SIDI MOHAMED BEN ABDELLAH UNIVERSITY Pr.

Souad SLAOUI
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH S5/RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

1. MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research
as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an
art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the
meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.” Research is also defined as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is
actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the
unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller
understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method,
which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences
define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.” Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison
and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the
formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method
consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing
the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

2. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it(studies with this object in
view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with
this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal Relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
3. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,i.e.,concern over practical problems
initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some créative work;
SIDI MOHAMED BEN ABDELLAH UNIVERSITY Pr. Souad SLAOUI
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH S5/RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4. Desire to be of service to society;

5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

4.TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptivevs.Analytical:Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher
has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex
post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure
such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post
facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control
the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to
basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is
termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples
of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete
social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge.

(iii) Quantitativevs.Qualitative:Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research,
on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour
(i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
SIDI MOHAMED BEN ABDELLAH UNIVERSITY Pr. Souad SLAOUI
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH S5/RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to
behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated,
however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while
doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which
are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go
about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the
researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He
then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental
designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the
desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the
variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

5.SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of
research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research
inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of
thinking and organisation.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational problems.
Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for government and
business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and
on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable
revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative
policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the
country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The
plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working conditions, trade
union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature of defence services are matters
requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s
resources. Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting information on the
economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is happening in the
economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical information is by no means a
routine task, but it involves a variety of research problems. These day nearly all governments maintain
large staff of research technicians or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government,
research as a tool to economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of
SIDI MOHAMED BEN ABDELLAH UNIVERSITY Pr. Souad SLAOUI
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH S5/RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

economic structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place
and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future
developments.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are
considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions. Market
research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose of
formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the
application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of
cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation problems.
Motivational research aims to determine why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with
market characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations
underlying the consumer (market) behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and
industry who are responsible for taking business decisions. Research with regard to demand and
market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not
difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected
capacity. Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business
budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales
estimates which in turn depends on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient
production and investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and
financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific
decisions.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things
just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake
of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. Research in social sciences is
concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to
practical concerns. “This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in the case of social
science. On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that make
possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human interactions. On the other
hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical guidance in
solving immediate problems of human relations.”
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology,research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers,research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(d) Toliterarymenandwomen,research may mean the development of new styles and creative work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals,research may mean the generalisations of newtheories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source of
providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a sort of
formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a better way.

6.RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD

For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already
stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any
particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded
SIDI MOHAMED BEN ABDELLAH UNIVERSITY Pr. Souad SLAOUI
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH S5/RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than particular results;
he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more complicated and
general situations.”On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques,
although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of
scientific method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the
branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained minds ... the unity of all
sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any kind
whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific
Method and is a man of science.”Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method
attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.”In scientific method, logic aids in
formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear.
Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with
observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative
is most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey
investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method.
Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among
variables. But the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized for
either faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty
interpretations. As such the researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the
experimental design and must state only probable inferences. The purpose of survey investigations
may also be to provide scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for
their conclusions.

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality,i.e.,it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects;
5. It results in probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
thedemandsoflogicandobjectiveprocedure.”Accordingly,scientificmethodimpliesanobjective, logical
and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain
demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method wherein the researcher is
guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly
manner and a method that implies internal consistency.

Reference : Kothari, C.R. 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Age
International. New Delhi.