobile agents such as water, wind or ice. 1. Solution / Dissolution Weathering

natatrap ang water (diff. solutions)

Interaction with fluids and rock


Weathering changes the chemical composition


 Soluble + Cracks = Hollows Climate: Increases the rate of weathering of
the rocks


Stalactite – Ceiling
Differential Weathering: Describes the
Stalagmite – Ground
uniformity of weathering in the rocks
2. Carbonation

special type of dissolution

SOIL
carbonate; dolostone or limestone


Refers to the combination of mineral and



Sinkhole – dissolution under the surface

organic matter, water, and air-that portion
once reach the surface it will collapse
of the regolith that supports the growth of
creating a sinkhole.
plants.
3. Hydration Weathering
Regolith: the layer of rock and mineral
rock/water > acidic components fragments produced by weathering
Stability Series



4. Oxidation Weathering
Controls of Soil Formation
no interaction totally with water
Parent Material: The source of the
most abundant is oxygen

weathered mineral matter from which soils
Ferric (Fe3+) – oxidized

develop
Ferrous (Fe4+) – reduce


Residual Soil: When the parent



5. Reduction Weathering
material is bedrock


Ferrous Transported Soil: soils developed from

unconsolidated sediment

Greeny


Lack of oxygen

Time: The nature of soil is strongly

influenced by the length of time that
processes have been operating
6. Spheroidal Weathering
Climate: Variations in temperature and
More cracks/ fracture precipitation determine whether chemical or
mechanical weathering predominates. They
also greatly influence the rate and depth of
Rates of Weathering weathering.
Rock Characteristics: Describes physical Flora and Fauna: The types and abundance
features and chemical composition. of organisms present have a strong influence
Stability Series on the physical and chemical properties of a
soil

Topography: influences the length and

steepness of slopes have a significant impact
on the amount of erosion and the water
content of soil

Slope Orientation: direction a slope is

facing


Soil Profile
 Horizon Zones or layers of soil in the Soil Erosion
profile


It is part of the constant recycling of Earth

Soil Profile: A vertical section that
materials that we call the rock cycle.
comprises all of the soil horizon


• Once soil forms, erosional forces,

especially water and wind, move soil
components from one place to another.

• Every time it rains, raindrops strike the

land with surprising force

Mass Wasting

Another form of external processes

Weathered materials due to gravity undergo

this

Scientific term as landslide

Reshapes the surface of the Earth

Changes the slope of the rugged,


young mountains


Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting

Water
Over-steepened Slope


Removal of Vegetation


Earthquakes



Classification of Mass Wasting

Type of Motion

1. Flow: occurs when material moves

downslope as a viscous fluid

2. Fall: When the movement involves the

freefall of detached individual pieces of any
size
3. Slide: refers to mass movements in which Lahar: a type of debris flow composed
there is a distinct zone of weakness
separating the slide material from the more
stable underlying material

A.
Rotational
Slide: the
surface of
rupture is
a
concave-
upward
curve that
resembles
the shape
of a spoon
B. Translational Slide: mass of material
moves along a relatively flat surface
such as a joint, fault, or bedding plane

mostly of volcanic materials on the flanks of

Type of Velocity volcanoes
Creep: involves the gradual downhill Avalanche: a large quantity of material has
movement of soil and regolith due to in all likelihood moved rapidly down a steep
alternate expansion and contraction of slope and has had a disastrous effect upon
surface material caused by freezing and people and property when rock and debris
thawing or wetting and drying. can hurtle downslope at speeds exceeding
200 kilometers per hour.
Earthflow: When water saturates the soil
and regolith on a hillside, the material may Warning Signs
break away, leaving a scar on the slope and
forming a tongue- or teardrop-shaped mass
that flows downslope.

Slump: refers to the downward sliding of a

mass of rock or unconsolidated material
moving as a unit along a curved surface

Rockslide: occurs when blocks of bedrock

break loose and slide down a slope.

Debris Flow: a relatively rapid type of mass

wasting that involves a flow of soil and
regolith containing a large amount of water.

Mudflow: a type of debris flow when the

material is primarily fine-grained.
Agency that Asses or Monitor Mass Wasting 3. Strain: Results to the stress of the rock -
Deformation
1. Mines and Geosciences Bureau
• Elastic Deformation: When the rock
It is mandated to undertake
returns to its original form when the stress
land and marine geoscientific
is released.
surveys (including mineral
exploration, geological • Brittle Deformation: Rocks that break into
mapping, geohazards smaller pieces after the stress is released
assessment, groundwater resource
• Ductile Deformation: When a rock
exploration and vulnerability assessment,
produces a change in the shape of an object
and engineering geological and geo-
without fracturing.
environmental studies) and provide
geological laboratory and information
services.
Structures Formed from Ductile
2. PHIVOLCS Deformation
Ex. Landslide Susceptibility Map • Fold: It is flat-lying sedimentary and
volcanic rocks are often bent into a series of
Website. Hazard Hunter Website
wavelike undulations during mountain
building

CRUSTAL DEFORMATION AND It is a result of compressional stresses

EARTHQUAKES that result in a shortening and


thickening of the crust.

Anticline: upfolding, or arching, of
Internal Processes sedimentary layers and are sometimes


spectacularly displayed along

1. Crustal Deformation: It is a general term highways that have been cut through
that refers to all changes in the original deformed strata (Like A)
shape, size (volume), or orientation of a rock Syncline: Almost always found in
body. association with anticlines are


2. Stress: It refers to the force that deforms downfolds, or troughs (Like U)

rocks. Crest (Anticline) - highest point
Compressional Stress: Stress that Through lowest
squeezes and shortens a rock mass


Tensional Stress: Stress that pulls Limb transition

apart or elongates a rock body

Dome: When this upwarping produces
Shear Stress: Stress that involves
a circular or slightly elongated


transverse forces where the opposing


structure
blocks or regions of material move
Basin:
past each other.
It is a


bowl-

shaped depression in a rock bed

Structures Formed from Brittle Deformation block moves nearly horizontally over
the underlying block
• Fault: fractures in the crust along which
appreciable displacement has taken place.

• Fault Zone: Large faults that have

displacements of hundreds of kilometers and
consist of many interconnecting fault
surfaces 3. Strike-Slip Fault: A fault in which the
dominant displacement is horizontal and
• Dip-Slip Fault: Faults in which movement
parallel to the trend or strike of the fault
is primarily parallel to the dip (or
surface
inclination) of the fault surface
• Right-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault: when the
Hanging Wall: It is a rock body that is
crustal block on the opposite side of the
immediately above the fault


fault moves to the right as you face the fault

Footwall: It is a rock body that is
immediately below the fault • Left-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault: when the


crustal block on the opposite side of the

fault moves to the left as you face the fault

• Transform Fault: When strike-slip faults

cut through the lithosphere and
accommodate motion between two large

1. Normal Fault: Dip-slip faults when the

hanging wall block moves down relative to
the footwall block

Accommodates lengthening, or extension, of

the crust

Horst: Movements along these faults

produced alternating uplifted fault


blocks
Graben: Movements along these faults tectonic plates.
produced alternating down- dropped


fault blocks
Joint: fractures along which no appreciable
2.
displacement has occurred

Columnar Joints: form when igneous

rocks cool and develop shrinkage


fractures that produce elongated,

pillar-like columns
Reverse Fault: Dip-slip faults in which the Sheeting/Exfoliation: results from the
hanging wall block moves up relative to the gradual expansion that occurs when


footwall block erosion removes the overlying load

Thrust Fault: reverse faults having
dips less than 45°, so the overlying

 Foreshocks: Theses are small earthquakes
that often precede a major earthquake by
days or in some cases years.

Mainshock: The largest earthquake in a

Earthquakes series

It is a natural geologic phenomenon caused Aftershock: Earthquakes that follow the

by the sudden and rapid movement of a largest shock of an earthquake sequence.
large volume of rock.
Seismology

It refers to the study of earthquakes.

Seismograph:
ANATOMY OF AN EARTHQUAKE

FAULT - A fracture in the rocks that make instruments that

up the earth's crust record earthquake
waves
EPICENTER - the point at the surface of the
earth directly above the focus Seismogram: The
records obtained
FOCUS (HYPOGENTER) - The point within from seismographs
the earth where an earthquake rupture that provide useful
starts information about the nature of seismic
PLATES - Massive rocks that make up the waves.
outer layer of the Earth's surface, and whose
movement along faults triggers earthquakes
Seismic Wave: Waves that transmit the
SEISMIC WAVES - Waves that transmit the
energy released by the earthquake.
energy released by an earthquake
1. Body Wave: pass underground through
the Earth's interior body and are the first
seismic waves to propagate out from the
focus.

Primary Wave: fastest body waves and

move through the rock via


compression, very much like sound

waves move through the air
Secondary Wave: travels slower,
following P waves, and propagate as


shear waves that move rock particles

from side to side.

Elastic Rebound Theory 2. Surface Wave: produced when body

waves from the focus strike the Earth's
Over hundreds to thousands of years, stress
surface
builds up along the fault until it overcomes
frictional resistance, rupturing the rock and
initiating fault movement.
Triangulation Method

Must Have: 3 SEISMIC STATIONS

TYPES OF SHOCK
Determine Epicenter Distances
1. 700 km (draw circle w/rad in 700km)

2. 3,00 km (draw circle w/ rad 3,000km)

3. 3,500 km (draw circle w/rad 3,500km)

Intersect w/ one point

Measuring the Size of an Earthquake

Magnitude: This quantitative measurement

that relies on data gleaned from seismic
records to estimate the amount of energy
released at an earthquake's source.

Richter Magnitude Scale: amplitude

of the largest seismic wave (P, S, or


surface wave) recorded on a

seismogram. •Because seismic waves
weaken as the distance between the
focus and the seismograph increases.

Intensity: a measure of the degree of

earthquake shaking at a given locale based
on observed effects

Modified Mercalli’s Scale (International)