Lecture 1

Research Methodology
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from
the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct
of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes
us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the
mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of
whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social
Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.” Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing
stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for
some theoretical formulation.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we
quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The
main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post
facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks
to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people,
or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover
causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized
in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to
use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’
or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about
human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at
certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends
that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing
 research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central
aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base
of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance,
when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why
people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other
techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion
research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a
particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the
various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which
make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply
qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing
such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s)
or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on
experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is
data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In
such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to
go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In
such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis
or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove
or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over
the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its
effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables
affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a
given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or
more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the
time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done,
or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can
think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former
case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the
research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting
 research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as
clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or indepth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the
causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be
formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses
rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is
that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or
ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point
of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented.
While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own
inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is
a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operations under their control.

Questions
1. What is the primary aim of research according to Clifford Woody?
A. To develop new technology
B. To discover new facts about a phenomenon
C. To improve existing theories
D. To define and redefine problems and test hypotheses
E. To provide entertainment and engagement
2. Which of the following best describes exploratory research?
A. Testing a hypothesis of causal relationships
B. Gaining familiarity with a phenomenon or achieving new insights
C. Determining the frequency of occurrence
D. Describing the characteristics of an individual or group
E. Analyzing existing data for critical evaluation
3. What does descriptive research primarily aim to do?
A. Test causal relationships between variables
B. Accurately portray characteristics of individuals, situations, or groups
C. Explore new insights into a phenomenon
 D. Analyze and evaluate existing information
E. Provide a solution for an immediate problem
4. Which type of research is concerned with finding solutions for immediate problems?
A. Fundamental research
B. Applied research
C. Conceptual research
D. Qualitative research
E. Quantitative research
5. What distinguishes quantitative research from qualitative research?
A. Quantitative research is focused on abstract ideas.
B. Qualitative research involves numerical data analysis.
C. Quantitative research uses case-study methods.
D. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
E. Qualitative research is concerned with measuring frequency.
6. Which type of research involves using available data to make a critical evaluation?
A. Analytical research
B. Descriptive research
C. Applied research
D. Exploratory research
E. Empirical research
7. What does conceptual research primarily involve?
A. Developing or reinterpreting abstract ideas or theories
B. Testing hypotheses through experiments
C. Analyzing numerical data for patterns
D. Collecting and organizing factual information
E. Discovering underlying motives through interviews
8. In which type of research are experiments typically conducted to test hypotheses?
A. Empirical research
B. Conceptual research
C. Descriptive research
D. Qualitative research
E. Analytical research
9. What motivates people to undertake research, according to the lecture?
A. Only the desire for financial gain
B. Only the desire for professional recognition
C. Only curiosity about new things
D. A variety of factors including personal, professional, and social motives
E. Only the need to solve practical problems
10. What is the characteristic feature of ex post facto research?
A. The researcher cannot control variables but reports what has happened
B. It involves manipulating variables to test hypotheses
C. It is used primarily for exploratory studies
D. It requires the development of new theoretical models
E. It focuses on analyzing qualitative data through interviews
11. Which research type aims to discover the underlying motives of human behavior?
A. Empirical research
B. Qualitative research
C. Quantitative research
D. Analytical research
E. Fundamental research
12. Which research type is particularly difficult to apply in practice and often requires
guidance from experimental psychologists?
A. Descriptive research
B. Quantitative research
C. Conceptual research
D. Qualitative research
E. Analytical research
13. What is the main objective of hypothesis-testing research studies?
A. To describe current situations
B. To portray characteristics accurately
C. To test a causal relationship between variables
D. To gain new insights into phenomena
E. To collect and organize data
14. What type of research involves collecting data from a single time-period?
 A. Longitudinal research
B. One-time research
C. Field-setting research
D. Laboratory research
E. Simulation research
15. What does empirical research rely on for conclusions?
A. Theoretical models
B. Abstract concepts
C. Experience or observation
D. Historical documents
E. Existing data analyses
16. Which of the following is NOT a type of research based on purpose?
A. Descriptive vs. Analytical
B. Applied vs. Fundamental
C. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
D. One-time vs. Longitudinal
E. Conceptual vs. Empirical
17. What is the main difference between applied and fundamental research?
A. Applied research solves immediate problems, whereas fundamental research
aims for theoretical understanding.
B. Applied research uses only qualitative methods, while fundamental research
uses only quantitative methods.
C. Applied research involves historical analysis, while fundamental research
involves current data.
D. Applied research is concerned with conceptual ideas, while fundamental
research deals with empirical data.
E. Applied research is usually conducted in laboratories, whereas fundamental
research is field-based.
18. Which type of research is most likely to involve field studies and case studies?
A. Quantitative research
B. Fundamental research
C. Clinical or diagnostic research
D. Applied research
 E. Conceptual research
19. What type of research is characterized by the experimenter's control over variables?
A. Descriptive research
B. Conceptual research
C. Empirical research
D. Qualitative research
E. Analytical research
20. Which research type aims to gather knowledge for its own sake rather than for immediate
practical application?
A. Applied research
B. Diagnostic research
C. Descriptive research
D. Fundamental (or basic) research
E. Qualitative research